Psych Term 3

PSYCHOLOGY 144 SUMMARIES
2022
Full textbook summaries, Readings, Lecture notes, Podcasts audio & slides
TERM 3:
Week 1
Developmental psychology
Week 2  Chapter 11
Week 3
Abnormal psychology
Week 5
Personality psychology
TERM 4:
Week 7
African psychology
Week 8  Ratele, K. (2017) Four (African) psychologies. Theory & Psychology, 27(3), 313-
327.
Week 9
Gender and psychology
 Eliot, L. (2010). The myth of pink and blue brains. Educational leadership, 32-36.
 Lorber, J. (1994). The social construction of gender. In Paradoxes of gender,
Yale University Press.
 Shefer, T. (2004). Chapter 8: Psychology and the regulation of Gender.
Week 10
Race and psychology
 Nieuwoudt, S., Dickie, K. E., Coetsee, C., Engelbrecht, L., & Terblanche, E.
(2020). Retracted article: Age-and education- related effects on cognitive
functioning in Colored South African women. Aging, Neuropsychology, and
Cognition, 27(3), 321-337.
 Hendricks, L., Kramer, S., & Ratele, K. (2019). Research shouldn’t be a dirty
thought, but race is a problematic construct.
Week 11
Culture and mental health
 Chapter 18
Purple → Definitions
Blue → emphasized in lectures / examples / podcasts verbal and slides
Black → textbook/ readings
Week 1: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: Chapter 11
DEVELOPMENT pg. 430

- Sequence of age-related changes from conception to death
- Biological & environmental factors affect development
- life-long process (not as previously thought mainly childhood development)
- proposed → change occurs via diff stage theories models
- Moral development → closely tied to cognitive development
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
1. Prenatal development
2. Childhood development
3. Adolescent development
4. Adult development
1. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- prenatal (antenatal) period → foetal development period of pregnancy from conception to parturition(birth)
- one spermatozoa bonds with a matured egg and a zygote is formed → beginning of life cycle initiated
- Rapid development during prenatal stage: Single cell → complex biological being within 9 months
Three stages of prenatal period

1. Germinal stage
2. Embryonic stage
3. Foetal stage
Conception Birth
Germinal stage → Embryonic stage → Foetal stage

2 weeks 2 weeks to 2 months 2 months to birth
1. GERMINAL STAGE
- First two weeks of gestation
- Starts with conception & ends with implantation on the uterine wall.
- Implantation is not automatic → many zygotes rejected (many pregnancies end before woman is aware)
After conception:
▪ First 24h to 36h → cell partition starts

▪ Cells similar until 4 days then called → Blastocyst (hollow sphere with two outer layers)
External cells → maintains embryo
Internal coat → forms the embryo
▪ Day 6/7 → Blastocyst connects with uterine wall
▪ By day 12 → Implantation - completely buried in uterine tissue

→ the cells making up embryo’s anatomy are in place
▪ Between 10-12 days & 2 weeks → External cells insert/merge in uterine wall → begin placenta
construction
- Several blastocyst cells merge with uterine coating cells to construct the placenta
- Placenta:
▪ Allows oxygen, nutrients, ect. to travel between the mother and baby’s blood
▪ Imports mother/baby’s blood alongside each other → The two bloods don’t mix
- Blastocyst internal cells → start to concentrate cells in a specific area.

- The cluster of cells that attach the embryo to the placenta→ will form the umbilical chord
- Alternative cells
▪ yolk sack formed which will manufacture
blood cells until the embryo’s blood-cell-
producing organs are formed
▪ amnion forms – fluid-filled where infant
will drift
SUMMARY
2. EMBRYONIC STAGE (Images → don’t have to know but for memorising purposes)
- (2 weeks to 2 months)
- Starts when implantation has occurred
- Embryo’s cells concentrate to shape the basics of all organs
Week 3:
→ neural tube constructed (from where spinal cord & brain will grow)
→ primordial heart forms
→ precursor of kidneys evolve
→ three pouches form (develops into digestive system)
Week 4:
→ end of neural tube proliferates to form the brain
→ spots emerge (for eyes)
→ heart begins to throb
→ spinal column & rib cage grow noticeable – bone/muscle cells shift into place
→ face starts to obtain form
→ endocrine system begins to grow
Week 5:
→ 6mm in length
→ eyes – have cornea’s and lenses
→ arms/legs growing quickly, lungs enlarge
Week 6:
→ brain begins to create electrical activity
→ moves in reaction to stimulation
→ genitalia enlarge
Week 7:
→ embryo moves instinctively
→ observable skeleton & fully developed limbs
→ bones become firm & muscles growing
→ eyelids are shut – to protect evolving eyes
→ ears are completely shaped
Week 8 (last embryonic stage):

