HTML

Introduction & Basics
HTML is the standard markup language for creating web pages.
HTML – Hyper Text Markup Language.
HTML describes the structure of a web page. It consists of a series of

elements. The elements tell the browser how to display the content. Elements
label pieces of content.
The purpose of a web browser is to read HTML documents and display them
correctly. A browser does not display the HTML tags but uses them to
determine how to display the document.
All HTML documents must start with a document type declaration:

<!DOCTYPE html>
This represents the document type and helps browsers to display web pages
correctly.
It must appear only once at the top of the page before any HTML tags.
The declaration is not case-sensitive.
The HTML document itself begins with <html> and ends with </html>.
The metadata about the HTML document is between <head> and </head>.
The visible part of the HTML document is between <body> and </body>.
Web pages can be created and modified using any simple text editor or any
professional HTML editor.
Open a text editor – Write HTML – Save the page – Open in a browser
1991: HTML 1.0 1995: HTML 2.0 1997: HTML 3.2

1999: HTML 4.01 2014: HTML5 2017: HTML5.2
Elements
An HTML element is defined by a start tag, content, and an end tag.

<tagName> content </tagName>
The HTML element is everything from the start tag to the end tag.
Some elements do not have content – and are called empty elements which do
not have an end tag. <tagName> or <tagName />.
Elements can be nested. All HTML documents consist of nested elements.
Always use lowercase tag names.
Attributes
HTML attributes provide additional information about HTML elements.
All HTML elements can have attributes.

Attributes are always specified in the start tag.
Attributes usually come in name/value pairs: name="value".
Always use lowercase attribute names.

Always quote attribute values. Use single or double quotes.
Headings
HTML headings are titles or subtitles to display on a webpage.
HTML headings are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags.
<h1> defines the most important heading.

<h6> defines the least important heading.
Browsers automatically add some white space (a margin) before and after a
heading.
Search engines use the headings to index the structure and content of web
pages.
Users often skim a page by its headings.
It is important to use headings to show the document structure.
<h1> headings should be used for main headings, followed by <h2> headings,
then the less important <h3> and so on.
Only use one <h1> per page – this should represent the main heading/subject
for the whole page.
Also, do not skip heading levels – start with <h1>, then use <h2>, so on.
Each HTML heading has a default size.
Specify the size for any heading with the style attribute using the CSS
font-size property.
Paragraphs
A paragraph always starts on a new line and is usually a block of text.
The HTML <p> element defines a paragraph.

A paragraph always starts on a new line and browsers automatically add some
white space (a margin) before and after a paragraph.
One cannot be sure how HTML will be displayed. Large or small screens and
resized windows will create different results.
With HTML, one cannot change the display by adding extra spaces or extra
lines in HTML code.
The browser will automatically remove any extra spaces and lines when the
page is displayed.
The <hr> tag
The <hr> tag defines a thematic break in an HTML page and is most often
displayed as a horizontal rule.
It is used to separate content or define a change or a shift of topic in an

HTML page.
It is an empty tag, which means that it has no end tag.
The <br> tag
The HTML <br> element defines a line break.

Use <br> to have a line break (a new line) without starting a new paragraph.
It is an empty tag, which means that it has no end tag.
It is useful for writing addresses or poems.

Do not use it to add space between paragraphs.
The <pre> tag
The HTML <pre> element defines preformatted text.
The text inside a <pre> element is displayed in a fixed-width font (usually

Courier) and it preserves both spaces and line breaks.
The text will be displayed exactly as written in the HTML source code.
Styles
The HTML style attribute is used to add styles to an element (color, font,
size and more).
Setting the style of an HTML element can be done with the style attribute.
<tagName style="css_property: css_value; ">

Text Formatting
HTML contains several elements for defining text with a special meaning.
Formatting elements were designed to display special types of text.
The <b> tag
This tag specifies bold text without any extra importance.

Can also use CSS to set bold text: font-weight: bold.
<b> content </b>
The <strong> element
This tag is used to define text with strong importance.

The content inside is typically displayed in bold.
<strong> content </strong>
The <i> tag
This tag defines a part of text in an alternate voice or mood.

The content inside is typically displayed in italic.
This tag is often used to indicate a technical term, a phrase form another
language, a thought, so on.
Use it to markup text that is set off from the normal prose in a document.
<i> content </i>
The <em> tag
This tag is used to define emphasized text.

The content inside is typically displayed in italic.
A screen reader will pronounce the words in <em> with an emphasis, using
verbal stress.
<em> content </em>
The <small> tag
This tag defines smaller text (like copyright or other side-comments).

It is possible to get same/richer effect with CSS.
<small> content </small>
The <big> tag
This tag was used in HTML 4 to define bigger text.

Specify different font-sizes for HTML elements with CSS.
Not supported in HTML5.
The <sub> tag
This tag defines subscript text.

Subscript text appears half a character below the normal line and is
sometimes rendered in a smaller font.
Subscript text can be used for chemical formulae, so on.
<sub> content </sub>
The <sup> tag
This tag defines superscript text.

Superscript text appears half a character above the normal line and is
sometimes rendered in a smaller font.
Superscript text can be used for footnotes.
<sup> content </sup>
The <mark> tag
This tag defines text that should be marked or highlighted.

By default the color is black and background color is yellow.
Change the settings with CSS.
The <ins> tag
This tag defines text that has been inserted into a document.
Browsers will usually underline inserted text.
Use CSS to change the rendering.
The cite="URL" and datetime="YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ssTZd" attributes can be used.
The <del> tag
This tag defines text that has been deleted from a document.
Browsers will usually strike a line through deleted text.
Use CSS to change the rendering.
The cite="URL" and datetime="YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ssTZd" attributes can be used.

Quotations
The <blockquote> tag
This element defines a section that is quoted from another source.

Browsers usually indent these elements.
The cite attribute can specify the URL of the source of the quote.
<blockquote cite="URL"> content </blockquote>
The <q> tag
This tag defines a short quotation.

Browsers normally insert quotation marks around the quotation.
The cite attribute can specify the URL of the source of the quote.
<q cite="URL"> content </q>
The <abbr> tag
This tag defines an abbreviation or an acronym ("HTML", "CSS", "Mr.", "Dr.",

"ASAP", "ATM").
Marking abbreviations can give useful information to browsers, translation
systems, and search-engines.
Use the global title attribute to show the description for the
abbreviation/acronym when the mouse is moved over the element.
<abbr title="description"> content </abbr>
The <address> tag
This tag defines the contact information for the author/owner of a document
or an article.
The contact information can be an email address, URL, physical address,
phone number, social media handle, so on.
The element content usually renders in italic and browsers will always add a
line break before and after the element.
<address> content </address>
The <cite> tag
This tag defines the title of a creative work (book, poem, song, movie,
painting, sculpture, so on).
The text in the element usually renders in italic.
<cite> content </cite>
The <bdo> tag
BDO stands for Bi-Directional Override.

