Unit-III Solar Energy

Introduction to solar energy:

Solar energy is the energy obtained by capturing heat and light from the Sun. Energy
from the Sun is referred to as solar energy. Technology has provided a number of ways to utilize
this abundant resource. It is considered a green technology because it does not emit greenhouse
gases. Solar energy is abundantly available and has been utilized since long both as electricity
and as a source of heat. Energy radiated by the sun is e.m. waves of which 99% have wavelength
in the range of 02. To 4.0 μm. Solar energy reaching the top of earth’s atmosphere consist of
about 8% UV, 46% visible light and 46% infrared radiation.

Solar technology can be broadly classified as −

 Active Solar − Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems,
concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Active solar is
directly consumed in activities such as drying clothes and warming of air.
 Passive Solar − Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and
designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

Conversion of Solar Energy

The solar energy is the energy obtained by capturing heat and light from the Sun. The method of
obtaining electricity from sunlight is referred to as the Photovoltaic method. This is achieved
using a semiconductor material.
The other form of obtaining solar energy is through thermal technologies, which give two forms
of energy tapping methods.
 The first is solar concentration, which focuses solar energy to drive thermal turbines.
 The second method is heating and cooling systems used in solar water heating and air
conditioning respectively.
The process of converting solar energy into electricity so as to utilize its energy in day-to-day
activities is given below −
 Absorption of energy carrying particles in Sun’s rays called photons.
 Photovoltaic conversion, inside the solar cells.
 Combination of current from several cells. This step is necessary since a single cell has a
voltage of less than 0.5 V.
 Conversion of the resultant DC to AC.
 Fundamentals of solar radiation:
Solar radiation, often called the solar resource, is a general term for the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms of
energy, such as heat and electricity, using a variety of technologies. However, the technical
feasibility and economical operation of these technologies at a specific location depends on the
available solar resource.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of solar radiation
that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to:

 Geographic location
 Time of day
 Season
 Local landscape
 Local weather.

Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging from 0° (just
above the horizon) to 90° (directly overhead). When the sun's rays are vertical, the Earth's
surface gets all the energy possible. The more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they travel
through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Because the Earth is round, the
frigid polar regions never get a high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas
receive no sun at all during part of the year.

The Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit and is closer to the sun during part of the
year. When the sun is nearer the Earth, the Earth's surface receives a little more solar energy. The
Earth is nearer the sun when it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern
hemisphere. However, the presence of vast oceans moderates the hotter summers and colder
winters one would expect to see in the southern hemisphere as a result of this difference.

The 23.5° tilt in the Earth's axis of rotation is a more significant factor in determining the amount
of sunlight striking the Earth at a particular location. Tilting results in longer days in the northern
hemisphere from the spring (vernal) equinox to the fall (autumnal) equinox and longer days in
the southern hemisphere during the other 6 months. Days and nights are both exactly 12 hours
long on the equinoxes, which occur each year on or around March 23 and September 22.

Countries such as the United States, which lie in the middle latitudes, receive more solar energy
in the summer not only because days are longer, but also because the sun is nearly overhead. The
sun's rays are far more slanted during the shorter days of the winter months. Cities such as
Denver, Colorado, (near 40° latitude) receive nearly three times more solar energy in June than
they do in December.
 The rotation of the Earth is also responsible for hourly variations in sunlight. In the early
morning and late afternoon, the sun is low in the sky. Its rays travel further through the
atmosphere than at noon, when the sun is at its highest point. On a clear day, the greatest amount
of solar energy reaches a solar collector around solar noon.

DIFFUSE AND DIRECT SOLAR RADIATION

As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected by:

 Air molecules
 Water vapor
 Clouds
 Dust
 Pollutants
 Forest fires
 Volcanoes.

This is called diffuse solar radiation. The solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface without
being diffused is called direct beam solar radiation. The sum of the diffuse and direct solar
radiation is called global solar radiation. Atmospheric conditions can reduce direct beam
radiation by 10% on clear, dry days and by 100% during thick, cloudy days.

DISTRIBUTION

The solar resource across the United States is ample for photovoltaic (PV) systems because they
use both direct and scattered sunlight. Other technologies may be more limited. However, the
amount of power generated by any solar technology at a particular site depends on how much of
the sun's energy reaches it. Thus, solar technologies function most efficiently in the southwestern
United States, which receives the greatest amount of solar energy.