→ liver and spleen begin to work – embryo can create/filter its own blood cells
→ well-developed heart
→ brain & rest of body links are established
→ digestive & urinary systems working
→ organogenesis is complete – scientific term for organ growth
3. FOETAL STAGE
- 2 months(8 weeks) → birth
- cultivates and finishes all the primitive organ systems
- Closing phase
- +- 113g → 3/3.5kg
- 25mm → 500mm
- Viability: capability to live outside the uterus (usually 24 weeks)
▪ Few achieve viability end of 23 weeks (won’t survive, difficulty in first few months)
INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
1. Genetic disorders
2. Maternal nutrition
3. Maternal stress & emotions
4. Maternal drug use (alcohol, smoking, other substances)
5. Maternal illness and psychopathology
6. Culture/ family influence
7. Environmental toxins
1. GENETIC DISORDERS
- Two types genetic disorders:
1. Gene abnormalities
▪ defective genes – convey faulty messages
▪ transmitted over generations
▪ e.g. spina bifida (ethnically linked gene abnormality)
(when a baby’s spine and spinal cord does not develop properly in the womb, causing a gap in the spine)
▪ proband →the main afflicted family member which drew attention to the disorder
2. Chromosomal abnormalities:
▪ irregular chromosomal DNA segment
▪ e.g. chromosomal disorders → Down’s syndrome - most common
- extra chromosome on 21st pair (trisomy-21)
▪ Others:
- Neural tube defects – high levels alpha-fetoprotein
- Inborn metabolism errors – e.g. Tay-Sachs disease & lipidosis
2. MATERNAL NUTRITIONAL STATUS DURING PREGNANCY

- Sufficient nutrients quantities needed – e.g. folic acid for neural tube growth
▪ Lack of nutrients §linked to illnesses (e.g. Type 2 diabetes mellitus)
- Total calories → good prenatal nervous system development
- Nutriment (growth-promoting agents) accessibility:
▪ builds upon the quality & magnitude of maternal reservoir and her metabolic competency to
create a nutrient-rich environment for growth phases
▪ f excellent health before conception → better equipped for positive outcomes
- Access to nutrients fluctuates over time:

▪ At first → nutriments supplied from egg
▪ Then → within location of maternal reproductive tract,
through umbilical cord/breast milk
3. MATERNAL STRESS & EMOTION

- Correlation → high levels of stress hormones in foetal & mother’s bloodstream
- Stress hormones act directly on foetal neural networks:
▪ incr. blood pressure, heart rate, activity level
▪ E.g. Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, Adreno-corticotropic hormone
- Mothers with high-stress levels of anxiety → more likely to have babies who are:
▪ Hyperactive
▪ Irritable
▪ Low birth weight
▪ Experience problems with feeding & sleeping
- Other effects correlated with maternal stress for child:

▪ depressed immune response
▪ Slow motor development
▪ Sub-average cognitive development
4. MATERNAL DRUG USE
- Alcohol
- Smoking
- cocaine & marijuana
- Prescription and over-the-counter drugs
ALCOHOL:
- Main source of severe mental & physical deficiencies in children
- E.g. foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
- FAS categorised via developmental delay of:
▪ foetal origin (height & weight)
▪ microphthalmia (small eyeballs)
▪ mid-face hypoplasia (underdevelopment)
▪ tiny palpebral fissures
▪ flat/short philtrum (vertical groove in middle area of upper lip)
▪ thin upper lip
- Central nervous system (CNS) indicators:

▪ microcephaly (head circumference beneath the 3rd percentile)
▪ history of delayed development
▪ hyperactivity
▪ attention deficits
▪ learning disabilities
▪ intellectual disabilities
▪ seizures
SMOKING:
- Smoking while pregnant associated with:
▪ Low / below-average birth weight (as compared to non-smokers)
▪ Premature births
- Smoking mother’s baby at higher risk for long-term consequences:
▪ Learning problems
▪ Anti-social behaviour
▪ ADHD – attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
OTHER SUBSTANCES:
- Two widespread illegitimate drugs → marijuana & cocaine abused by pregnant woman.
- Marijuana babies:
▪ Low birth weight & early birth
▪ Withdrawal-symptoms
▪ Extreme crying
▪ Tremors
▪ Hyperemesis (severe/chronic vomiting)
- Cocaine babies behavioural abnormalities:
▪ increase irritability
▪ crying
▪ diminished desire for human interaction
- Babies of mothers hooked on narcotics → experience a withdrawal syndrome at birth
PRESCRIPTION AND OVER-THE-COUNTER DRUGS