This tag is used to override the current text direction.
The dir attribute has two possible values: ltr (default), rtl.
<bdo dir="ltr| rtl"> content </bdo>
Comments
HTML comments are not displayed in the browser, but they can help document
HTML source code.
Add comments to HTML source as: .
Use comments to place notifications and reminders in HTML code.

Comments are also good for debugging HTML as one can comment out HTML lines
of code, one at a time, to search for errors.
Colors
HTML colors are specified with predefined color names, or with RGB, HEX,
HSL, RGBA, HSLA values.
In HTML a color can be specified by using a color name.

HTML supports about 140 standard color names.
An RGB color value represents RED, GREEN and BLUE light sources.
An RGBA color value is an extension of RGB with an Alpha channel (opacity).
Specify a color as an RGB value as: rgb(red, green, blue), each parameter
defines the intensity of the color with a value between 0 and 255.
(There are 16777216 possible colors – 256 × 256 × 256)
To display black set all color parameters to 0: rgb(0, 0, 0)

To display white set all color parameters to 255: rgb(255, 255, 255)
Shades of gray are often defined using equal values for all three
parameters.
Specify a color as an RGBA values as: rgba(red, green, blue, alpha)

The alpha parameter is a number between 0.0 (fully transparent) and 1.0 (not
transparent at all).
A color is specified using a hexadecimal value as: #rrggbb, where rr, gg

and bb are hexadecimal values between 00 and ff (0-255).
To display black set all color parameters to 00: #000000

To display white set all color parameters to ff: #ffffff
Shades of gray are often defined using equal values for all three
parameters.
HSL stands for Hue, Saturation and Lightness.

HSLA color values are an extension of HSL with an Alpha channel (opacity).
Specify a color in HSL as: hsl(hue, saturation, lightness)
Hue is a degree on the color wheel from 0-360. (0 is red, 120 is green, 240
is blue).
Saturation is a percentage value (0% is a shade of gray, 100% is the full
color). It can be described as the intensity of a color. 100% is pure color,
no shades of gray. 50% is 50% gray but the color is seen. 0% is completely
gray and color is no longer seen.
Lightness is a percentage value (0% is black, 100% is white). Lightness of a

color can be described as how much light to give the color (0% means no
light — black, 50% means 50% light — neither dart nor light, 100% means full
lightness – white.
Shades of gray are often defined by setting the hue and saturation to 0 and
adjust the lightness from 0% to 100% to get darker/lighter shades.
An HSLA color value is specified as: hsla(hue, saturation, lightness, alpha)

The alpha parameter is a number between 0.0 (fully transparent) and 1.0 (not
transparent at all).
CSS
CSS – Cascading Style Sheets.

CSS can control the layout of multiple web pages all at once and save a lot
of work.
CSS is used to format the layout of a web page.
With CSS control the color, font, size of text; spacing between elements;
elements positioning and layout; background images and colors; different
displays for different devices and screen sizes; so on.
The word cascading means that a style applied to a parent element will also
apply to all child elements within the parent, unless some other style is
specified.
CSS can be added to HTML documents in 3 ways:

Inline: Using style attribute inside HTML elements
Internal: Using a <style> element in the <head> section
External: Using a <link> element to link to an external CSS file
The most common way to add CSS is to keep the styles in external CSS files.
An inline CSS is used to apply a unique style to a single HTML element. It

uses the style attribute of an HTML element.
An internal CSS is used to define a style for a single HTML page. It is

defined in the <head> section of an HTML page within a <style> element.
An external style sheet is used to define the style for many HTML pages. To
use an external style sheet add a link to it in the <head> section of each
HTML page. The external style sheet must not contain any HTML code and must
be saved with a .css extension. With an external style sheet change the look
of an entire web site by changing one file. External style sheets can be
referenced with a full URL or with a path relative to the current web page.
The <style> tag is used to define style information (CSS) for a document.
Inside the <style> element specify how HTML elements should render in a
browser. When a browser reads a style sheet it will format the HTML document
according to the information in the style sheet. If some properties have
been defined for the same selector in different style sheets, the value from
the last read style sheet will be used.
The type attribute has a default value of text/css.
The <link> tag defines the relationship between the current document and an
external resource. It is most often used to link to external style sheets.
It is an empty element; it contains attributes only.
Its href attribute gives the URL of the linked document.
Its rel attribute has a value of stylesheet and gives the relationship
between current document and linked resource.
The type attribute can have the value text/css and gives the media type and
can be inferred from rel attribute value.
Links
Links are found in nearly all web pages.

Links allow users to click their way from page to page.
HTML links are hyperlinks. Click on a link and jump to another document.
When the mouse is moved over a link, mouse arrow will turn into a little
hand.
A link need not be text, it can be an image or any other HTML element.
The <a> tag defines a hyperlink.

<a href="url"> link text </a>
The most important attribute of the <a> element is the href attribute which
indicates the link's destination.
The 'link text' is the part that will be visible to the user.
Clicking on the link text will send the user to the specified URL address.
By default links will appear as below in all browsers:

An unvisited link is underlined and blue
A visited link is underlined and purple
An active link is underlined and red
Links can be styled with CSS to get a different look.
By default the linked page will be displayed in the current browser window.
To change this specify another target for the link.
The target attribute specifies where to open the linked document.
It can have one of the following values:
_self – default, opens the document in the same window/tab as it was clicked
_blank – opens the document in a new window/tab
_parent – opens the document in the parent frame
_top – opens the document in the full body of the window
The URL can be absolute (full web address) or relative (link to a page
within the same website).
To use an image as a link put the <img> tag inside the <a> tag.
Use mailto: inside the href attribute to create a link that opens the user's
email program.
To use an HTML button as a link add JS code which allows to specify what
happens at certain events.
The title attribute specifies extra information about an element which is

shown as a tooltip text when the mouse moves over the element.
A link can be styled as a button using CSS.

HTML links can be used to create bookmarks so that readers can jump to
specific parts of a web page.
Bookmarks can be useful if a web page is very long. To create a bookmark –
first create the bookmark and then add a link to it. When the link is
clicked the page will scroll down or up to the location with the bookmark.
Use the id attribute to create the bookmark.

<tag id="id"> content </tag>
Add a link to the bookmark, from within the same page.

<a href="#id"> marker </a>
Add a link to a bookmark on another page.

<a href="url#id"> marker </a>
Use the id attribute (id="value") to define bookmark in a page.

Use the href attribute (href="#value") to link to the bookmark.
The download attribute specifies that the target will be downloaded when a
user clicks on the hyperlink. This attribute is only used if the href
attribute is set. The value of the attribute will be the name of the
downloaded file. There are no restrictions on the allowed values and the
browser will automatically detect the correct file extension and add it to
the file. If the value is omitted, the original filename is used.
<a download="filename"> Filename is optional and specifies the new file name
Link to a JavaScript:
<a href="javascript: alert('some message');">Execute JS</a>
Link to a phone number: <a href="tel: number digits">call</a>

Images
Images can improve the design and the appearance of a web page.
The <img> tag is used to embed an image in a web page.
Images are not technically inserted into a web page – they are linked to web
pages. The <img> tag creates a holding space for the referenced image.
The <img> tag is empty, it contains attributes only, and does not have a
closing tag.
The <img> tag has two required attributes:

src – specifies the path to the image
alt – specifies an alternate text for the image
<img src="url" alt="alternate text">
The required src attribute specifies the URL/path to the image. When a web
page loads, it is the browser, at that moment, that gets the image from a
web server and inserts it into the page. A broken link icon is shown if the
browser cannot find the image.
The url can be relative or absolute.