The fraction of the energy flux emitted by the sun and intercepted by the earth is characterized
by the solar constant. The solar constant is defined as essentially the measure of the solar
energy flux density perpendicular to the ray direction per unit are per unit time. It is most
precisely measured by satellites outside the earth atmosphere. The solar constant is currently
estimated at 1367 W/m2 [cited from Stine and Harrigan, 1986]. This number actually varies by
3% because the orbit of the earth is elliptical, and the distance from the sun varies over the
course of the year. Some small variation of the solar constant is also possible due to changes in
Sun's luminosity. This measured value includes all types of radiation, a substantial fraction of
which is lost as the light passes through the atmosphere [IPS - Radio and Space Services].
As the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, it gets absorbed, scattered, reflected, or
transmitted. All these processes result in reduction of the energy flux density. Actually, the solar
flux density is reduced by about 30% compared to extraterrestrial radiation flux on a sunny day
and is reduced by as much as 90% on a cloudy day. The following main losses should be noted:

 absorbed by particles and molecules in the atmosphere - 10-30%

 reflected and scattered back to space - 2-11%
 scattered to earth (direct radiation becomes diffuse) - 5-26% [Stine and Harrigan, 1986]
As a result, the direct radiation reaching the earth surface (or a device installed on the earth
surface) never exceeds 83% of the original extraterrestrial energy flux. This radiation that comes
directly from the solar disk is defined as beam radiation. The scattered and reflected radiation
that is sent to the earth surface from all directions (reflected from other bodies, molecules,
particles, droplets, etc.) is defined as diffuse radiation. The sum of the beam and diffuse
components is defined as total (or global) radiation.
It is important for us to differentiate between the beam radiation and diffuse radiation when
talking about solar concentration in this lesson, because the beam radiation can be concentrated,
while the diffuse radiation, in many cases, cannot.

Short-wave radiation, in the wavelength range from 0.3 to 3 μm, comes directly from the sun. It
includes both beam and diffuse components.
Long-wave radiation, with wavelength 3 μm or longer, originates from the sources at near-
ambient temperatures - atmosphere, earth surface, light collectors, other bodies.
The solar radiation reaching the earth is highly variable and depends on the state of the
atmosphere at a specific locale. Two atmospheric processes can significantly affect the incident
irradiation: scattering and absorption.
Scattering is caused by interaction of the radiation with molecules, water, and dust particles in
the air. How much light is scattered depends on the number of particles in the atmosphere,
particle size, and the total air mass the radiation comes through.

Absorption occurs upon interaction of the radiation with certain molecules, such as ozone
(absorption of short-wave radiation - ultraviolet), water vapor, and carbon dioxide (absorption of
long-wave radiation - infrared).

Due to these processes, out of the whole spectrum of solar radiation, only a small portion reaches
the earth surface. Thus most of x-rays and other short-wave radiation is absorbed by atmospheric
components in the ionosphere, ultraviolet is absorbed by ozone, and not-so abundant long-wave
radiation is absorbed by CO2. As a result, the main wavelength range to be considered for solar
applications is from 0.29 to 2.5 μm [Duffie and Beckman, 2013].
Figure 1. Different types of radiation at the earth surface: orange - short wave; blue - long
wave.

The amount of solar radiation on the earth surface can be instrumentally measured, and precise
measurements are important for providing background solar data for solar energy conversion
applications.

MEASUREMENT

Scientists measure the amount of sunlight falling on specific locations at different times of the
year. They then estimate the amount of sunlight falling on regions at the same latitude with
similar climates. Measurements of solar energy are typically expressed as total radiation on a
horizontal surface,or as total radiation on a surface tracking the sun.

Radiation data for solar electric (photovoltaic) systems are often represented as kilowatt-hours
per square meter (kWh/m2). Direct estimates of solar energy may also be expressed as watts per
square meter (W/m2).

Radiation data for solar water heating and space heating systems are usually represented in
British thermal units per square foot (Btu/ft2).

Units of solar power and solar energy:

In SI units, energy is expressed in Joule. Other units are angley and Calorie where

1 angley = 1 Cal/cm2.day
1 Cal = 4.186 J

For solar energy calculations, the energy is measured as an hourly or monthly or yearly average and is
expressed in terms of kJ/m2/day or kJ/m2/hour. Solar power is expressed in terms of W/m2 or kW/m2.

Essential subsystems in a solar energy plant:

1. Solar collector or concentrator: It receives solar rays and collects the energy. It may be of following
types:

a) Flat plate type without focusing

b) Parabolic trough type with line focusing

c) Paraboloid dish with central focusing

d) Fresnel lens with centre focusing

e) Heliostats with centre receiver focusing

2. Energy transport medium: Substances such as water/ steam, liquid metal or gas are used to transport
the thermal energy from the collector to the heat exchanger or thermal storage.

