Basic English

DAY 1
 Pronunciation: /i:/ and /І/
 Grammar:
 Types Of Word
 Nouns
 Pronouns
A. Pronunciation
 /i:/ sound
-Mouth wide
-Tongue forward and higher
-Make a long sound

 Long E Sound:
-Lips relaxed
-Tongue in central area of mouth
-Make a short sound

Practice:
bin bean did deed
chip cheap fill feel
his he’s fit feet
it eat grin green
sit seat hit heat

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B. Grammar

I. Word Classes

1. NOUN
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.
man... Butte College... house... happiness
A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an article
(the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common nouns do
not. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show possession by
adding 's. Nouns can function in different roles within a sentence; for example, a noun can be a
subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, or object of a preposition.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
2. PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
She... we... they... it
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for a specific
noun, which is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for the pronoun she is the
girl. Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to specific persons or things;
possessive pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize another noun or
pronoun; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify,
point to, or refer to nouns.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
3. VERB
A verb expresses action or being.
jump... is... write... become
The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and sometimes one or
more helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.) A verb must
agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are plural). Verbs also take different forms
to express tense.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
4. ADJECTIVE
An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.
pretty... old... blue... smart

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An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually answers the
question of which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as
adjectives.)
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
5. ADVERB
An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
gently... extremely... carefully... well
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. It
usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what
degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
6. PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying
another word in the sentence.
by... with.... about... until
(by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another
word in the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of a prepositional phrase. The
prepositional phrase almost always functions as an adjective or as an adverb. The following list
includes the most common prepositions:
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
7. CONJUNCTION
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.
and... but... or... while... because
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between the
elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but, or, nor,
for, so, yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because, although, while,
since, etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
8. INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word used to express emotion.Oh!... Wow!... Oops!
An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
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II. Nouns
A noun is a word that names something, such as a person, place, thing, or idea. In a sentence,
nouns can play the role of subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, object
complement, appositive, or adjective.

1. Classification
a. Countable nouns

Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted, even if the number might be extraordinarily high

(like counting all the people in the world). Countable nouns can be used with a/an, the, some, any, a

few, and many.

Here is a cat.

Cat is singular and—obviously—countable.

Here are a few cats.

Here are some cats.

b. Uncountable nouns

Uncountable nouns are nouns that come in a state or quantity which is impossible to count; liquids

are uncountable, as are things that act like liquids (sand, air). They are always considered to be

singular, and can be used with some, any, a little, and much.

An I.Q. test measures intelligence.

Intelligence is an uncountable noun.

Students don’t seem to have much homework these days.

This example refers to an unspecified, unquantifiable amount of homework, so homework is an

uncountable noun.

2. The functions
 Noun as subject of verb
The subject (in bold) can be a person, place, thing or idea. It performs an act or shows a state of
being as expressed by the verb. The subject is easily recognized as it usually comes at the beginning
of a sentence and is followed by a verb.

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Examples:
o The man stepped on my toes.

o The car smashed into a wall.

o Both of them fell down the stairs.
o I accidentally hit my head on the bookshelf.
 Noun as direct object
The direct object (in bold) is a noun in a sentence. The object is acted upon by the subject, and It
typically comes after the verb.

Examples:

o Tom bit his nail.

o I am painting the doghouse.
o Her dog followed her to the park.
o Strong wind blew their tent down.

 Noun as indirect object

The indirect object (in bold) is a noun in a sentence. An indirect object represents a person or thing
that receives the effect of the action of the verb. It usually comes between the verb and the direct
object.

Examples:

o He fed the monkeys bananas.

o The mother was cooking her family a seafood dinner.
o Jack sent a letter to his parents.
o She poured drinks for the boys.

 Noun as object of a preposition

The object of preposition (in bold) is a noun in a sentence. The object comes after the preposition as
shown here in following examples.

Examples:

o Joe broke his nose in a fight. (Preposition: in)

o Two puppies followed behind the girl. (Preposition: behind)
o Birdwatching is a favourite hobby of the villagers. (Preposition: of)
o Everyone is complaining about the boss. (Preposition: about)

 Noun as object of a verbal

A verbal is a word formed from a verb but functions as a noun or an adjective. Only a noun can be an
object of a verbal, which can be a gerund, an infinitive or a participle. It is shown in bold in the
following example sentences. The objects are underlined.

Examples:
o Winning the lottery jackpot was his biggest dream.

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Having found his father’s car keys, he demanded a reward.

 Noun acts as an adjective or modifier of another noun.