- Prenatal exposure to drugs → foetal abnormalities
- Drugs that could cause embryonic/foetal malformations:
▪ Antibiotics (tetracyclines)
▪ Anticonvulsants (valproate)
▪ Carbamazepine (Tegretol)
▪ Phenytoin
▪ Progesterone-oestrogens
▪ Lithium
▪ Warfin
5. MATERNAL ILLNESS AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
- High-risk conditions for mental retardation include acquired infections such as:
▪ Rubella
▪ Syphilis
▪ Cytomegalic inclusion disease
▪ Toxoplasmosis
▪ AIDS – acquired immune deficiency syndrome
▪ Mumps
▪ Genital herpes
▪ Severe influenza
- Globally most maternal deaths (80%) caused from:
▪ Haemorrhage
▪ Hypertensive disorders
▪ Infections
▪ Unsafe abortion
▪ Sepsis
▪ Obstructed labour
Others include:
▪ HIV → morality rate of SA women of positive mothers 10x greater than negative mothers
▪ AIDS
▪ Malaria
▪ Anaemia
IN SA: HIV & AIDS identified as potential reason for high estimates of maternal mortality rate
6. INFLUENCE OF CULTURE & FAMILY

- Demonstrated by African culture
- Importance of ancestors are confirmed during crisis events → births/marriages/families
- E.g. miscarriage/ illness during pregnancy – one interpretation → ancestors have turned their backs on
the family or the family have not observed the cultural practices
7. ENVRIONMENTAL TOXINS
- Prenatal air pollution exposure → cognitive deficits by 5yrs & obesity by 7yrs
- Contact with radioactivity between 2 – 15 weeks:
▪ Malformations
▪ Inhibition of physical growth
▪ Unusual brain functions
▪ Increased susceptibility of cancer
NB: FOR PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

ENDOGENOUS FACTORS → INSIDE MOTHER
EXOGENOUS FACTORS → OUTSIDE MOTHER (POLLUTION)
2. CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT
- Motor development
- Emotional development (temperament & attachment)
- Language development
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
- def: progression of muscular coordination for physical activities
- basic motor skills → sitting up, crawling, walking, running, grasping objects ect.
- Milestones needed for adequate motor development:
1. Cephalocuaudual Trend:
- Head-to-foot direction of movement / motor development
- gain upper control before lower control (usually)
- e.g. crawl then walk
2. Proximodistal Trend:
- Centre-to-outward tendency adopted during motor development
- gain control of torso before extremities
- E.g. twist entire body to reach things - then gradually start extending arms
DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS:
- median/average age at which abilities/ behaviours are shown
- useful benchmarks - if parents don’t expect progress at exactly the same pace for specific norms
- children “falling behind” is normal → norms based on group averages -thus variations from average is normal.
CULTURAL VARIATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

- cross-cultural research shows interplay of → experience & maturation in motor development
- relatively:
▪ rapid motor development → seen in cultures providing special practice in basic motor skills
▪ slow motor development → cultures discouraging motor exploration
TEMPERAMENT pg. 440:

▪ def: characteristics of mood/ activity level & emotional reactivity.
▪ Temperament varies (some happy/ sluggish)
▪ consistent differences seen in infants from very early in life → in emotional tone, activity tempo & sensitivity
to environment stimuli
▪ THREE BASIC STYLES OF TEMPERAMENT (observed by Thomas & Chess) :

1. “easy” → happy, regular sleepers/eaters, adaptable, not easily upset
2. “slow-to-warm-up” → less cheery, less sleep/eating regular, slower at adapting
3. “difficult” → glum, erratic, irritable, resistant to change
Observed by Thomas & Chess:

- 3 month old’s temperament → good indicator of temperament at 10yrs
- temperament appeared generally stable over time
- Individual differences in temperament → appeared greatly influenced by heredity
- Researchers emphasize → temperament is fairly stable over time – but not unchangeable
ATTACHMENT
- def: close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants & caregivers
- infant-mother attachment formed early in life → child’s first attachment (usually, as she’s primary caregiver)
- later others → father, grandparents
- universal across cultures globally → mainly secure attachments seen globally
- infant-mother attachment → not spontaneous:
Initially little special preference for mother
2 – 3 months smile/laugh more with mother – but still tolerate strangers (babysitters)
6 – 8 months ▪ great preference for mother – protests when she’s gone