HTML allows animated GIFs.
Use the CSS float property to let the image float to the right or to the
left of a text.
The required alt attribute provides an alternate text for an image, if the
user for some reason cannot view it. The value of the alt attribute should
describe the image. If the browser cannot find an image, it will display the
value of the alt attribute.
Use the style attribute to specify the width and height (as CSS properties)
of an image or use the width and height attributes. The width and height
attributes always define the width and height of the image in pixels. Always
specify the width and height of an image – else the web page might flicker
while the image loads. (use the style attribute – it prevents style sheets
from changing the size of images).
Most common image file types supported in all browsers:

APNG Animated Portable Network Graphics .apng
GIF Graphics Interchange Format .gif
ICO Microsoft Icon .ico, .cur
JPEF Joint Photographic Expert Group .jpg, .jpeg, .jfif, .pjpeg
PNG Portable Network Graphics .png
SCG Scalable Vector Graphics .svg
Loading large images takes time and can slow down web page.
Use images carefully.
Image Maps
With HTML image maps, create clickable areas on an image.
The <map> tag defines an image map.

An image map is an image with clickable areas.
The areas are defined with one or more <area> tags.
The idea behind an image map is that one should be able to perform different
actions depending on where in the image one clicks.
To create an image map one needs an image and some HTML code that describes
the clickable areas.
The image is inserted using the <img> tag. The only difference from other
images is that one must add the usemap attribute. The usemap value starts
with a hash tag # followed by the name of the image map and is used to
create a relationship between the image and the image map. Any image can be
used as an image map.
<img src="url" alt="text" usemap="#mapname">
The <map> element is used to create an image map and is linked to the image
by using the required name attribute which must have the same value as the
<img> elements usemap attribute.
<map name="mapname"> ... </map>
A clickable area is defined using an <area> element.

The <area> tag defines an area inside an image map. The <area> elements are
always nested inside a <map> tag.
Define the shape of the clickable area by choosing one of these values for
the shape attribute:
rect (a rectangular region),
circle (a circular region),
poly (a polygonal region),
default (entire region).
Also define some coordinates to be able to place the clickable area onto the
image using the coords attribute.
The coords attribute specifies the coordinates of an area in an imagemap.

This attribute is used together with the shape attribute to specify the
size, shape and placement of an area.
The coordinates for shape="rect" come in pairs (for x and y axes).

<area shape="rect" coords="x1, y1, x2, y2" href="url" alt="text">
Specify the coordinates of the top-left and bottom-right corners of the
rectangle.
The values for shape="circle" come as the center coordinates and radius.
<area shape="circle" coords="x, y, radius" href="url" alt="text">
The shape="poly" contains several coordinate points which creates a shape
formed with straight lines (a polygon). This can be used to create any
shape.
Specify the x and y coordinates of all the needed points.
<area shape="poly" coords="x, y, ... " href="url" alt="text">
Specifies the coordinates of the edges of the polygon. If the first and last
coordinate pairs are not the same, the browser will add the last coordinate
pair to close the polygon.
A clickable area can also trigger a JS function. Add a click event to the
<area> element to execute a JS function.
The <area> element can also have the attributes: download="filename",
target="name".
The <picture> element
This element allows us to display different pictures for different devices

or screen sizes. This element gives web developers more flexibility in
specifying image resources.
The most common use of the <picture> element will be for art direction in
responsive designs. Instead of having one image that is scaled up or down
based on the viewport width, multiple images can be designed to more nicely
fill the browser viewport.
The <picture> element contains one or more <source> elements each referring
to different images through the srcset attribute. This way the browser can
choose the image that best fits the current view and/or device.
Each <source> element has a media attribute that defines when the image is
the most suitable.
Always specify an <img> element as the last child element of the <picture>
element. The <img> element is used by browsers that do not support the
<picture> element or if none of the <source> tags matches (as a fallback
option).
There are two main purposes for the <picture> element:

Bandwidth: For a small screen or device it is not necessary to load a large
image file. The browser will use the first <source> element with matching
attribute values and ignore any of the following elements.
Format support: Some browsers or devices may not support all image formats.
By using the <picture> element, add images of all formats and the browser
will use the first format it recognizes and ignore any of the following
elements.
The media attribute of <source> accepts any valid media query that would
normally be defined in CSS. Possible values are: width, height, device-
width, device-height, aspect-ratio, device-aspect-ratio, color, color-index,
monochrome, resolution, (all these can have min and max prefixes),
orientation(landscape, portrait), scan(progressive, interlace), grid(1, 0).
The devices can be: all, aural, braille, handheld, projection, print,
screen, tty, tv. [Possible operators: and, not, (,). ]
Tables
HTML tables allow web developers to arrange data into rows and columns.
The <table> tag defines an HTML table.

Each table row is defined with a <tr> tag.
Each table header is defined with a <th> tag.
Each table data/cell is defined with a <td> tag.
By default, text in a <th> element is bold and centered.

By default, text in a <td> element is regular and left-aligned.
The <td> elements are the data containers of the table. They can contain all
sorts of HTML elements (text, lists, images, tables, so on).
To add a border to the table use the CSS border property:

border: width style color
Define borders for both the table and the table cells.
To let the borders collapse into one border, add the CSS border-collapse
property:
border-collapse: collapse
Cell padding specifies the space between the cell content and its borders.
If padding is not specified, the table cells will be displayed without
padding.
To set the padding use the CSS padding property.

padding: (1-4 values)
To change text alignment use CSS text-align property.

text-align: left| center| right
Border spacing specifies the space between the cells. To set the border
spacing for a table use CSS border-spacing property.
border-spacing: length
If the table has collapsed borders this property has no effect.
To make a cell span more than one column use the colspan attribute and set
it to a number indicating number of columns to span.
To make a cell span more than one row use the rowspan attribute and set it
to a number indicating number of rows to span.
To add a caption to a table use the <caption> tag. The <caption> tag must be
inserted immediately after the <table> tag.
The <table> tag:
This tag defines an HTML table. An HTML table consists of one <table>
element and one or more <tr>, <th> and <td> elements. An HTML table may also
include <caption>, <colgroup>, <thead>, <tbody>, <tfoot> elements.
To right-align a table: <table style='float:right'>
To center-align a table: <table style='margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;'>
To add a background color to a table:
<table style='background-color: color'>
To set the table width: <table style='width:75%'>
To set the padding: th, td {padding: 10px;}
The <th> tag:
This tag defines a header cell in an HTML table.
An HTML table has two kinds of cells:

Header cells (contain header information, use <th> tag)
Data cells (contain data, use <td> tag)
Use colspan and rowspan attributes to specify the number of columns/rows a

header cell should span.
To align text inside <th>: use text-align CSS property

To add background color to a header: use background-color CSS property
To set the height of a header cell: use CSS height property
To specify no word-wrapping: use white-space CSS property with nowrap value
To vertical align content of a header cell: use CSS vertical-align property
To set the width of a header cell: use CSS width property
The <td> tag:
This tag defines a standard data cell in an HTML table.
Use colspan and rowspan attributes to specify the number of columns/rows a

data cell should span.
To align content inside <td>: use CSS text-align property

To add a background color to a <td>: use CSS background-color property
To set the height of a data cell: use CSS height property
To specify no word wrapping: use CSS white-space property with nowrap value
To vertical align content: use CSS vertical-align property
To set the width of a data cell: use CSS width property
The <tr> tag:
The <tr> tag defines a row in an HTML table. A <tr> element contains one or
more <th> or/and <td> elements.
To align contents in a row: use text-align CSS property

To add background color to a row: use CSS background-color property
To vertical align content inside <tr>: use CSS vertical-align property
The <caption> tag:
This tag defines a table caption. It must be inserted immediately after the
<table> tag.
By default, a table caption will be center-aligned above a table. The CSS

properties text-align (left, right, center, justify) and caption-side (top,
bottom) can be used to align and place the caption.
The <colgroup> tag:
This tag specifies a group of one or more columns in a table for formatting.
This tag is useful for applying styles to entire columns, instead of
repeating the styles for each cell, for each row.
This tag must be a child of <table> element after any <caption> element and
before any <tr>, <thead>, <tbody>, <tfoot> elements.
To define different properties to a column within a <colgroup>, use the

<col> tag within the <colgroup> tag.
The span attribute with a number value specifies the number of columns a
column group should span.
The <col> tag:
This tag specifies column properties for each column within a <colgroup>
element. This tag is useful for applying styles to entire columns, instead
of repeating the styles for each cell, for each row.
The span attribute with a number value specifies the number of columns a
<col> element should span.
The <thead> tag:
This tag is used to group header content in an HTML table.

This element is used in conjunction with the <tbody> and <tfoot> elements to
specify each part of a table (header, body, footer).
Browsers can use these elements to enable scrolling of the table body
independently of the header and footer. Also when printing a large table
that spans multiple pages, these elements can enable the table header and
footer to be printed at the top and bottom of each page.
The <thead> element must have one or more <tr> tags inside.
The <thead> tag must be used in the following context: As a child of a
<table> element, after any <caption> and <colgroup> elements, and before any
<tbody>, <tfoot> and <tr> elements.
The <thead>, <tbody>, <tfoot> elements will not affect the layout of the
table by default. Use CSS to style these elements.
The <tbody> tag:
This tag is used to group the body content in an HTML table.

The <tbody> element must have one or more <tr> tags inside.
This tag must be used in the following context: As a child of a <table>
element, after any <caption>, <colgroup>, <thead> elements.
The <tfoot> tag:
This tag is used to group footer content in an HTML table.

The <tfoot> element must have one or more <tr> tags inside.
This tag must be used in the following context: As a child of a <table>
element, after any <caption>, <colgroup>, <thead>, <tbody> elements.
Lists
HTML lists allow web developers to group a set of related items in lists.
Unordered list
An unordered list starts with the <ul> tag.

Each list item starts with the <li> tag.
The list items will be marked with bullets (small black circles) by default.
The CSS 'list-style-type' property is used to define the style of the list
item marker.
It can have one of the following values: disc (default), circle, square,
none.
The 'type' attribute can also be used.
Lists can be nested.

A list item can contain a new list and other HTML elements.
HTML lists can be styled in many different ways with CSS. One popular way is
to style a list horizontally, to create a navigation menu.
Ordered list
An ordered list starts with the <ol> tag.

Each list item starts with the <li> tag.
The list items will be marked with numbers by default.

An ordered list can be numerical or alphabetical.
The 'type' attribute of the <ol> tag defines the type of the list item
marker:
1 (default), A, a, I, i (for numbers, letters and roman numbers).
Also CSS property 'list-style-type' can be used, which offers more types
such as:
decimal, decimal-leading-zero, lower-alpha, upper-alpha, lower-greek, lower-
roman, upper-roman, none, so on.
By default an ordered list will start counting from 1. To start counting

from a specified number use the 'start' attribute. The start attribute
specifies the start value of the first list item. This value is always an
integer, even when the numbering type is letters or romans.
The 'reversed' attribute is a boolean attribute. When present, it specifies
that the list order should be descending, instead of ascending.
The 'value' attribute of <li> tag specifies the start value of a list item,
must be a number, and the following list items will increment from that
number. The 'list-style-type' CSS property can also be used with <li> tag.
Description lists
A description list is a list of terms, with a description of each term.
The <dl> tag defines the description list,

the <dt> tag defines the term/name, and
the <dd> tag describes each term/name and can contain paragraphs, line
breaks, images, links, lists, so on.
Block and Inline
Every HTML element has a default display value, depending on what type of
element it is.
There are to display values: block and inline.
A block-level element always starts on a new line and takes up the full
width available (stretches out to the left and right as far as it can).
An inline element does not start on a new line and it only takes up as much
width as necessary.
An inline element cannot contain a block-level element.
The <div> element is often used as a container for other HTML elements.
It has no required attributes; but style, class, id are common.
When used together with CSS, it can be used to style blocks of content.
The <div> tag defines a division or a section in an HTML document. It is

used as a container for HTML elements which is then styled with CSS or
manipulated with JS. It is easily styled by using the class or id attribute.
Any sort of content can be put inside <div> tag.
The <span> element is an inline container used to markup a part of a text or

a part of a document.
It has no required attributes; but style, class, id are common.
When used together with CSS, it can be used to style parts of the text.
The <span> tag is easily styled by CSS or manipulated with JS using the
class or id attribute.
The class attribute
The HTML class attribute is used to specify a class for an HTML element.
Multiple HTML elements can share the same class.
<tag class="name">
The class attribute is often used to point to a class name in a style sheet.
It can also be used by JS to access and manipulate elements with the
specific class name.
The class attribute can be used with block and inline elements.
The class attribute can be used on any HTML element.
The class name is case sensitive.
To define the CSS properties for a class, write a dot character followed by
the name of the class and then add the CSS properties, in the format
name:value separated by semicolons, within the curly braces {}: .class
{ ... }.
HTML elements can have more than one class name.

To specify multiple classes separate the class names with a space.
This allows to combine several CSS classes for one HTML element.
<tag = class="name name name">
Different HTML elements can point to the same class name.
The class name can also be used by JS to perform certain tasks for specific
elements. JS can access elements with a specific class name with the method
getElementsByClassName().
The id attribute
The HTML id attribute specifies a unique id for an HTML element.

The value of the id attribute must be unique within the HTML document.
The id attribute is used to point to a specific style declaration in a style

sheet. It is also used by JS to access and manipulate the element with the
specific id.
The id attribute can be used on any HTML element.