Examples:

o That one looks like a mountain goat.

o Dog fleas must seek out another dog when the dog dies.
o Blowing out the candles, grandmother's denture landed on the birthday cake.
o He was snoring under a big beach umbrella.
o Grandfather used to say duck eggs are better than chicken eggs.

A noun must be in the singular form when used as an adjective as shown above. There are, however,
some exceptions: sports club, a goods train, a sales conference.
Nouns acting as adjectives are combined with the nouns that they modify to form a single word.

o She saw a dark figure waving to her from her doorway.

o There is a layer of fine dust on your bookcase.
o In the farmhouse, the hoots of owls were the only things they heard.
o Each night he set several mousetraps around the house and in the garage.
o He brought along his toothpaste but forgot his toothbrush.\

3. Changing Number

As Rule 1:

In general “s” is used at the end of a singular noun to make it plural

Example:
Singular Plural

Pencil Pencils

Cow Cows

House Houses

Dog Dogs

Mobile Mobiles

Rule 2:
If there exist s, sh, ch, x and z in the end, “es” gets to be used.
Examples:
Singular Plural

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Bus Buses

Dish Dishes

Branch Branches

Fox Foxes

Fez Fezes

Rule 3:

While pronunciation of ch is like “k”, just “s” is added at the end

Example:
Singular Plural

Monarch Monarchs

Patriarch Patriarchs

Matriarch Matriarchs

Stomach Stomachs

Hierarch Hierarchs
Part 1: when there’s a “y” in the end and a Consonant before that “y”, “i” substitutes it and an
“es” thereafter.
Example:
Singular Plural

Story Stories

Hobby Hobbies

Army Armies

Fly Flies

Baby Babies
Part 2: but if there’s a vowel ahead of that “y”, no need to change it, only “s” to add.
Example

Singular Plural

Donkey Donkeys

Toy Toys

Day Days

Joy Joys

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Play Plays

Rule 4:
“v” replaces f or fe and then adds an “es” to finish it.
Example:
Singular Plural

thief Thieves

Wife Wives

Knife Knives

Wolf Wolves

Leaf Leaves
Part 1: “es” to be added if the noun is finished by “o” and a consonant places ahead.
Example:
singular Plural

Hero Heroes

Mango Mangoes

Zero Zeroes

Potato Potatoes

Echo Echoes
Part 2: but when there’s a vowel before that “o”, only “s” is enough.
Example
Singular Plural

Cuckoo Cuckoos

Bamboo Bamboos

Studio Studios

Portfolio Portfolios

Cameo Cameos
Exception 1: though there’s an “o” and a consonant ahead of it, some nouns use only “s”.
Example:
Singular Plural

Photo Photos

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Piano Pianos

Radio Radios

Canto Cantos

Memo Memos
Exception 2: for some, “s” and “es” both are correct.
Singular Plural

Mosquito Mosquitos/mosquitoes

Commando Commandos/commandoes

Portico Porticos/porticoes

Calico Calicos/calicoes

Memento Mementos/mementoes

Rule 5:

Some require changing the middle-vowel of the word to make it plural.

Example:
Singular Plural

Man Men

Woman Women

Foot Feet

Mouse Mice

Tooth Teeth

Rule 6:
Some require en, ren and ne to add at last.
Example:
Singular plural

Ox Oxen

Child Children

Brother Brethren (brothers also correct)

Cow Kine (cows also correct)

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Sister Sistren (sisters also correct)

Part 1: if “man” means human being in a compound noun(a noun that contains two or more words
that jointly make a single noun), “men”replaces that “man”.
Example:
singular plural

Fisherman Fishermen

Workman Workmen

Boatman Boatmen

Man-of-war Men-of-war

Salesman salesmen
Part 2: but when “man” is just a part of the word, or it refers to any ethnic group, race or civilian,
there comes “s”.
Singular Plural

Mussalman Mussalmans

Brahman Brahmans

German Germans

Norman Normans

Rule 7:

“s” to be added when there’s a “ful” in the end.

Example:
singular plural

Handful Handfuls

Mouthful mouthfuls

Spoonful Spoonfuls

armful Armfuls

cupful cupfuls
Part 1: If compound noun contains several words, “s” comes to join with the main part of that
noun.
Example:
Singular Plural

Brother-in-law Brothers-in-law

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Passers-by Passers-by

Step-brother Step-brothers

Commander-in-chief Commanders-in-chief

Maid-servant Maid-servants
Part 2: in some cases,“s”comes in every part to make it so.
Example:
Singular Plural

Lord-justice Lords-justices

Man-servant Men-servants

Woman-servant Women-servants

Rule 8:

Besides, adding “s” only in the end gets it done for few.