▪ separation anxiety emerges:
- Emotional distress in infants when separated from people they
have an attachment with.
- Also occurs with fathers/ other caregiver
- This type of anxiety occurs at 14-18 months – then sharply
declines
Mary Ainsworth: Patterns of Attachment

- Research showed → infant/mother attachments vary in quality
- used “strange situation procedure”
▪ infants exposed to series of 8 separation/reunion episodes (3min) - to assess attachment quality
▪ laboratory procedure with/without parent/stranger scenarios
- gauged attachment quality according to child’s reaction → distress or comfort to return/departure of parent
- found attachment fell in 3 categories (later 4) :
THREE TYPES OF ATTACHMENT PATTERNS

1. Secure attachments
- use mother as secure base to explore the world
- play comfortably with mother present
- upset when she leaves / calmed when she returns
- most develop secure attachment’s
2. Anxious-ambivalent attachment (resistant attachment)

- Anxious with mother near & protest excessively when she leaves
- Not particularly comforted when she returns
3. Avoidant attachment
- Seek little contact with mother
- Not distressed when she leaves
4. Disorganised-disoriented attachment (discovered later)

- Child confused whether they should approach/avoid mother
- These children are especially insecure
- maternal behaviours – key influence over the type of attachment formed

- sensitive/responsive mothers → more likely to promote secure attachment development
- infants are active participants in attachment process – not passive bystanders – active via crying/smiling.
- temperamentally difficult children slow down attachment process(e.g. spit food up, rarely smile, hard to bath)
- type of attachment between mother/infant depends on:
▪ infants temperament
▪ mother’s sensitivity
- Evidence suggests: quality of attachment relationships have consequences for children’s development
▪ Children develop internal working models of close relationship dynamics (due to attachment
experiences) → this influences future interactions with a wide range of people.
John Bowlby: Theory of Attachment:
- influenced by ethological theory
- Biological basis of attachment :
▪ evolutionary mechanism for infant survival
▪ Infants & primary caregiver are biologically predisposed to form attachments
▪ Infants are born able to elicit attachment behaviours from carers & carers are biologically
programmed to respond
- Behaviours:
▪ Early infant behaviours (clinging/crying) & later proximity-seeking behaviours:
are designed to keep carer nearby/attentive & maximise infants survival.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Language development in children

In womb starts to learn basic vowel sounds /structure of home language
First 6 months cry coo, laugh → then babble

babbling → starts resembling home language
6 – 9 months learn meaning of words, long before they can produce actual words
(separation anxiety emerges )
10 -13 months sounds that correspond to real words
Vocabulary increases slowly for next few months

18 months 3 - 50 words
18 months + Learn rapidly when they realise everything has a name:

Vocabulary spurt 6 years → 10 000 words
begins 10 years → 40 000 words
End of 2nd year: Begin to combine words into sentences

(24 months)
- can express complex ideas (requiring plurals and past tense)

- still make mistakes:
End of 3rd year ▪ over-regulisation (grammatical rules incorrectly generalised)
▪ e.g.” I eated apple “/ “I hitted the ball”
- gradually acquire finer points of grammar usage (not one leap)

- language development is continuous – not stages
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN
▪ Sigmund Freud established first major theory of personality development
(Claimed → at 5 years the basic foundations of a person’s personality is laid down)
▪ Erik Erikson revised Freuds theory
▪ Erikson emphasized progression – each stage builds on previous stage
▪ Progression related to age
▪ Erikson’s Theory:
▪ Events in early childhood leave a permanent mark in adulthood
▪ Unlike Freud → Erikson theorised that personality continues to evolve over entire lifespan
▪ Erikson devised stage theory of personality
▪ stage - developmental period where characteristic behaviour patterns & certain capacities are seen
Stage Theories assume that:

1. progress through stages in specific order (stage builds on previous stage)
2. progress through stages is strongly age related
3. major discontinuities between stages – in typical behaviour
ERIKSON’S STAGE THEORY

▪ Personality is shaped by how individuals deal with crises involving important social relationship transitions
▪ divided lifespan into 8 stages
▪ each stage → “psychosocial crisis”
- crisis → crucial turning point, not emergency
- each crisis → struggle between two opposing tendencies (e.g. trust vs mistrust)
- each stage seeks balance between opposing polarities
▪ antagonistic tendencies - represent personality traits that people display throughout their life (in varying
degrees)
ERIKSON’S STAGE THEORY ( Childhood → adulthood)
▪ Is my world predictable & supportive?
▪ First year of life
1. Trust vs mistrust ▪ basic needs met (food, clothes) & secure attachments formed →
( 1st year) should develop a trusting attitude of world.
[the infant depends solely on its caregiver → should lead to a
trusting view]
▪ basic needs are poorly met → pessimistic, distrusting personality
may result
▪ Can I do things or must I always rely on others ?