In solar PV systems energy transport occurs in electrical form.

3. Energy storage: Solar energy is not available continuously. So we need an energy storage medium for
maintaining power supply during nights or cloudy periods. There are three major types of energy

storage: a) Thermal energy storage; b) Battery storage; c) Pumped storage hydro-electric plant.

4. Energy conversion plant: Thermal energy collected by solar collectors is used for producing steam,
hot water, etc. Solar energy converted to thermal energy is fed to steam thermal or gas-thermal
power plant.

5. Power conditioning, control and protection system: Load requirements of electrical energy vary
with time. The energy supply has certain specifications like voltage, current, frequency, power
etc.The power conditioning unit performs several functions such as control, regulation, conditioning,
protection, automation, etc.

6. Alternative or standby power supply: The backup may be obtained as power from electrical network
or standby diesel generator.
Subsystems in solar thermal energy conversion plants

Measurement of Solar Radiation

In PV system design it is essential to know the amount of sunlight available at a particular location at a
given time. The two common methods which characterise solar radiation are the solar radiance (or
radiation) and solar insolation. The solar radiance is an instantaneous power density in units of
kW/m2. The solar radiance varies throughout the day from 0 kW/m 2 at night to a maximum of about
1 kW/m2. The solar radiance is strongly dependant on location and local weather. Solar radiance
measurements consist of global and/or direct radiation measurements taken periodically throughout
the day. The measurements are taken using either a pyranometer (measuring global radiation) and/or
a pyrheliometer (measuring direct radiation). In well established locations, this data has been
collected for more than twenty years.

An alternative method of measuring solar radiation, which is less accurate but also less expensive, is
using a sunshine recorder. These sunshine recorders (also known as Campbell-Stokes recorders),
 measure the number of hours in the day during which the sunshine is above a certain level (typically
200 mW/cm2). Data collected in this way can be used to determine the solar insolation by comparing
the measured number of sunshine hours to those based on calculations and including several
correction factors.

A final method to estimate solar insolation is cloud cover data taken from existing satellite images.

While solar irradiance is most commonly measured, a more common form of radiation data used in
system design is the solar insolation. The solar insolation is the total amount of solar energy received
at a particular location during a specified time period, often in units of kWh/ (m 2 day). While the
units of solar insolation and solar irradiance are both a power density (for solar insolation the "hours"
in the numerator are a time measurement as is the "day" in the denominator), solar insolation is quite
different than the solar irradiance as the solar insolation is the instantaneous solar irradiance
averaged over a given time period. Solar insolation data is commonly used for simple PV system
design while solar radiance is used in more complicated PV system performance which calculates the
system performance at each point in the day. Solar insolation can also be expressed in units of
MJ/m2 per year.Solar radiation for a particular location can be given in several ways including:

 Typical mean year data for a particular location

 Average daily, monthly or yearly solar insolation for a given location
 Global isoflux contours either for a full year, a quarter year or a particular month
 Sunshine hours data
 Solar Insolation Based on Satellite Cloud-Cover Data
 Calculations of Solar Radiation.

Basic Physics of Semiconductor:

A semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies between the conductors and insulators.
The property of resistivity is not the only one that decides a material as a semiconductor, but it
has few properties as follows.
 Semiconductors have the resistivity which is less than insulators and more than
conductors.
 Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient. The resistance in
semiconductors, increases with the decrease in temperature and vice versa.
 The Conducting properties of a Semiconductor changes, when a suitable metallic
impurity is added to it, which is a very important property.
Semiconductor devices are extensively used in the field of electronics. The transistor has
replaced the bulky vacuum tubes, from which the size and cost of the devices got decreased and
this revolution has kept on increasing its pace leading to the new inventions like integrated
electronics. The following illustration shows the classification of semiconductors.

Intrinsic Semiconductors

A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic semiconductor. The

properties of this pure semiconductor are as follows −

 The electrons and holes are solely created by thermal excitation.

 The number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.
 The conduction capability is small at room temperature.
In order to increase the conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor, it is better to add some
impurities. This process of adding impurities is called as Doping. Now, this doped intrinsic
semiconductor is called as an Extrinsic Semiconductor.
Doping
The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor materials is termed as doping. The
impurities added, are generally pentavalent and trivalent impurities.
Pentavalent Impurities
 The pentavalent impurities are the ones which has five valence electrons in the outer
most orbit. Example: Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus
 The pentavalent atom is called as a donor atom because it donates one electron to the
conduction band of pure semiconductor atom.
Trivalent Impurities
 The trivalent impurities are the ones which has three valence electrons in the outer most
orbit. Example: Gallium, Indium, Aluminum, Boron
 The trivalent atom is called as an acceptor atom because it accepts one electron from the
semiconductor atom.