Example:
Singular Plural

Book-shelf Book-shelves

Book-case Book-cases

Major-general Major-generals

Poet-laurete Poet-lauretes

Forget-me-not Forget-me-nots

Rule 9:

Some singular nouns have no plural form, only used in singular.

Example:
Furniture

Scenery

Issue

Bread

expenditure

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III. Pronouns

Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun.
Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns,
we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:

 Do you like the manager? I don't like the manager. The manager's not friendly.

With pronouns, we can say:

 Do you like the manager? I don't like him. He's not friendly.

A pronoun is a small word with a big job. In fact, a pronoun can take the place of an entire noun
phrase. In this way, pronouns help us use fewer words and avoid repetition.

1. Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on:

 number: singular (e.g: I) or plural (e.g: we)

 person: 1st person (e.g: I), 2nd person (e.g: you) or 3rd person (e.g: he)
 gender: male (e.g: he), female (e.g: she) or neuter (e.g: it)
 case: subject (e.g: we) or object (e.g: us)

Examples (in each pair, the first sentence shows a subject pronoun, the second an object pronoun):

 I like coffee. / John helped me.

 Do you like coffee? / John loves you.
 He runs fast. / Did Ram beat him?
 She is clever. / Does Mary know her?
 It doesn't work. / Can the man fix it?
 We went home. / Anthony drove us.
 Do you need a table for three? / Did John and Mary beat you at doubles?
 They played doubles. / John and Mary beat them.

2. Demonstrative Pronouns

demonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to

A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:

 near in distance or time (this, these)

 far in distance or time (that, those)

Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an illustration:

 This tastes good.

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 Have you seen this?

 These are bad times.
 Do you like these?

 That is beautiful.
 Look at that!
 Those were the days!
 Can you see those?

 This is heavier than that.

 These are bigger than those.

TIP

Do not confuse demonstrative pronouns with demonstrative adjectives. They are identical, but a
demonstrative pronoun stands alone, while a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun.
 That smells. (demonstrative pronoun)
 That book is good. (demonstrative adjective + noun)

Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use them for people when the
person is identified. Look at these examples:

 This is Josef speaking. Is that Mary?

 That sounds like John.

3. Possessive Pronouns

We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things (the "antecedent")

belonging to a person/people (and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).

Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences. Notice that each
possessive pronoun can:

 be subject or object
 refer to a singular or plural antecedent

numbe person gender (of possessive pronouns

r "owner")

singular 1st male/ female mine

2nd male/ female yours

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numbe person gender (of possessive pronouns

r "owner")

3rd male his

female hers

plural 1st male/ female ours

2nd male/ female yours

3rd male/ female/ neuter theirs

 Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture)

 I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers)

 I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object = your
key)
 My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)

 All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)
 John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport)
 John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes)

4. Reflexive Pronouns
reflexive (adj.) [grammar]: reflecting back on the subject, like a mirror

We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause.
Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural).

There are eight reflexive pronouns:

reflexive pronoun

singular myself

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reflexive pronoun

yourself
himself, herself, itsel
f

plural ourselves
yourselves
themselves

Look at these examples:

non-reflexive REFLEXIVE pronouns

the underlined words are NOT the same the underlined words are the SAME
person/thing person/thing

John saw me. I saw myself in the mirror.

Why does he blame you? Why do you blame yourself?

David sent him a copy. John sent himself a copy.

David sent her a copy. Mary sent herself a copy.

My dog hurt the cat. My dog hurt itself.

We blame you. We blame ourselves.

Can you help my children? Can you help yourselves?

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non-reflexive REFLEXIVE pronouns

the underlined words are NOT the same the underlined words are the SAME
person/thing person/thing

They cannot look after the babies. They cannot look after themselves.

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DAY 2
A. Pronunciation
 /Ʊ/ sound
-Lips: rounded
-Tongue part: back
-Tongue height: fairly high
-Duration: short

 /u:/ sound
-Lips: rounded
-Tongue part: fully back (further back than -/ʊ/)
-Tongue height: very high (higher than /ʊ/)
-Duration: long

Practice

A bull is a male cow.

The Reverend Boole invented Boolean algebra.

I could do with a nice cup of tea.

The pigeons cooed, it was a soft gentle sound.

My glass is half full.

Don’t be stupid. Any fool can see that.

Little Red Riding Hood didn’t wear a hat.

That’s not obvious. Who’d think of that.

The new teacher is strange, a bit kooky even.

Would you like a double chocolate chip cookie?