▪ Begins with personal responsibility (potty training)
▪ If goes well → gets sense of autonomy
2. Autonomy vs ▪ parents never satisfied with child’s efforts & constant conflicts →
shame/doubt may develop personal shame/self-doubt.
( 2-3 yrs.)
▪ Am I good or bad?
▪ Children experiment/ take initiatives
▪ Over-controlling parents → children feel guilty for taking initiative &
3. Initiative vs Guilt self-esteem may suffer
(3-6 yrs.) ▪ Parents need to support child’s emerging independence while
maintaining appropriate boundaries/control.
▪ learn to function with family members →leading to self-confidence.
▪ Ideally: Develop sense of initiative while respecting rights/privileges
of others
e.g. walking ect.
▪ Am I competent or worthless ?
▪ must function socially beyond family to broader social context
(school, neighbourhood)
4. Industry vs Inferiority ▪ can function well in less-nurturing social spheres → should learn
( 6 to puberty) value & take pride in achievement → should result in sense of
competence/self-esteem
▪ If things don’t go well → may develop sense of inferiority
END OF CHILDHOOD
5. Identity vs confusion ▪ Who am I and where am I going ?
( adolescence)
ADULTHOOD pg. 459
▪ Shall I share my life with another person or live alone ?
▪ Key concern → can one can develop the capacity to share intimacy
with others
6. Intimacy vs Isolation ▪ successful resolution of phase challenge → empathy and openness
(early adulthood) ▪ Individuals seek to invest in others, forge important romantic
21-30 ish relationships, healthy well-balanced sense of love
▪ Will I produce something of real value ?

7. Generativity vs Self- ▪ Key challenge → acquire genuine concern for welfare of future
absorption generations → providing unselfish guidance to younger people and
(middle adulthood) concern with one’s legacy.
▪ Unsuccessful → feel life is empty/without progress
8. Integrity vs Despair ▪ Have I lived a full life ?

(late adulthood) ▪ Tendency to avoid dwelling on past mistakes & imminent death
▪ Key challenge → dealing with fear that death represents
Piaget’s Stage Theory (cognitive development)
- revolutionised viewing children’s thinking/learning
- cognitive development: transitions in children’s patterns of thinking (incl. reasoning, remembering, problem-
solving)
- Piaget stated ages may vary → but convinced that children progress through stages in the same order.
- Stages more gradual than abrupt
4 MAJOR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. Sensorimotor period (0-2)
2. Preoperational period (2-7)
3. Concrete operational period (7-11)
4. Formal operational period (11-adulthood)
1. SENSORIMOTOR PERIOD
▪ Birth → 2 years
▪ gradually gain symbolic thought (major development)
▪ why called sensorimotor?→ infants develop ability to coordinate sensory input with motor actions
▪ Beginning of stage – innate reflexes dominate behaviour

▪ key for transition → Acquiring object permanence
▪ End of stage – child uses mental symbols to represent objects (e.g. mental image of favourite toy)
▪ Object permanence:
▪ develops when a child recognises that objects continue to exist even when they are
no longer visible.
▪ infants are not aware of initially (Adults take it for granted)
[E.g. show a three month old child a toy and then hide it → child won’t attempt to
look for it. Piaget inferred from this → child doesn’t understand that the toy still
exists under the pillow]
▪ Object permanence progress is gradual:
- 4-8 months – first signs of understanding
- Piaget felt children don’t master it until +- 18 months
▪ CHARACTERISTICS OF STAGE
▪ Starts to use imitation, memory, thought
▪ From reflexes to goal-directed activity
▪ Child learns by doing (looking, touching, sucking)
▪ primitive understanding of cause-and-effect relationships
▪ Object permanence appears around 9 months
SUMMARY
2. PREOPERATINAL PERIOD
▪ 2- 7 years
▪ Children gradually improve use of mental images & develops use of symbols (incl. language)
▪ Shortcomings in preoperational thought: children haven’t mastered conservation
Conservation: awareness that physical quantities remain constant despite

shape/appearance changes (Piaget’s term)
▪ E.g. Asked children whether two different shaped containers
contained the same amount of water ? answer = NO
▪ children said claimed slender beaker had more water - focused on higher water line
▪ REASONS FOR CHILDREN’S NOT UNDERSTAND CONSERVATION?