Extrinsic Semiconductor

An impure semiconductor, which is formed by doping a pure semiconductor is called as

an extrinsic semiconductor. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors depending upon
the type of impurity added. They are N-type extrinsic semiconductor and P-Type extrinsic
semiconductor.
N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
A small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in Ntype
extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 5 valence electrons.
For example, if Arsenic atom is added to the germanium atom, four of the valence electrons get
attached with the Ge atoms while one electron remains as a free electron. This is as shown in
the following figure.
All of these free electrons constitute electron current. Hence, the impurity when added to pure
semiconductor, provides electrons for conduction.
 In N-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through electrons, the
electrons are majority carriers and the holes are minority carriers.
 As there is no addition of positive or negative charges, the electrons are electrically
neutral.
 When an electric field is applied to an N-type semiconductor, to which a pentavalent
impurity is added, the free electrons travel towards positive electrode. This is called as
negative or N-type conductivity.
P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
A small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in P-type
extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 3 valence electrons. For example, if Boron
atom is added to the germanium atom, three of the valence electrons get attached with the Ge
atoms, to form three covalent bonds. But, one more electron in germanium remains without
forming any bond. As there is no electron in boron remaining to form a covalent bond, the space
is treated as a hole. This is as shown in the following figure.
The boron impurity when added in a small amount, provides a number of holes which helps in
the conduction. All of these holes constitute hole current.
 In P-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through holes, the holes
are majority carriers while the electrons are minority carriers.
 The impurity added here provides holes which are called as acceptors, because they
accept electrons from the germanium atoms.
 As the number of mobile holes remains equal to the number of acceptors, the P type
semiconductor remains electrically neutral.
 When an electric field is applied to a P-type semiconductor, to which a trivalent impurity
is added, the holes travel towards negative electrode, but with a slow pace than
electrons. This is called as P-type conductivity.
 In this P-type conductivity, the valence electrons move from one covalent bond to
another, unlike N-type.

Equilibrium Carrier Concentration

  The number of carriers in the conduction and valence band with no externally applied bias is
called the equilibrium carrier concentration. For majority carriers, the equilibrium carrier
concentration is equal to the intrinsic carrier concentration plus the number of free carriers added
by doping the semiconductor. Under most conditions, the doping of the semiconductor is several
orders of magnitude greater than the intrinsic carrier concentration, such that the number of
majority carriers is approximately equal to the doping.
 At equilibrium, the product of the majority and minority carrier concentration is a constant, and
this is mathematically expressed by the Law of Mass Action.


 where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration and n 0 and p0 are the electron and hole equilibrium
carrier concentrations.
 Using the Law of Mass Action above, the majority and minority carrier concentrations are given
as:


 where ND is the concentration of donor atoms and NA is the concentration of acceptor atoms.
 The above equations show that the number of minority carriers decreases as the doping level
increases. For example, in n-type material, some of the extra electrons added by doping the
material will occupy the empty spots (i.e., holes) in the valence band, thus lowering the number
of holes.

Carrier transport

Any motion of free carriers in a semiconductor leads to a current. This motion can be caused by an electric field due to
an externally applied voltage, since the carriers are charged particles. We will refer to this transport mechanism as
carrier drift. In addition, carriers also move from regions where the carrier density is high to regions where the
carrier density is low. This carrier transport mechanism is due to the thermal energy and the associated random
 motion of the carriers. We will refer to this transport mechanism as carrier diffusion. The total current in a
semiconductor equals the sum of the drift and the diffusion current.

As one applies an electric field to a semiconductor, the electrostatic force causes the carriers to first accelerate and
then reach a constant average velocity, v, due to collisions with impurities and lattice vibrations. The ratio of the
velocity to the applied field is called the mobility. The velocity saturates at high electric fields reaching the
saturation velocity. Additional scattering occurs when carriers flow at the surface of a semiconductor, resulting in
a lower mobility due to surface or interface scattering mechanisms.

Diffusion of carriers is obtained by creating a carrier density gradient. Such gradient can be obtained by varying the
doping density in a semiconductor or by applying a thermal gradient.

Both carrier transport mechanisms are related since the same particles and scattering mechanisms are involved.

This leads to a relationship between the mobility and the diffusion constant called the Einstein relation.

Why Silicon is Preferred in Semiconductors?