The id value is case-sensitive.
The id value must contain at least one character and must not contain
whitespace.
A class name can be used by multiple HTML elements, while an id must be
unique within the page.
To define the CSS properties for a given id, write a # character followed by
the value of the id and then add the CSS properties, in the format
name:value separated by semicolons, within the curly braces {}: #id
{ ... }.
HTML bookmarks are used to allow users to jump to specific parts of a web
page. Bookmarks can be useful if the web page is very long. To make a
bookmark, first create the bookmark with the id attribute, and then add a
link to it elsewhere in the page using <a href="#id">.
JS can access an element with a specified id by using the getElementById()

method.
Iframes
An HTML iframe is used to display a web page within a web page.
An HTML iframe is defined with the <iframe> tag:

<iframe src="URL"></iframe>
The <iframe> tag specifies an inline frame which is used to embed another
document within the current HTML document.
The src attribute specifies the URL of the inline frame page.
Use the height and width attributes to specify the size of the frame.
The height and width are specified in pixels by default. Or use CSS to set
the height and width of the iframe with the style attribute.
By default an iframe has a border around it.

To remove the border add the style attribute and use the CSS border property
with the value none. With CSS can also change the size, style and color of
the iframe border.
An iframe can be used as the target frame for a link.

The target attribute of the link must refer to the name attribute of the
iframe.
<iframe src=" " name="i">
<a href=" " target="i">
It is a good practice to include a title attribute.

HTML JavaScript
JS makes HTML pages more dynamic and interactive.
The <script> tag is used to define a client-side script.

The <script> element either contains script statements or it points to an
external script file through the src attribute.
Common uses for JS are image manipulation, form validation, and dynamic
changes of content.
To select an HTML element, JS most often uses the document.getElementById()
method.
JS can change HTML content, HTML styles, HTML attributes.
The <noscript> tag is used to provide an alternate content for users that
have disabled scripts in the browser or have a browser that does not support
client-side scripts.
The <script> tag
The <script> element
This element is used to embed client-side JS.

This element either contains scripting statements or it points to an
There are several ways an external script can be executed:

If async="async" – the script is executed asynchronously with the rest of
the page – the script will be executed while the page continues the parsing.
If async is not present and defer="defer" the script is executed when the
page has finished parsing.
If neither async nor defer is present the script is fetched and executed
immediately before the browser continues parsing the page.
<script async="async defer="defer" src="URL" type="media_type">
For type attribute the default is application/javascript.
The type attribute identifies the Internet media type (MIME type) of a
script.
The <noscript> tag

File paths
A file path describes the location of a file in a web site's folder

structure.
File paths are used when linking to external files:

Web pages, images, style sheets, JavaScripts, so on.
An absolute file path is the full URL to a file.
A relative file path points to a file relative to the current page.

It is best practice to use relative file paths if possible. When using
relative file paths, web pages will not be bound to current base URL. All
links will work on localhost as well as on current and future public
domains.
filename – in the same folder as current page

folder/filename – in the given folder within the current folder
/folder/filename – in the given folder at the root of the current web
../filename – in the folder one level up from the current folder
../folder/filename – in the folder located in the folder one level above the
current folder
/ at the start indicates root

.. indicate one level up
The head
The <head> element is a container for all the head elements:

<title>, <meta>, <base>, <style>, <script>, <link>
The <head> element is a container for metadata (data about data) and is
placed between the <html> tag and the <body> tag.
HTML metadata is data about the HTML document. Metadata is not displayed.
Metadata typically define the document title, character set, styles,
scripts, and other meta information.
The <title> tag
This element defines the title of the document and is required in all HTML
documents.
The title must be text-only.
The contents of a page title is very important for Search Engine
Optimization (SEO) – the page title is used by search engine algorithms to
decide the order when listing pages in search results.
This element:
Defines a title in the browser tab/toolbar
Provides a title for the page when it is bookmarked/added to favorites
Displays a title for the page in search engine results
Tips for creating good titles:

Go for a longer descriptive title; avoid 1- or 2-word titles.
Search engines will display about 50-60 characters of the title.
Do not use just a list of words as the title.
Try to make the title as accurate and meaningful as possible.
Cannot have more than one <title> element in a page.
The <style> tag

This element is used to define style information for a single HTML page.
Inside this element specify how HTML elements should render in a browser.
It may have type (default value is text/css) and media attributes.
The <link> tag
This element is used to link to external style sheets.

It defines the relationship between the current document and an external
resource.
This element is an empty element and contains attributes only.
<link href="URL" rel="stylesheet" type="media_type">
The most common value for type attribute is text/css.
The rel attribute defines the relationship this page has with the resource.
The <meta> tag
This element is used to specify which character set is used, page

description, keywords, author, viewport settings, and other metadata.
Metadata is used by browsers (how to display content or reload a page), by
search engines (keywords), and other web services.
This tag defines metadata about an HTML document. Metadata is

data/information about data. Metadata will not be displayed on the page but
is machine parsable.
Attributes: name, http-equiv, content, charset

Combinations: (name, content) or (http-equiv, content)
The name attribute specifies the name for the metadata. It specifies a name
for the information/value of the content attribute. If the http-equiv
attribute is set the name attribute should not be set.
HTML5 introduced a method to take control over the viewport (user visible
area of a page) through the <meta> tag.
The values for name attribute are:
application-name, author, description, generator, keywords, viewport
The value viewport controls the viewport – area visible to a user. The
viewport varies with the device and will be smaller on a mobile phone than
on a computer screen.
Include the following <meta> viewport element in all pages:
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
This gives the browser instructions on how to control the page's dimensions
and scaling. The first part sets the width of the page to follow th screen-
width of the device and second part sets the initial zoom level when the
page is first loaded by the browser.
The value keywords specifies a comma-separated list of keywords relevant to

the page. Always specify this as it is needed by search engines to
catalogize the page.
The value generator specifies one of the software packages used to generate
the document. Not used often.
The value description specifies the description of the page. Search engines
can pick up this description to show with the results of searches.
The value author specifies the name of the author of the document.
The value application-name specifies the name of the web application the
page represents.
The content attribute gives the value associated with the name or http-equiv
attribute.
The http-equiv attribute provides an HTTP header for the value/information

of the content attribute.
This attribute can be used to simulate an HTTP response header.
The possible values are:
content-type: to specify the character encoding for the document
<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8">
refresh: defines a time interval for the document to refresh itself
<meta http-equiv="refresh" content="300">
default-style: the preferred style sheet to use
<meta http-equiv="default-style" content="preferred style sheet">
The charset attribute specifies the character encoding for the document.
There can be many <meta> tags defined for a page.
The <script> element
This element is used to embed client-side JS.