Look before you cross the road.

Use the force Luke.

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I hate to tell you, but the cat has pooed on the rug.
That was delicious chicken. What’s for pud?

Pull the door to open it.

Let’s go for a swim in the pool.

I should really do my homework.

She shooed away the pigeons by waving her arms.

The chimney was full of soot.

He wore his best suit for the wedding.

The cook stewed the pears until they were tender.

The teacher stood at the front of the class.

You can’t see the wood for the trees.

The politician wooed the voters with impossible promises.

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B. Grammar

I. Quantifiers

 A quantifier is a word or phrase which is used before a noun to indicate the amount or
quantity:
'Some', 'many', 'a lot of' and 'a few' are examples of quantifiers.
 Quantifiers can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.
Examples:
There are some books on the desk
He's got only a few dollars.
How much money have you got?
There is a large quantity of fish in this river.
He's got more friends than his sister.
 Common quantifiers
With Uncountable Nouns

 much
 a little/little/very little *
 a bit (of)
 a great deal of A + ADJ +DEAL/ AMOUNT/ QUANTITY +OF + NOUN
 a large amount of
 a large quantity of

With Countable Nouns

 many
 a few/few/very few **
 a number (of)
 several A+ ADJ +NUMBER/ MAJORITY + OF+ NOUN
 a large number of
 a great number of
 a majority of

With Both

 all
 enough
 more/most
 less/least
 no/none
 not any
 some
 any
 a lot of
 lots of
 plenty of

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* NOTE

little, very little mean that there is not enough of something.

a little means that there is not a lot of something, but there is enough.

** NOTE

few, very few mean that there is not enough of something.

a few means that there is not a lot of something, but there is enough.

II. Dummy Subjects

 A dummy subject shows no meaning of its own but simply fills the position of subject in a
sentence. The subject is whom or what a sentence is about. It usually precedes the verb.
Examples
It is raining today.
Not “is raining today.”
There is no way Farley can win this match.
Not “Is no way Farley can win this match.”
Note how dummy subjects don’t refer to anything specific. Compare this with it being used
as a pronoun in place of a specific noun.
Example
Look at this wooden table. It is three hundred years old.
In this sentence, it refers to something specific: a wooden table. Therefore, the word isn’t
being used as a dummy subject.
TIP
The dummy subject is variously called a fake, artificial, or empty subject.

a. It as dummy subject
 The pronoun it is used as a dummy subject in references to time, weather, and dates. The
dummy it doesn’t refer to anything specific but is still needed to fill the slot of subject in a
sentence.
Examples
It’s sunny outside—the perfect day for a picnic.
It is 3 a.m., and I’m wide awake.
It’s the third of December today.
Where I come from, it is cold in summer and colder in winter.
 It is also used as a dummy subject to refer to situations or a set of circumstances.

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Examples
It’s five miles to the nearest hospital.
It’s no trouble at all. It is + ADJ + that + clause

It’s a strange world we live in. It was incredibly happy that I passed that exam.

It is + adj + to + verb
It seems as though we wasted our time.
It is truly odd to do that.
It’s getting dark, and we should go home.
It’s the perfect day for a picnic.
 The pronoun it can be used to refer to a real subject that appears later in the sentence.
Positioning the subject at the end rather than start of a sentence helps place end-focus on the
subject.
EXAMPLES
It is important to be happy in your own body .
The real subject in this sentence is “to be happy in your own body.” We could also say, “To
be happy in your own body is important,” but that would sound oddly formal.
It is unfortunate that you missed the train .
It’s wonderful that you found each other .

C. There as dummy subject

The word there is used as a dummy subject to say that a situation exists. In such
usage, there does not refer to anything specific but merely introduces the situation.
EXAMPLES
There are two ways to solve this problem.
There is something we need to discuss.
Is there anything I can do to help?
There’s a storm coming!
There’s no pleasing some people.
There is nothing we can do.
There is a grocery store around the corner.
There’s a cat on your laptop.
Examples
Preferred: There is some cake left.
Poor: Some cake is left.
Might be phrased this way in answer to the question “What is left?” but sounds odd otherwise.

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Preferred: There is no hope for us anymore.

Poor: No hope exists for us anymore.
Preferred: There’s a supermarket around the corner.
Poor: A supermarket is around the corner.
Unidiomatic, unless in answer to the question “What is around the corner?” and then too the answer
would simply be “A supermarket” instead of the complete sentence.
Preferred: There is a goat grazing in your garden.
Poor: A goat is grazing in your garden.
Preferred: It is important to be honest with one another.
Poor: To be honest with one another is important.