Among the semiconductor materials like germanium and silicon, the extensively used material
for manufacturing various electronic components is Silicon SiSi. Silicon is preferred over
germanium for many reasons such as −
 The energy band gap is 0.7ev, whereas it is 0.2ev for germanium.
 The thermal pair generation is smaller.
 The formation of SiO2 layer is easy for silicon, which helps in the manufacture of many
components along with integration technology.
 Si is easily found in nature than Ge.
 Noise is less in components made up of Si than in Ge.

Hence, Silicon is used in the manufacture of many electronic components, which are used to
make different circuits for various purposes. These components have individual properties and
particular uses.
The main electronic components include — Resistors, variable resistors, Capacitors, variable
capacitors, Inductors, diodes, Tunnel diodes, Varactor diodes, Transistors, BJTs, UJTs, FETs,
MOSFETs, LDR, LED, Solar cells, Thermistor, Varistor, Transformer, switches, relays, etc.
Generation and recombination in Semiconductors:

Recombination of electrons and holes is a process by which both carriers annihilate each other: electrons occupy -
through one or multiple steps - the empty state associated with a hole. Both carriers eventually disappear in the
process. The energy difference between the initial and final state of the electron is released in the process. This
 leads to one possible classification of the recombination processes. In the case of radiative recombination, this
energy is emitted in the form of a photon. In the case of non-radiative recombination, it is passed on to one or
more phonons and in the case of Auger recombination it is given off in the form of kinetic energy to another
electron. Another classification scheme considers the individual energy levels and particles involved. These
different processes are further illustrated with Figure 1

Figure1 Carrier recombination mechanisms in semiconductors

Band-to-band recombination occurs when an electron moves from its conduction band state into the empty valence
band state associated with the hole. This band-to-band transition is typically also a radiative transition in direct
bandgap semiconductors.

Trap-assisted recombination occurs when an electron falls into a "trap", an energy level within the bandgap caused by
the presence of a foreign atom or a structural defect. Once the trap is filled it cannot accept another electron. The
electron occupying the trap, in a second step, moves into an empty valence band state, thereby completing the
recombination process. One can envision this process as a two-step transition of an electron from the conduction band
to the valence band or as the annihilation of the electron and hole, which meet each other in the trap. We will refer to
this process as Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination.

Auger recombination is a process in which an electron and a hole recombine in a band-to-band transition, but now the
resulting energy is given off to another electron or hole. The involvement of a third particle affects the recombination
rate so that we need to treat Auger recombination differently from band-to-band recombination.

Each of these recombination mechanisms can be reversed leading to carrier generation rather than recombination. A
single expression will be used to describe recombination as well as generation for each of the above mechanisms.

In addition, there are generation mechanisms, which do not have an associated recombination mechanism, such as
generation of carriers by light absorption or by a high-energy electron/particle beam. These processes are referred to
as ionization processes. Impact ionization, which is the generation mechanism associated with Auger recombination,
also belongs to this category. The generation mechanisms are illustrated with Figure 2

Figure 2. Carrier generation due to light absorption and ionization due to high-energy particle beams

Carrier generation due to light absorption occurs if the photon energy is large enough to raise an electron from the
valence band into an empty conduction band state, thereby generating one electron-hole pair. The photon energy needs
to be larger than the bandgap energy to satisfy this condition. The photon is absorbed in this process and the excess
energy, Eph - Eg, is added to the electron and the hole in the form of kinetic energy.

Carrier generation or ionization due to a high-energy beam consisting of charged particles is similar except that the
available energy can be much larger than the bandgap energy so that multiple electron-hole pairs can be formed. The
high-energy particle gradually loses its energy and eventually stops. This generation mechanism is used in
semiconductor-based nuclear particle counters. As the number of ionized electron-hole pairs varies with the energy of
the particle, one can also use such detector to measure the particle energy.

Finally, there is a generation process called impact ionization, the generation mechanism that is the counterpart of
Auger recombination. Impact ionization is caused by an electron/hole with an energy, which is much larger/smaller
than the conduction/valence band edge. The detailed mechanism is illustrated with Figure 3

Figure 3. Impact ionization and avalanche multiplication of electrons and holes in the presence of a large
electric field.

The excess energy is given off to generate an electron-hole pair through a band-to-band transition. This generation
process causes avalanche multiplication in semiconductor diodes under high reverse bias: As one carrier accelerates in
the electric field it gains energy. The kinetic energy is given off to an electron in the valence band, thereby creating an
electron-hole pair. The resulting two electrons can create two more electrons which generate four more causing an
avalanche multiplication effect. Electrons as well as holes contribute to avalanche multiplication.
Semiconductor Junctions:

Metal Semiconductor junction:

The structure of a metal-semiconductor junction is shown in Figure 1. It consists of

a metal contacting a piece of semiconductor. An ideal Ohmic contact, a contact
such that no potential exists between the metal and the semiconductor, is made to
the other side of the semiconductor. The sign convention of the applied voltage and
current is also shown on Figure 1.