This element either contains scripting statements or it points to an
There are several ways an external script can be executed:

If async="async" – the script is executed asynchronously with the rest of
the page – the script will be executed while the page continues the parsing.
If async is not present and defer="defer" the script is executed when the
page has finished parsing.
If neither async nor defer is present the script is fetched and executed
immediately before the browser continues parsing the page.
<script async="async defer="defer" src="URL" type="media_type">
For type attribute the default is application/javascript.
The type attribute identifies the Internet media type (MIME type) of a
script.
The <base> element
This element specifies the base URL and/or base target for all relative URLs
in a page.
It must have either an href or a target attribute present or both.
There can only be one single <base> element in a document.
<base href="URL" target="_blank| _parent| _self| _top">
Layout elements and techniques
Websites often display content in multiple columns (like a magazine or

newspaper).
HTML has several semantic elements that define the different parts of a web
page:
<header>: defines a header for a document or a section
<nav>: defines a container for navigation links
<section>: defines a section in a document
<article>: defines an independent self-contained article
<aside>: defines content aside from the main content, like a sidebar
<footer>: defines a footer foe a document or a section
<details>: defines additional details
<summary>: defines a heading for the <details> element
There are 4 different techniques to create multicolumn layouts (each has its
pros and cons):
CSS framework
CSS float property
CSS flexbox
CSS grid
To create a layout very fast use a framework like W3.CSS or Bootstrap.
It is common to do entire web layouts using the CSS float property. It is

easy to learn; just remember how the float and clear properties work.
Flexbox is a new layout mode in CSS3. Use of flexbox ensures that elements
have predictably when the page layout must accommodate different screen
sizes and different display devices.
The CSS Grid layout module offers a grid-based layout system, with rows and
columns, making it easier to design web pages without having to use floats
and positioning.
Responsive web design
Responsive web design is about creating web pages that look good on all
devices.
A responsive web design will automatically adjust for different screen sizes
and viewports.
RWD is about using HTML and CSS to automatically resize, hide, shrink, or
enlarge a website to make it look good on all devices (desktops, tablets,
phones).
To create a responsive website add the below <meta> tag to all pages.
This will set the viewport of page which will give browser instructions on
how to control the page dimensions and scaling.
Responsive images are images that scale nicely to fit any browser size.
If the CSS width property is set to 100%, the image will be responsive and
scale up and down.
If the max-width property is set to 100%, the image will scale down if it
has to, but never scale up to be larger than its original size.
The <picture> element allows to define different images for different
browser window sizes.
The text size can be set with a "vw" unit (which means the viewport width).
That way the text size will follow the size of the browser window.
Viewport is the browser window size.
1vw = 1% of viewport width
If the viewport is 50cm wide, 1vw = 0.5cm
In addition to resize text and images it is also common to use media queries
in responsive web pages. With media queries one can define completely
different styles for different browser sizes.
There are many existing CSS frameworks that offer RWD.

A good way to create a responsive design is to use a responsive style sheet
like W3.CSS.
Another popular framework is Bootstrap – it uses HTML, CSS and jQuery to
make responsive web pages.
Computer code elements
HTML contains several elements for defining user input and computer code.
The <kbd> tag
This element represents user input like keyboard input or voice command.
Text surrounded by this element is typically displayed in monospace font.
The <samp> tag
This element represents output from a program or computing system.

The <code> tag
This element defines a fragment of computer code.

This element does not preserve extra whitespace and line-breaks. So put the
<code> element inside a <pre> element.
The <var> tag
This element defines a variable.

It could be a variable in a mathematical expression or in programming
context.
The content is typically displayed in italic.
For all these elements get richer effects with CSS.
Semantic elements
Semantic elements = elements with a meaning
A semantic element clearly describes its meaning to both the browser and the
developer.
Non-semantic elements tell nothing about the content.
Semantic elements define the content.
In HTML there are semantic elements that can be used to define different
parts of a web page.
The <header> tag
This element represents a container for introductory content or a set of

navigational links.
This element typically contains:

One or more heading elements
Logo or icon
Authorship information
Can have several of these elements in a document. Do not place this element
inside <footer>, <address> or another <header>.
The <footer> tag
This element defines a footer for a document or section.
This element typically contains:

Authorship information, copyright information, contact information, sitemap,
back to top links, related documents.
Can have several of these elements in a document. Contact information inside

footer should go inside an <address> tag.
The <main> tag
This element specifies the main content of a document.

The content inside should be unique to the document. It should not contain
any content that is repeated across documents such as sidebars, navigation
links, copyright information, site logos and search forms.
There must not be more than one <main> element in a document. It must not be
a descendent of an article, aside, footer, header, nav elements.
The <article> tag
This tag specifies independent self-contained content.

An article should make sense on its own and it should be possible to
distribute it independently from the rest of the site.
Potential sources for article element:

Forum post, blog post, news story
The <section> tag
This tag defines a section in a document.
The <nav> tag
This tag defines a set of navigation links.

Not all links of a document should be inside a <nav> element.
This element is intended only for major block of navigation links.
The <aside> tag
This tag defines some content aside form the content it is placed in.
The aside content should be indirectly related to the surrounding content.
The content is often placed as a sidebar in a document.
The <figure> tag
This tag specifies self-contained content like illustrations, diagrams,

photos, code listings, so on.
While the content of this element is related to the main flow its position
is independent of the main flow and if removed it should not affect the flow
of the document.
The <figcaption> tag
This tag defines a caption for a <figure> element.

This element can be placed as the first or last child of the <figure>
element.
The <mark> tag
This tag defines text that should be marked or highlighted.

Most browsers display the content with the default values:
color: black and background-color: yellow
The <time> tag
This tag defines a specific time or datetime.

The datetime attribute of this element is used to translate the time into a
machine-readable format so that browsers can offer to add date reminders
through the user's calendar and search engines can produce smarter results.
The <details> tag
This tag specifies additional details that the user can open and close on
demand.
This tag is often used to create an interactive widget that the user can
open and close. By default the widget is closed. When open, it expands, and
displays the content within.
Any sort of content can be put inside the <details> tag.
The open attribute, if present, specifies that the details should be
visible/open to the user.
The <summary> tag
This tag defines a visible heading for the <details> element.

The heading can be clicked to view/hide the details.
This element should be the first child element of the <details> element.
Style guide and coding conventions
A consistent, clean and tidy HTML code makes it easier to read and
understand.
Guidelines and tips for creating good HTML source code.
Always declare the document type as the first line in the document.
The correct document type for HTML is:
<!doctype html>
HTML allows mixing uppercase and lowercase letters in element names.

Use lowercase element names: mixing upper and lowercase names looks bad;
developers normally use lowercase names; lowercase looks cleaner; lowercase
is easier to write.
Close all HTML elements.
HTML allows mixing uppercase and lowercase letters in attribute names.

Use lowercase attribute names, always.
HTML allows attribute values without quotes.

Always quote attribute values: developers normally quote attribute values;
quoted values are easier to read; must use quotes if the value contains
spaces.
Always specify the alt attribute for images. This attribute is important if
the image for some reason cannot be displayed.
Always define the width and height of images. This reduces flickering,
because the browser can reserve space for the image before loading.
HTML allows spaces around equal signs. But space-less is easier to read and
groups entities better together.
When using an HTML editor, it is not convenient to scroll right and left to
read the HTML code.
Try to avoid too long code lines.
Do not add blank lines, spaces or indentations without a reason.