III. Possessive

When we want to show that something belongs to somebody or something, we usually add an
apostrophe + s ('s) to a singular noun and an apostrophe (') to a plural noun, for example:

 the boy's ball (one boy)

 the boys' ball (two or more boys)

Notice that the number of balls does not matter. The structure is influenced by the possessor and not
the possessed.

one ball more than one ball

one boy
the boy's ball the boy's balls

more than one

boy
the boys' ball the boys' balls

The structure can be used for a whole phrase:

 the man next door's mother (the mother of the man next door)
 the Queen of England's poodles (the poodles of the Queen of England)
Although we can use of to show possession, it is more usual to use possessive 's. The following
phrases have the same meaning, but #2 is more usual and natural:
1. the boyfriend of my sister

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2. my sister's boyfriend
Proper Nouns (Names)

We very often use possessive 's with names:

 This is Mary's car.

 Where is Ram's telephone?
 Who took Anthony's pen?
 I like Tara's hair.

When a name ends in s, we usually treat it like any other singular noun, and add 's:

 This is Charles's chair.

But it is possible (especially with older, classical names) to just add the apostrophe ':

 Who was Jesus' father?

Irregular Plurals

Some nouns have irregular plural forms without s (man → men). To show possession, we
usually add 's to the plural form of these nouns:

singular noun plural noun

my child's dog my children's dog

the man's work the men's work

the mouse's cage the mice's cage

a person's people's clothes

clothes

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DAY 3
A. Pronunciation

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C.Grammar
I. Adjective

An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. It "describes" or "modifies" a noun

1. Descriptive Adjectives
Descriptive adjectives are the most common of the various types of adjectives. Descriptive
adjectives are generally what you'd envision when imagining a word modifying a noun. This type of
adjective describes a noun by expressing a quality or attribute.
She’s such a competent cashier.
He hurt her feelings when he labeled her as an annoying sister.

2. Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives point to which noun or pronoun you’re speaking about. There are
four demonstrative adjectives in the English language: this, that, these, and those. Adjectives
typically (but not always) come before the noun they’re modifying. Demonstrative adjectives are
always positioned directly in front of the noun they are modifying.
Would you like this bicycle?
That car used to be mine.
I don’t want these accolades.
Those shoes are gorgeous.

3. Indefinite Adjectives
Indefinite adjectives describe nouns or pronouns in a non-specific way. These adjectives
point to non-specific items. The indefinite adjectives include few, many, no, several, and some.
Few people get this far.
Do you have many openings?
There are no books in this library.
I reviewed several sources.

4. Quantitative Adjectives
Quantitative adjectives describe the quantity of something. They do more than modify a noun
or pronoun. They also answer questions like “How much?” or “How many?” This turns words like
“one” or “two” into adjectives. Any quantity that’s providing further information about a noun
constitutes a quantitative noun.

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She has two children.

5. Function
Adjective phrases including adjectives perform four main grammatical functions within
sentences in the English language. The four functions of adjectives and adjective phrases are:
Adjective phrase head
Noun phrase modifier
Subject complement
Object complement
Example:
My mother planted purple flowers in her garden.
The very tiny puppy barked at the cat.
The restaurant served plain, tasteless soup.
My cat is black and brown.
Your perfume smells especially musky but very nice.
Arrangement Of ADJ

 Determiner — a, an, the, that, some, six

 Opinion — beautiful, easy, expensive, happy, angry, boring, strange
 Size — large, small, tiny, deep, medium
 Condition/Physical Quality — broken, cold, smooth, rich, poor, sharp, slow, heavy, light
 Age — new, old, seven-year-old, modern, antique
 Shape — round, square, oval, flat
 Color — red, blue, monochrome, bright, dull
 Pattern — striped, spotty, flowery, chevron, plaid
 Origin — American, French, English, public, private
 Material — gold, silver, cotton, silk, wooden
 Type — general, four-sided, wireless
 Purpose/Qualifier — sleeping, frying, hunting, swimming
 Noun — bag, pan, hat, pool, woman, house

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1. other 35. major 69. natural