Figure Structure and sign convention of a metal-semiconductor junction

1:
The barrier between the metal and the semiconductor can be identified on an energy band diagram. To
construct such diagram we first consider the energy band diagram of the metal and the semiconductor,
and align them using the same vacuum level as shown in Figure 2 (a). As the metal and semiconductor
are brought together, the Fermi energies of the metal and the semiconductor do not change right away.
This yields the flatband diagram of Figure 2 (b).
Figure2 Energy band diagram of the metal and the semiconductor before (a) and after (b) contact is made

Forward And Reverse biased Operation of a metal-semiconductor junction under forward and
reverse bias is illustrated with Figure 3. As a positive bias is applied to the metal (Figure 3(a)), the
Fermi energy of the metal is lowered with respect to the Fermi energy in the semiconductor. This
results in a smaller potential drop across the semiconductor. The balance between diffusion and drift
is disturbed and more electrons will diffuse towards the metal than the number drifting into the
semiconductor. This leads to a positive current through the junction at a voltage comparable to the
built-in potential.

As a negative voltage is applied (Figure 3 (b)), the Fermi energy of the metal is raised with respect to
the Fermi energy in the semiconductor. The potential across the semiconductor now increases,
yielding a larger depletion region and a larger electric field at the interface. The barrier, which
restricts the electrons to the metal, is unchanged so that the flow of electrons is limited by that
barrier independent of the applied voltage. The metal-semiconductor junction with positive
barrier height has therefore a pronounced rectifying behavior. A large current exists under
forward bias, while almost no current exists under reverse bias.
p-n junction

If a block of P-type semiconductor is placed in contact with a block of N-type semiconductor in Figure
below (a), the result is of no value. We have two conductive blocks in contact with each other, showing
no unique properties. The problem is two separate and distinct crystal bodies. The number of electrons is
balanced by the number of protons in both blocks. Thus, neither block has any net charge.

However, a single semiconductor crystal manufactured with P-type material at one end and N-type
material at the other in Figure below (b) has some unique properties. The P-type material has positive
majority charge carriers, holes, which are free to move about the crystal lattice. The N-type material has
mobile negative majority carriers, electrons. Near the junction, the N-type material electrons diffuse
across the junction, combining with holes in P-type material. The region of the P-type material near the
junction takes on a net negative charge because of the electrons attracted. Since electrons departed the
N-type region, it takes on a localized positive charge. The thin layer of the crystal lattice between these
charges has been depleted of majority carriers, thus, is known as the depletion region. It becomes
nonconductive intrinsic semiconductormaterial. In effect, we have nearly an insulator separating the
conductive P and N doped regions.
(a) Blocks of P and N semiconductor in contact have no exploitable properties. (b) Single crystal doped
with P and N-type impurities develop a potential barrier.

This separation of charges at the PN junction constitutes a potential barrier. This potential barrier must be
overcome by an external voltage source to make the junction conduct. The formation of the junction and
potential barrier happens during the manufacturing process. The magnitude of the potential barrier is a
function of the materials used in manufacturing. Silicon PN junctions have a higher potential barrier than
germanium junctions.

PN Junction Bias

In Figure below(a) the battery is arranged so that the negative terminal supplies electrons to the N-type
material. These electrons diffuse toward the junction. The positive terminal removes electrons from the
P-type semiconductor, creating holes that diffuse toward the junction. If the battery voltage is great
enough to overcome the junction potential (0.6V in Si), the N-type electrons and P-holes combine
annihilating each other. This frees up space within the lattice for more carriers to flow toward the
junction. Thus, currents of N-type and P-type majority carriers flow toward the junction. The
recombination at the junction allows battery current to flow through the PN junction diode. Such a
junction is said to be forward-biased.

(a) Forward battery bias repels carriers toward the junction, where recombination results in battery
current. (b) Reverse battery bias attracts carriers toward battery terminals, away from the junction.
Depletion region thickness increases. No sustained battery current flows.

If the battery polarity is reversed as in Figure above(b) majority carriers are attracted away from the
junction toward the battery terminals. The positive battery terminal attracts N-type majority carriers,
electrons, away from the junction. The negative terminal attracts P-type majority carriers, holes, away
from the junction. This increases the thickness of the nonconducting depletion region. There is no
recombination of majority carriers; thus, no conduction. This arrangement of battery polarity is
called reverse bias.