For readability add blank lines to separate large or logical code blocks.
For readability add two spaces of indentation. Do not use the tab key.
The <title> element is required in HTML.

The contents of a page title is very important for SEO. The page title is
used by search engine algorithms to decide the order when listing pages in
search results. Make the title as accurate and meaningful as possible.
An HTML page will validate without the <html> and <body> tags.
Always use these tags.
The <html> element is the document root and the recommended place for
specifying the page language. <html>, <head>, <body> are necessary for DOM
and XML parsing.
Close empty elements as <tag> or <tag />.

The second is required in XML and XHTML.
To ensure proper interpretation and correct search engine indexing both the
language and character encoding should be defined as early as possible in an
HTML document.
The viewport is the user's visible area of a web page.

Include the following meta element in all pages.
Write short comments on one line.

Long comments can be indented with two spaces, with delimiters appearing on
their own lines without indentation.
Use simple syntax for linking to style sheets, the type attribute is not
necessary. Use rel and href attributes for the link element.
Compress short CSS rules to a single line.
Write long CSS rules on multiple lines with selector and { on first line,
followed by one declaration per line and closing } on last line.
Place the opening { on the same line as the selector and use one space
before {. Use two spaces of indentation for declarations. Use a ; after each
property-value pair including the last. Only use quotes around the values if
it contains spaces. Place the closing } on a new line without leading
spaces.
Use simple syntax for loading external scripts, the type attribute is not
necessary. Use src attribute.
Some web servers (Apache, Unix) are case sensitive about file names. Others
are not (Microsoft, IIS). So always use lowercase file names.
HTML files should have a .html or .htm extension (there is no difference).

CSS files should have a .css extension.
JavaScript files should have a .js extension.
When a URL does not specify a file name at the end, the server just adds a
default file name (index.html, index.htm, default.html, default.htm, so on).
Servers can be configured with more than one default file name.
Entities
Reserved characters in HTML must be replaced with character entities.
Some characters are reserved in HTML. Ig < or > signs are used in text the
browser might mix them with tags. Character entities are used to display
reserved characters in HTML.
A character entity looks like: &entity_name; or &#entity_number;
An entity name is easy to remember. Browsers may not support all entity
names, but the support for numbers is good.
Entity names are case sensitive.
A common character entity used in HTML is the non-breaking space or

.
A non-breaking space is a space that will not break into a new line. Two
words separated by a non-breaking space will stick together (not break into
a new line). This is handy when breaking the words might be disruptive.
Another common use is to prevent browsers from truncating spaces in pages.
To add real spaces in text use the character entity.
The non-breaking hyphen ‑ allows to use a hyphen character that wont
break.
Useful character entities:
< < <

> > >
& & &
" " "
' ' '
A diacritical mark is a "glyph" added to a letter.

Some diacritical marks, like grave (`) and acute (´) are called accents.
Diacritical marks can appear both above and below a letter, inside a letter,
and between two letters.
Diacritical marks can be used in combination with alphanumeric characters to
produce a character that is not present in the character set (encoding) used
in the page.
` ̀ ´ &#769 ^ ̂ ~ ̃
Symbols
Characters that are not present on keyboard can also be replaced by

entities.
Many mathematical, technical and currency symbols are not present on a

normal keyboard. To add such symbols to an HTML page, use an HTML entity
name. If no entity name exists use an entity number, a decimal, or
hexadecimal reference.
Examples: €, &38364;, €
There are many mathematical (∏, ∑ ), Greek letters (Α, Β
), and other entities (©, ® ) supported by HTML.
Emojis
Emojis are characters from the UTF-8 character set.

Emojis look like images or icons but they are not.
They are letters (characters) from the UTF-8 (Unicode) alphabet.
UTF-8 (Unicode) covers almost all of the characters and symbols in the
world.
The default character set for HTML5 is UTF-8.
To display an HTML page correctly, a web browser must know the character set
used in the page. This is specified in the <meta> tag.
<meta charset="UTF-8">
Many UTF-8 characters cannot be typed on a keyboard, but they can always be
displayed using numbers, called entity numbers.
The entity number start with &# and ends with a ;.
Since Emojis are characters they can be copied, displayed and sized like any
other character in HTML.
Examples: 😍, 💗
(There are plenty of Emojis)
Encoding (character sets)
To display an HTML page correctly a web browser must know which character
set to use.
ASCII was the first character encoding standard (character set), which
defined 128 different alphanumeric characters (numbers 0-9, letters a-zA-Z,
and special characters).
ISO-8859-1 was the default character set for HTML 4, which supported 256
different character codes.
ANSI (Windows-1252) was the original Windows character set. ANSI is
identical to ISO-8859-1 except that ANSI has 32 extra characters.
Because ANSI and ISO-8859-1 were so limited HTML 4 also supported UTF-8.
UTF-8 (Unicode) covers almost all of the characters and symbols in the
world.
The default character set for HTML5 is UTF-8.
To display an HTML page correctly, a web browser must know the character set
used in the page. This is specified in the <meta> tag.
<meta charset="UTF-8">
If a browser detects ISO-8859-1 in a web page, it defaults to ANSI.
Use the CSS @charset rule to specify the character encoding used in a style
sheet: @charset ="UTF-8";
URLs
A URL is another word for a web address.
A URL can be composed of words or an Internal Protocol (IP) address.
URL: Uniform Resource Locator
Web browsers request pages from web servers by using a URL.

A URL is used to address a document or other data on the web.
A web address syntax:

scheme://prefix.domain:port/path/filename
scheme: defines the type of Internet service (http, https, ftp, file)
prefix: defines a domain prefix (default for http is www)
domain: defines the Internet domain name
port: defines the port number at the host (default for http is 80)
path: defines a path at the server (if omitted, root directory of the site)
filename: defines the name of a document or resource
URLs can only be sent over the Internet using the ASCII character set. If a
URL contains characters outside the ASCII set, the URL has to be converted.
URL encoding converts non-ASCII characters into a format that can be
transmitted over the Internet.
URL encoding replaces non-ASCII characters with a % followed by hex digits.
URLs cannot contain spaces. URL encoding normally replaces a space with a +
sign or %20.
The browser will encode input according to the character-set used in the
page.
The default character-set in HTML5 is UTF-8.
HTML vs XHTML
XHTML is a stricter, more XML-based version of HTML.
XHTML – EXtensible HyperText Markup Language

It is HTML defined as an XML application.
It is supported by all major browsers.
XML is a markup language where all documents must be marked up correctly (be
well-formed). XHTML was developed to make HTML more extensible and flexible
to work with other data formats. In addition browsers ignore errors in HTML
pages and try to display the website even if it has some errors in the
markup. So XHTML comes with a much stricter error handling.
Important differences from HTML:
<!DOCTYPE> is mandatory.
The xmlns attribute in <html> is mandatory.
<html>, <head>, <title>, <body> are mandatory.
Elements must always be properly nested.
Elements must always be closed, even empty elements as <tag />.
Element names must always be in lowercase.
Attribute names must always be in lowercase.
Attribute values must always be quoted.
Attribute minimization is forbidden, for boolean attributes.
Forms
An HTML form is used to collect user input.