2. new 36. better 70. significant
3. good 37. economic 71. similar
4. high 38. strong 72. hot
5. old 39. possible 73. dead
6. great 40. whole 74. central
7. big 41. free 75. happy
8. American 42. military 76. serious
9. small 43. true 77. ready
10. large 44. federal 78. simple
11. national 45. international 79. left
12. young 46. full 80. physical
13. different 47. special 81. general
14. black 48. easy 82. environmental
15. long 49. clear 83. financial
16. little 50. recent 84. blue
17. important 51. certain 85. democratic
18. political 52. personal 86. dark
19. bad 53. open 87. various
20. white 54. red 88. entire
21. real 55. difficult 89. close
22. best 56. available 90. legal
23. right 57. likely 91. religious
24. social 58. short 92. cold
25. only 59. single 93. final
26. public 60. medical 94. main
27. sure 61. current 95. green
28. low 62. wrong 96. nice
29. early 63. private 97. huge
30. able 64. past 98. popular
31. human 65. foreign 99. traditional
32. local 66. fine 100. cultural
33. late 67. common
34. hard 68. poor

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II. ADVERBS
1. Adverb Form

We make many adverbs by adding -ly to an adjective, for example:

 quick (adjective) > quickly (adverb)

 careful (adjective) > carefully (adverb)
 beautiful (adjective) > beautifully (adverb)

There are some basic rules about spelling for -ly adverbs. See the table below:

adjective ending do this adjective adverb

most adjectives add -ly quick quickly

nice nicely
sole solely
careful carefully

-able or -ible change -e to -y regrettable regrettably

horrible horribly

-y change -y to -ily happy happily

-ic change -ic to - economic economically

ically

But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. The following -ly words, for example, are all
adjectives:

 friendly, lovely, lonely, neighbourly

And some adverbs have no particular form. Look at these examples:

 well, fast, very, never, always, often, still

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2. Classification
a. Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the
question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs.

 He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?)

 They helped us cheerfully. (How did they help us?)
 James Bond drives his cars fast. (How does James Bond drive his cars?)
We normally use Adverbs of Manner with dynamic (action) verbs, not with stative or state verbs.
 He ran fast. She came quickly. They worked happily.
 She looked beautifully. It seems strangely. They are happily.

b. Adverbs of Place

Adverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question
"where?". Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs.

 Please sit here. (Where should I sit?)

 They looked everywhere. (Where did they look?)
 Two cars were parked outside. (Where were two cars parked?)

Adverbs of Place List

about indoors
above inside
abroad near
anywhere nearby
away off
back on
backwards (also backward) out
behind outside
below over
down there
downstairs towards
east (etc) under
elsewhere up
far upstairs
here where
in

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c. Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of Time tell us something about the time that something happens. Adverbs of Time
mainly modify verbs.

They can answer the question "when?":

 He came yesterday. (When did he come?)

 I want it now. (When do I want it?)

Or they can answer the question "how often?" (frequency):

 They deliver the newspaper daily. (How often do they deliver the newspaper?)
 We sometimes watch a movie. (How often do we watch a movie?)

Adverbs of Time List

points of time (definite)

 now
 then
 today
 tomorrow
 tonight
 yesterday

frequency (definite)
 annually
 daily
 fortnightly
 hourly
 monthly
 nightly
 quarterly
 weekly
 yearly

frequency (indefinite)
 always
 constantly
 ever
 frequently
 generally
 infrequently
 never

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 normally
 occasionally
 often
 rarely
 regularly
 seldom
 sometimes
 regularly
 usually

relationships in time (indefinite)

 already
 before
 early
 earlier
 eventually
 finally
 first
 formerly
 just
 last
 late
 later
 lately
 next
 previously
 recently
 since
 soon
 still
 yet

d. Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the
question "how much?" or "to what degree?". Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectives and
other adverbs.

 She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?)
 Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful? How beautiful is Mary?)
 He drove quite dangerously. (To what degree did he drive dangerously? How dangerously
did he drive?)
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e. Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of Frequency are adverbs of time that answer the question "How frequently?" or "How
often?". They tell us how often something happens. Here are some examples:

a. daily, weekly, yearly

b. often, sometimes, rarely

You probably see a difference between a) and b) above. With words like daily we know exactly how
often. The words in a) describe definite frequency. On the other hand, words like often give us an
idea about frequency but they don't tell us exactly. The words in b) describe indefinite frequency.

We separate them into two groups because they normally go in different positions in the sentence.

f. Adverbs of Definite Frequency

Examples:

 hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly

 every second, once a minute, twice a year
 once, twice, once or twice, three times

Adverbs of definite frequency, like all adverbs of definite time, typically go in END position. Look
at these examples:

 Most companies pay taxes yearly.

 The manager checks the toilets every hour.
 The directors meet weekly to review progress.

Sometimes, usually for reasons of emphasis or style, some adverbs of definite frequency may go at
the FRONT, for example:

 Every day, more than five thousand people die on our roads.

Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency

Look at these examples of adverbs of indefinite frequency:

100% always, constantly

usually, normally
frequently, regularly
often
50% sometimes
occasionally
rarely, infrequently
seldom
hardly ever
0% never

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Adverbs of indefinite frequency mainly go in MID position in the sentence. They go before the main
verb (except the main verb "to be"):

 We usually go shopping on Saturday.

 I have often done that.
 She is always late.

Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the beginning or end of a
sentence:

 Sometimes they come and stay with us.

 I play tennis occasionally.

Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"):

 We see them rarely.

 John eats meat very seldom.

Common suffixes

 -wards or -ward (backwards, downwards, eastward, forwards, homewards, upwards) - these

normally express movement in the specified direction
 -where (anywhere, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere)

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III. Preposition List

 aboard  inside
 about  into
 above  like
 across  minus
 after  near
 against  of
 along  off
 amid  on
 among  onto
 anti  opposite
 around  outside
 as  over
 at  past
 before  per
 behind  plus
 below  regarding
 beneath  round
 beside  save
 besides  since
 between  than
 beyond  through
 but  to
 by  toward
 concerning  towards
 considering  under
 despite  underneath
 down  unlike
 during  until
 except  up
 excepting  upon
 excluding  versus
 following  via
 for  with
 from  within
 in  without

Rule: A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.

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DAY 4
A. Pronunciation

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B.Grammar
I. Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word like and, but, although, because. Conjunctions have an important function
because they join other words and phrases together. Without conjunctions, we could only make very,
very simple sentences.

1. Introduction to Conjunctions

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.

Here are some example conjunctions:

Coordinating Subordinating conjunctions

conjunctions

and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so although, because, since, unless

2. Form Conjunctions

Conjunctions have three basic formats:

a. single word
for example: and, but, because, although
b. compound (often ending with as or that)
for example: provided that, as long as, in order that
c. correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)
for example: so...that

3. Position

 Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
 Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.
a. Coordinating Conjunctions

A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses)
that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins
are similar in importance and structure:

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There are seven coordinating conjunctions, and they are all short words of only two or three
letters:

 and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so

 I like [tea] and [coffee].
 [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.

When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a

comma before the conjunction:

 I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:

 She is kind so she helps people.

The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three letters. There's
an easy way to remember them - their initials spell "FANBOYS", like this:

F A N B O Y S

for and no but or yet so

r

b. Subordinating Conjunctions

A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent)

clause:

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Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:

 after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when,
where, whether, while

Look at this example:

main or subordinate or
independent clause dependent clause

Ram went swimming although it was raining.

subordinating
conjunction

A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause. It "introduces" a

subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause can come after or before a main clause. Thus,
two structures are possible:

+
Ram went swimming although it was raining.

+
Although it was raining, Ram went swimming.

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II. ARTICLES
In English there are three articles: a, an, and the. Articles are used before nouns or noun
equivalents and are a type of adjective. The definite article (the) is used before a noun to indicate that
the identity of the noun is known to the reader. The indefinite article (a, an) is used before a noun
that is general or when its identity is not known. There are certain situations in which a noun takes no
article.

a. Definite article

the (before a singular or plural noun)

b. Indefinite article

a (before a singular noun beginning with a consonant sound)

an (before a singular noun beginning with a vowel sound)

c. Count nouns - refers to items that can be counted and are either singular or plural
d. Non-count nouns - refers to items that are not counted and are always singular

COUNT NON-COUNT
NOUNS NOUNS

Rule #1 a, an (no article)

Specific identity not
known

Rule #2 the the

Specific identity
known

Rule #3 (no article) (no article)

All things or things in
general

Rule #1 - Specific identity not known:

Use the indefinite article a or an only with a singular count noun whose specific identity is
not known to the reader. Use a before nouns that begin with a consonant sound, and use an
before nouns that begin with a vowel sound.

 Use the article a or an to indicate any non-specified member of a group or category.

I think an animal is in the garage
That man is a scoundrel.
We are looking for an apartment.

 Use the article a or an to indicate one in number (as opposed to more than one).
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I own a cat and two dogs.

 Use the article a before a consonant sound, and use an before a vowel sound.
a boy, an apple

◊ Sometimes an adjective comes between the article and noun:

an unhappy boy, a red apple

 The plural form of a or an is some. Use some to indicate an unspecified, limited amount (but more
than one).
an apple, some apples

Rule #2 - Specific identity known:

Use the definite article the with any noun (whether singular or plural, count or noncount)
when the specific identity of the noun is known to the reader, as in the following situations:

 Use the article the when a particular noun has already been mentioned previously.
I ate an apple yesterday. The apple was juicy and delicious.