Essential characteristics of solar photovoltaic devices:

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is
a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to
light. Individual solar cell devices can be combined to form modules, otherwise known as solar
panels. The common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit
voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts.

Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic, irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or
an artificial light. In addition to producing energy, they can be used as a photodetector (for
example infrared detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible
range, or measuring light intensity.

The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic attributes:

 The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.

 The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

In contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of
either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation from heat. A "photo electrolytic
cell" (photo electrochemical cell), on the other hand, refers either to a type of photovoltaic cell
(like that developed by Edmond Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells), or to a
device that splits water directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination.

First Generation Solar Cells

Traditional solar cells are made from silicon, are currently the most efficient solar cells available
for residential use and account for around 80+ percent of all the solar panels sold around the
world. Generally silicon based solar cells are more efficient and longer lasting than non silicon
based cells. However, they are more at risk to lose some of their efficiency at higher
temperatures (hot sunny days), than thin-film solar cells.

There are currently four types of silicon based cells used in the production of solar panels for
residential use. The types are based on the type of silicon used, specifically:

1. Monocrystalline Silicon Cells

The oldest solar cell technology and still the most popular and efficient are solar cells made from
thin wafers of silicon. These are called monocrystalline solar cells because the cells are sliced
from large single crystals that have been painstakingly grown under carefully controlled
conditions. Typically, the cells are a few inches across, and a number of cells are laid out in a
grid to create a panel.

Relative to the other types of cells, they have a higher efficiency (up to 24.2%), meaning you
will obtain more electricity from a given area of panel. This is useful if you only have a limited
area for mounting your panels, or want to keep the installation small for aesthetic reasons.
However, growing large crystals of pure silicon is a difficult and very energy-intensive process,
so the production costs for this type of panel have historically are the highest of all the solar
panel types.

Production methods have improved though, and prices for raw silicon as well as to build
panels from monocrystalline solar cells have fallen a great deal over the years, partly driven
by competition as other types of panel have been produced.

Another issue to keep in mind about panels made from monocrystalline silicon cells is that
they lose their efficiency as the temperature increases about 25˚C, so they need to be installed
in such a way as to permit the air to circulate over and under the panels to improve their
efficiency.

2. Polycrstalline Silicon Cells

It is cheaper to produce silicon wafers in molds from multiple silicon crystals rather than from a
single crystal as the conditions for growth do not need to be as tightly controlled. In this form, a
number of interlocking silicon crystals grow together. Panels based on these cells are cheaper
per unit area than monocrystalline panels - but they are also slightly less efficient (up to 19.3%).

Note: Many of the leading firms make both monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar cells for
their panels.

3. Amorphous Silicon Cells

You probably never thought about it before, but most solar cells used in calculators and many
small electronic devices are made from amorphous silicon cells.

Instead of growing silicon crystals as is done in making the two previous types of solar cells,
silicon is deposited in a very thin layer on to a backing substrate – such as metal, glass or even
plastic. Sometimes several layers of silicon, doped in slightly different ways to respond to
different wavelengths of light, are laid on top of one another to improve the efficiency. The
production methods are complex, but less energy intensive than crystalline panels, and prices
have been coming down as panels are mass-produced using this process.

One advantage of using very thin layers of silicon is that the panels can be made flexible. The
disadvantage of amorphous panels is that they are much less efficient per unit area (up to 10%)
and are generally not suitable for roof installations you would typically need nearly double the
panel area for the same power output. Having said that, for a given power rating, they do
perform better at low light levels than crystalline panels - which is worth having on a dismal
winter's day, and are less likely to lose their efficiency as the temperature climbs.

However, there flexibility makes them an excellent choice for use in making building integrated
PV (e.g., roofing shingles), for use on curved surfaces, or even attached to a flexible backing sheet
so that they can even be rolled up and used when going camping / backpacking, or put away when
they are not needed!

4. Hybrid Silicon Cells

One recent trend in the industry is the emergence of hybrid silicon cells and several companies
are now exploring ways of combining different materials to make solar cells with better
efficiency, longer life, and at reduced costs.

Recently, Sanyo introduced a hybrid HIT cell whereby a layer of amorphous silicon is deposited
on top of single crystal wafers. The result is an efficient solar cell that performs well in terms of
indirect light and is much less likely to lose efficiency as the temperature climbs.

Second Generation Solar Cells

Second-generation solar cells are usually called thin-film solar cells because when compared to
crystalline silicon based cells they are made from layers of semiconductor materials only a few
micrometers thick. The combination of using less material and lower cost manufacturing
processes allow the manufacturers of solar panels made from this type of technology to produce
and sell panels at a much lower cost.