1. Centration
2. Irreversibility
3. Egocentrism
1. Centration
▪ Tendency to focus on just one feature of problem (neglecting other aspects)
▪ E.g. Children focus on height of water - ignoring the width
2. Irreversibility
▪ Inability to envision reversing action (Cannot mentally undo something)
▪ Children cannot mentally undo something
E.g. Does not think of what would happen if the water was poured back into
original beaker
3.Egocentrism
▪ Thinking with limited ability to share another person’s point of view
▪ Essentially → cannot understand there are other perspectives - besides
their own
▪ E.g. Ask a girl if her sister has a sister: answer is “no” → unable to view
sisterhood from her sister’s perspective.
▪ One feature of egocentrism – animism
- Animism: the belief that all things are living
- Because children are living beings they attribute lifelike/human
qualities to inanimate objects
- E.g. “ why is the sun so happy? ”
- Develops use of symbols (incl language)
- Egocentrism
- Conservation acquired (marks end of period)
- Think operations through logically in one direction
3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL PERIOD

▪ 7 – 11 yrs
▪ Beginning of period: Development of mental operations (internal transformations/manipulations)
▪ Why called concrete operations ?
o children can only perform operations on images of tangible objects/ actual events.
o thinking is considered concrete
▪ Reversibility: allows children to mentally undo action
▪ Decentration: allows child to focus on more than one feature of a problem simultaneously
▪ Ability to coordinate many aspects of a problem → helps child understand many perspectives:
o Leads to decline in egocentrism(liquid, mass, number, area, length, volume)
o & gradual mastery of conservation
o Able to solve concrete problems
o Demonstrates → Conservation, Reversibility, serial ordering, mature understanding
of cause-and-effect relationships
o Understands some math operations (classification & serration)
(serration → ability to match/group)
4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL PERIOD
▪ 11- adulthood
▪ Apply mental operations to abstract concepts (additionally to concrete objects)
▪ Children enjoy thinking about abstract concepts
▪ Systematic, Logical, Reflective (thought processes in formal operational period characteristics)
o E.g. Adolescents spend hours on hypothetical abstract topics (love, justice, free will)
▪ Children graduate to relatively adult modes of thinking in this stage:

o DOES NOT suggest cognitive development stops
o Argued after children achieve formal operations → further developments in thinking
are changes in degree – rather than fundamental changes in the nature of thinking.
▪ CHARACTERISTICS OF STAGE:
o Solve abstract problems logically
o More scientific way of thinking (deductive reasoning, classification, logic,
comparison)
o Develops concerns about social issues/identity
Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

1. Underestimated young children’s cognitive development
o object permanence/ symbolic thought occurs much earlier
o not as egocentric in preoperational period
2. Children simultaneously display thinking patterns characteristic of many stages

o Questions use of stages for organising cognitive development
o Children’s thinking appears in overlapping waves – not clear distinct stages
3. Not a universal process (like Piaget argued)

o Research shows sequence of stages are largely invariant
o Pace of children’s progress varies through stages across cultures
o underestimated influence of culture on cognitive development
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

o Due to SA diversities – incorporating socio-cultural context in theories are essential
o E.g. cognitive skills acquired in literate cultures that rely on school for training will differ from tribal
societies (which may be limited formal/ Westernised schooling)
o Vygotsky & Piaget → much in common – but differ in NB ways
How they differ in children’s cognitive development:

Vygotsky Piaget
Guided participation: Primarily fuelled via
▪ social interactions with parents, teachers, ▪ individual child’s active exploration of the
older children who provide invaluable guidance world
▪ child is the agent of change
Culture has great influence on cognitive Universal process

development (should happen same way across cultures)
Language acquisition plays a crucial Viewed language mastery – as just another

role in fostering cognitive development aspect of cognitive development
Kohlberg’s Stage theory - Moral Reasoning
Dilemma → Woman near death with cancer - needed drug – husband didn’t have money - stole drug
o Heinz’s dilemma - moral dilemma created by Lawrence Kohlberg

o Morality: ability to figure out right from wrong and to behave accordingly.
o Kohlberg’s theory derived from much earlier work by Piaget – who theorised that moral development is
determined via cognitive development
o Asked subjects about Heinz Dilemma → was interested in the reason, not necessarily their answer
KOHLBERG’S STAGE THEORY: MORAL DEVELOPMENT

o Focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behaviour.
o Each stage represents different way of thinking about right/wrong
1. Preconventional Level: Stage 1: Punishment orientation