 Use the article the when an adjective, phrase, or clause describing the noun clarifies or restricts its
identity.
The boy sitting next to me raised his hand.
Thank you for the advice you gave me.

 Use the article the when the noun refers to something or someone that is unique.
the theory of relativity
the 2003 federal budget

Rule #3 - All things or things in general:

Use no article with plural count nouns or any noncount nouns used to mean all or in
general.

Trees are beautiful in the fall. (All trees are beautiful in the fall.)
He was asking for advice. (He was asking for advice in general.)
I do not like coffee. (I do not like all coffee in general.)

Additional Information Regarding the Use of Articles

 When indicating an unspecified, limited amount of a count or noncount noun, use some.
My cousin was seeking some advice from a counselor (not advice in general or advice about
everything, but a limited amount of advice).

I would love some coffee right now (not coffee in general, but a limited amount of coffee).

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We might get rain tomorrow. Some rain would be good for the crops (a certain amount of rain, as
opposed to rain in general).

There are some drops of water on the table (a limited number, but more than one drop).

 Noncount nouns are those which usually cannot be counted. Following are some common
examples:
◊ Certain food and drink items: bacon, beef, bread, broccoli, butter, cabbage, candy, cauliflower,
celery, cereal, cheese, chicken, chocolate, coffee, corn, cream, fish, flour, fruit, ice cream, lettuce,
meat, milk, oil, pasta, rice, salt, spinach, sugar, tea, water, wine, yogurt

◊ Certain nonfood substances: air, cement, coal, dirt, gasoline, gold, paper, petroleum, plastic, rain,
silver, snow, soap, steel, wood, wool

◊ Most abstract nouns: advice, anger, beauty, confidence, courage, employment, fun, happiness,
health, honesty, information, intelligence, knowledge, love, poverty, satisfaction, truth, wealth

◊ Areas of study: history, math, biology, etc.

◊ Sports: soccer, football, baseball, hockey, etc.

◊ Languages: Chinese, Spanish, Russian, English, etc.

◊ Other: clothing, equipment, furniture, homework, jewelry, luggage, lumber, machinery, mail,
money, news, poetry, pollution, research, scenery, traffic, transportation, violence, weather, work

 Geographical names are confusing because some require the and some do not.
◊ Use the with: united countries, large regions, deserts, peninsulas, oceans, seas, gulfs, canals, rivers,
mountain ranges, groups of islands

the Gobi Desert

the United Arab Emirates
the Sacramento River
the Aleutians

◊ Do not use the with: streets, parks, cities, states, counties, most countries, continents, bays, single
lakes, single mountains, islands

Japan
Chico
Mt. Everest
San Francisco Bay

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Examples of the Use of Articles

I do not want a gun in my house (any gun).

The gun is in his closet (implies there is a specific gun).
I am afraid of guns (all guns in general).

She sent me a postcard from Italy (an unspecific postcard - not a letter, not an e-mail).
It's the postcard that I have in my office (one specific postcard).
Getting postcards makes me want to travel (any postcard in general).

I have a dog (one dog).

The dog is very friendly (the dog that I have already mentioned).
Dogs make great pets (dogs in general).

Greta needs furniture in her apartment (furniture is a noncount noun).

She is going to select the furniture that she needs (the specific furniture that she needs).
She hopes to find some furniture this weekend (an unspecified, limited amount of furniture).

We are going to see the Statue of Liberty this weekend (the only Statue of Liberty).

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III. Verb Classification

We divide verbs into two broad classifications:

a. Helping Verbs

Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:

 I can.
 People must.
 The Earth will.

b. Main Verbs

Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:

 I teach.
 People eat.
 The Earth rotates.

Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you? Probably yes! Not
a lot, but something. That's because these verbs are main verbs and have meaning on their own.
They tell us something. Of course, there are thousands of main verbs.

More about Main Verbs

In the following table we see example sentences with helping verbs and main verbs. Notice that all of
these sentences have a main verb. Only some of them have a helping verb.

helping verb main verb

John likes coffee.

You lied to me.

They are happy.

The are playing.

children

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helping verb main verb

We must go now.

I do not want any.

VERB

Helping verbs and main verbs can be further sub-divided, as we shall see on the following pages.

Verbs are words that describe an action or talk about something that happens. They take many
different forms depending on their subjects, the time they refer to and other ideas we want to express.
Read clear grammar explanations and example sentences to help you understand how verbs are used.
Then, put your grammar knowledge into practice by doing the exercises.

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