There are basically three types of solar cells that are considered in this category, amorphous
silicon (mentioned above), and two that are made from non-silicon materials namely cadmium
telluride (CdTe), and copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS). Together they accounted for
around 16.8% of the panels sold in 2009.

Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS)

CIGS cells have achieved the highest efficiency for a true thin-film solar cell. At 22.6%,they are
comparable to commercial crystalline silicon, and far exceed the current efficiencies of OPVs.They
allow the band gap of the semiconductor to be tuned. In this case, by varying the In:Ga and Se:S
ratios to obtain around 1.0 to 2.4eV, allowing targeting of an ideal band gap and applications in
tandem solar cells.
However, CIGS are expensive (due to the rarity of indium), and manufacture can be difficult. The
complex stoichiometry and multiple phases means that it is a challenging process to optimise CIGS
cells, and this may restrict large-scale production in the future. The main advantages of OPVs
compared to these are low-cost materials, and easy manufacture and optimisation.
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
At 22.1%, CdTe has achieved similar efficiencies to CIGS. It also has a band gap close to ideal at
1.43eV, with advantages including good absorption and low energy losses. CdTe solar cells can be
made through low-temperature processes, allowing flexible and affordable production (as with OPVs)
- which is preferable to expensive and time-consuming high-temperature processes. CdTe currently
has the largest market share of all thin-film technologies.3
However, cadmium is toxic, and tellurium is particularly rare (being 300,000,000 times less abundant
than silicon). These factors may point to potential issues with long-term, large-scale production in
future. However, there has been some introduction of CdTe PV recycling by manufacturers. In terms
of component toxicity and natural abundance, OPVs are advantageous compared to CdTe.

Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H)

In comparison to conventional wafer-based c-silicon, hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) uses
a randomly-organised structure. It yields a higher band gap of 1.7eV, in comparison to that of 1.1eV
for c-Si. This allows stronger absorption in the visible region of the spectrum, albeit less well-
matched to the infrared. Stronger absorption facilitates thin-films of silicon (in the region of
300nm) allowing for cells that have a lighter weight than c-Si, and with the potential for flexibility.
Silicon also has little issues with abundance, but amorphous silicon has been limited in adoption due
to low efficiencies (with a record of 14.0%) and potential photo-induced degradation issues.Low
efficiencies and stability issues are features it shares with OPVs. However, over the course of
production, amorphous silicon has significantly higher greenhouse gas emissions and energy
payback time
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
GaAs solar cells have achieved the highest performance of all single-junction solar cells, with a
record of 28.8%6 and a near-optimum bandgap of 1.42eV. GaAs cells use thin films of active
material, and hence are technically thin-film cells - but this is typically deposited onto a GaAs wafer
and then separated, with the wafer reused. This means some of the disadvantages of wafer-based c-Si
apply - namely, expensive and difficult manufacture due to the requirements for high material purity.
GaAs is mostly used for high-efficiency applications where cost is not a limiting factor (e.g. solar
cells in satellite applications).
Third Generation Solar Cells

Third-generation photovoltaic cells are solar cells that are potentially able to overcome
the Shockley–Queisser limit of 31–41% power efficiency for single bandgap solar cells. This includes
a range of alternatives to cells made of semiconducting p-n junctions ("first generation") and thin film
cells ("second generation"). Common third-generation systems include multi-layer ("tandem") cells
made of amorphous silicon or gallium arsenide, while more theoretical developments include
frequency conversion, hot-carrier effects and other multiple-carrier ejection techniques.

Emerging photovoltaics include:

 Copper zinc tin sulfide solar cell (CZTS), and derivates CZTSe and CZTSSe
 Dye-sensitized solar cell, also known as "Grätzel cell"
 Organic solar cell
 Perovskite solar cell
 Quantum dot solar cell
The third generation label encompasses multiple technologies, though it includes non-
semiconductor technologies (including polymers and biomimetics), quantum dot, tandem/multi-
junction cells, intermediate band solar cell, hot-carrier cells, photon
upconversion and downconversion technologies, and solar thermal technologies, such
as thermophotonics, which is one technology identified by Green as being third generation.
It also includes:

 Silicon nanostructures
 Modifying incident spectrum (concentration), to reach 300–500 suns and efficiencies of 32%
(already attained in Sol3g cells) to +50%.
 Use of excess thermal generation (caused by UV light) to enhance voltages or carrier collection.
 Use of infrared spectrum to produce electricity at night.