The user input can then be sent to a server for processing.
The <form> element defines a form that is used to collect user input.
<form> form elements </form>
An HTML form contains form elements.

Form elements are different types of input elements: text fields,
checkboxes, radio buttons, submit buttons, so on.
The <input> element is the most important form element.

It is displayed in several ways depending on the type attribute.
<input type="text"> defines a single-line input field for text input.
The default width of an input field is 20 characters.
<input type="radio"> defines a radio button.

Radio buttons let a user select one of a limited number of choices.
<input type="submit"> defines a button for submitting the form data to a
form-handler which is typically a page on the server with a script for
processing input data and it is specified in the form's action attribute.
Each input field must have a name attribute to be submitted. If the name
attribute is omitted, the data of that input field will not be sent art all.
The <form> tag
It is used to create an HTML form for user input.

It can contain one or more form elements.
It has the below attributes:
The action attribute specifies where to send the form-data when a form is
submitted.
action="URL"
The method attribute specifies how to send form-data.

It specifies the HTTP method (GET or POST) to be used when submitting the
form-data.
method="get| post"
The form data can be sent as URL variables with GET method and as HTTP post
transaction with POST method.
The default HTTP method is GET.
When GET is used the form data will be visible in the address field.
Appends form-data into the URL in name/value pairs.

(URL?name=value&name=value)
The length of the URL is limited.
Never use GET to send sensitive data.
Useful for form submissions where a user wants to bookmark the result.
GET is better for non-secure data like query strings.
Always use POST if the form data contains sensitive or personal information.
It does not display the form data in the address field.
Appends form-data inside the body of the HTTP request.
It has no size limitations and can be used to send large amounts of data.
Form submissions with POST cannot be bookmarked.
The target attribute specifies a name or a keyword that indicates where to

display the response that is received after submitting the form.
target="_blank| _self| _parent| _top| framename"
The novalidate attribute is a boolean attribute. When present it specifies

that the form-data should not be validated when submitted.
The name attribute specifies the name of a form.

It is used to reference elements in a JS or to reference form data after a
form is submitted.
name="text"
the enctype attribute specifies how the form-data should be encoded when
submitting it to the server. It can be used only if method is POST.
enctype="application/x-www-form-urlencoded| multipart/form-data| text/plain"
The first one is default and all characters are encoded before sent, spaces
are converted to + symbols and special characters are converted to ASCII HEX
values.
In second case no characters are encoded, and this value is required when
using forms that have a file upload control.
In third case spaces are converted to + symbols but no special characters
are encoded.
The autocomplete attribute specifies whether a form should have autocomplete

on or off. When on, the browser automatically completes values based on the
values that the user entered before. It can be on for the form but off for
specific input fields or vice versa.
autocomplete="on| off"
the accept-charset attribute specifies the character encodings that are to

be used for the form submission. The default value is the reserved string
UNKNOWN indicating that the encoding equals the encoding of the document
omtaining the form element.
accept-charset="character set"
Form Elements
The <label> tag
The <label> tag defines a label for many form elements.

Useful as when the user clicks the text within this element, it toggles the
radio button or checkbox, this increases the hit area.
The for attribute of this tag should be equal to the id attribute of the
<input> element to bind them together.
A label can also be bound to an element by placing the element inside the
<label> element.
<label for="element_id"> label </label>
The <input> element
This is one of the most used form element.

It can be displayed in several ways depending on the type attribute.
If the type attribute is omitted input field gets the default type text.
The <select> element
It defines a drop-down list.

The <option> elements defines an option that can be selected.
By default the first item in the drop-down list is selected.
To define a pre-selected option add the selected attribute to the option.
Use the size attribute to specify the number of visible values.
Use the multiple attribute to allow the user to select more than one value.
The <textarea> element
This element defines a multi-line text input.

It is often used to collect user inputs like comments/reviews.
A text area can hold an unlimited number of characters and the text renders
in a fixed-width font usually Courier.
The size of a text area is specified by the cols and rows attributes or with
CSS.
The name attribute is needed to send the content and the id attribute is
needed for the label.
The rows attribute specifies the visible number of lines in a text area.
The cols attribute specifies the visible width of the teat area.
Bothe are numbers.
The maxlength attribute specifies the maximum number of characters allowed.

The placeholder attribute gives a short hint that says the expected value.
The other attributes are readonly, required, autofocus, disabled.
The wrap attribute with values hard/soft specifies how the text is to be
wrapped when submitted. (soft—not wrapped and default).
The <button> element
This element defines a clickable button.
The fieldset> and <legend> elements
The <fieldset> element is used to group related data in a form.

The <legend> element defines a caption for the <fieldset>.
The <datalist> element
This element specifies a list of pre-defined options for an <input> element.

Users will see a drop-down list of the pre-defined options as they input
data.
The list attribute of the <input> element must refer to the id attribute of
the <datalist> element.
The <output> element
This element represents the result of a calculation.

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Introduction & Basics

HTML is the standard markup language for creating web pages.

HTML – Hyper Text Markup Language.

HTML describes the structure of a web page. It consists of a series of

All HTML documents must start with a document type declaration:

1991: HTML 1.0 1995: HTML 2.0 1997: HTML 3.2

An HTML element is defined by a start tag, content, and an end tag.

Elements can be nested. All HTML documents consist of nested elements.

Always use lowercase tag names.

HTML attributes provide additional information about HTML elements.

All HTML elements can have attributes.

Always use lowercase attribute names.

HTML headings are titles or subtitles to display on a webpage.

HTML headings are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags.

<h1> defines the most important heading.

Each HTML heading has a default size.

A paragraph always starts on a new line and is usually a block of text.

The HTML <p> element defines a paragraph.

The <hr> tag

It is used to separate content or define a change or a shift of topic in an

The <br> tag

The HTML <br> element defines a line break.

It is useful for writing addresses or poems.

The <pre> tag

The HTML <pre> element defines preformatted text.

The text inside a <pre> element is displayed in a fixed-width font (usually

<tagName style="css_property: css_value; ">

Formatting elements were designed to display special types of text.

The <b> tag

This tag specifies bold text without any extra importance.

<b> content </b>

The <strong> element

This tag is used to define text with strong importance.

<strong> content </strong>

The <i> tag

This tag defines a part of text in an alternate voice or mood.

<i> content </i>

The <em> tag

This tag is used to define emphasized text.

<em> content </em>

The <small> tag

This tag defines smaller text (like copyright or other side-comments).

<small> content </small>

The <big> tag

This tag was used in HTML 4 to define bigger text.

This tag defines subscript text.

<sub> content </sub>

The <sup> tag

This tag defines superscript text.

<sup> content </sup>

The <mark> tag

This tag defines text that should be marked or highlighted.

The <ins> tag

The cite="URL" and datetime="YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ssTZd" attributes can be used.

The <del> tag

The cite="URL" and datetime="YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ssTZd" attributes can be used.

The <blockquote> tag

This element defines a section that is quoted from another source.