Stage 2: Naïve reward orientation
2. Conventional Level: Stage 3: Good boy/girl orientation
Stage 4: Authority orientation
3. Postconventional Level: Stage 5: Social contract orientation
Stage 6: Individual principles and conscience orientation
1. PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL
▪ Stage 1: Punishment orientation → right/wrong determined by what is punished
▪ Stage 2: Naïve reward orientation → right/wrong determined by what is rewarded
▪ Younger children think in terms of external authority:
▪ Acts are wrong due to punishment OR right due to reward
2. CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
▪ Stage 3: Good boy/girl orientation → right/wrong determined by close others’
approval/disapproval.
▪ Stage 4: Authority orientation → right/wrong determined by society’s rules/laws which
should be obeyed rigidly.
▪ Older children (reached conventional level) → See rules are necessary for maintaining social
order.
- They thus accept rules as their own and internalise the rules – NOT to avoid
punishment, but to be virtuous & win approval from others
- Moral thinking at this stage → relatively inflexible
- Rules are absolute guidelines → should be enforced rigidly
3. POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL
▪ Stage 5: Social contract orientation → right/wrong determined by societies rules – viewed as
fallible not absolute
▪ Stage 6: Individual principles and conscience orientation → right/wrong determined by
abstract ethical principles that emphasize equity and justice.
▪ During adolescence → Children move to postconventional Level:

- Working out a personal code of ethics
- Less rigid acceptance of rules & flexibility of moral thinking
- People at this level → allow for the possibility that someone may not comply
with some of societies rules if they conflict with personal ethics
- E.g. People will praise a reporter who chose jail instead of revealing a source
of information who was promised anonymity.
CHILDREN DEVELOPMENT SUMMARY
• Motor development: progression of muscular coordination needed for physical activities
- Cephalocuaudual trend
- Proximodistal trend
• TEMPERAMENT: characteristics of mood/ activity level & emotional reactivity.
- THREE BASIC STYLES OF TEMPERAMENT:
1. “easy”
2. “slow-to-warm-up”
3. “difficult”
▪ ATTACHMENT: close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants & caregivers
- Theory of Attachment: John Bowlby
Ainsworth THREE TYPES OF ATTACHMENT PATTERNS

(Attachment) 3. Avoidant attachment
4. Disorganised-disoriented (discovered/added later)
1. Trust vs Mistrust ▪ Personality is shaped by way

2. Autonomy vs Shame/doubt individuals deal with crises
Erikson 3. Initiative vs Guilt
4. Industry vs Inferiority Stage theory of personality
(Personality) 5. Identity vs confusion ▪ 8 psychosocial crisis’s/stages
6. Intimacy vs isolation ▪ Each stage → struggle between
7. Generativity vs Self-absorption two opposing tendencies
8. Integrity vs Despair ▪ Stage theory of development
1. Sensorimotor period (0-2) Children’s cognitive development

▪ symbolic thought appears ▪ 4 major stages
▪ Stage theory of development
2. Preoperational period (2-7)
Piaget ▪ Object permanence Criticisms of Piaget:
1. Underestimated young
(Cognitive 3. Concrete operational period (7-11) children’s cognitive
▪ Reversibility development
development) ▪ Decentration 2. Children simultaneously
display many stages thinking
4. Formal operational period (11- adulthood) patterns – not distinct stages
▪ Applies mental operations to 3. Not a universal process
abstract concepts
Vygotsky Much in common with Piaget – but differ in NB ways:

1. Social interactions (Vygotsky) VS Individual child (Piaget)
2. Cultural influence (Vygotsky) VS Universal (Piaget)
(cognitive 3. Language acquisition essential for cognitive development (Vygotsky) VS another
development) aspect of cognitive development (Piaget)
1. Preconventional Level: Stage 1: Punishment orientation (by what is punished)

Kohlberg’s Stage 2: Naïve reward orientation (by what is rewarded)
2. Conventional Level: Stage 3: Good boy/girl orientation (close others’ view)
Stage 4: Authority orientation (society’s rules - absolute)
(moral 3. Postconventional Level: Stage 5: Social contract orientation (societies rules - fallible)
development) Stage 6: Individual principles and conscience orientation
(abstract ethical principles)
3. ADOLESCENCE DEVELOPMENT:
WHAT IS NORMAL ADOLESCENCE pg.430
• Adolescence is characterised by physical changes and an increase in sexual hormones as sexual maturity is
reached.
▪ Normality in adolescent behaviour

- the degree of psychological adaption achieved while navigating difficulties & meetings milestones
characteristic of this period of growth.
▪ Adolescent adjustment
- extension of previous childhood psychological functioning
- ∴ Psychologically disturbed children – at greater risk for psychological disorders during adolescence
- Normal adolescents – experience occasional stress/ psychiatric symptoms
▪ Erik Erikson defines:

- Identity vs role confusion → normative task of adolescence.
- the incorporation of previous practices with present-day variations shows up in ego identity
- identify crisis’s in adolescence → the pursuit of alternative behaviours & styles, striving to
successfully mould different experiences into a solid identity
▪ Adolescence is the period of excellence regarding:

1. Individuation (self-definition)
2. Autonomy (seeking freedom/mastery
▪ Cannot have full understanding of adolescent development without considering:
- Biological, familial, cultural, communal, socio-historical contexts
▪ There is an increased awareness of two complementary dynamics:

1. Adolescents developing capacity for interdependence (interpersonal)
2. The ability to form/sustain mutually supportive relationships outside the family (relational)
▪ Increased emphasis on environmental perspective → individual adolescents & their relationships are rooted in
interconnected contexts of family/school/ neighbourhood
ADOLESCENT HIGH RISK BEHAVIOUR

▪ Risk behaviour: any behaviour that places a person at risk for negative physical, psychological/ social
consequences
▪ Rate of risk behaviour peaks between → late teens and early 20s
▪ Risk taking behaviour e.g. smoking, marijuana, involved in fights
STAGES OF ADOLESCENCE
1. Early adolescence (12-14)
2. Middle adolescence (14-16)
3. Late adolescence (17-19)
1. EARLY ADOLESCENCE
- 12-14: boys start growth spurt / girls already had rapid growth for 1/2yrs
- Boys/ girls have greater consciousness of style/appearance
- may question prev. accepted family norms/habits – spend more time with peers, less with
supervision
- may experiment with cigarettes/marijuana, increased interest in opposite sex, show
challenging behaviours to authority figures.
- During early adolescence there is a normal variation in new behaviours gained.
- Early adolescence has wrongly been viewed as:
- A time of turmoil – where there is rejection of family/ friends/lifestyle →
results in powerful alienation of the adolescent
2. MIDDLE ADOLESCENCE
- +- 14-16 years
- Exhibit lifestyles that show their efforts to live out their independence goals
- Self-esteem → key influence in positive/ negative behaviours
- Identify with peer groups as role models → highly influential force for choice of activities,
styles, music, idols
- Most teenagers → can achieve process of defining themselves as unique/different from
families while maintain alliances with family
3. LATE ADOLESCENCE
- + - 17-19yrs
- Leads towards greater definition of self & sense belonging to certain groups in society
- Continued academic pursuits, sports activities, social bonds
COMPONENTS OF ADOLESCENCE
1. Self-esteem
2. Moral development
3. Socialising process
4. Cognitive maturation
5. Physical development
1. Self-esteem
- measurement of self-worth based on perceived success & achievements
& how much person is valued by peers/family
- Most important correlates of good self-esteem → person’s perception of positive physical
appearance & high worth to peers/family
2. Moral Development
- Set of values/beliefs about codes of behaviour that conform to those by others in society.
- Gilligan & Murphy:
o Emphasize social context of moral development
o assert there’s differences in men/women’s moral and psychological predispositions.
3. Socialising Process
- Embrace ability to find acceptance in peer relations & develop more mature social cognition
- Critical component of building good self-esteem & fostering positive social interactions →
being viewed as socially competent by peers
- Belonging to peer group → sign of adaption, loyalty to friends, separating from parents,
developmentally appropriate
- Cognitive maturation – contains many extended skills falling under universal grouping of →
decision making functions of the brain
- Changeover from tangible thinking → more intellectual thinking
- New aptitudes of self-regulation & reflection
- Amplified capability for inferring logical conclusions in technical quests
- Have powerful beliefs systems (that strengthen their sense of protection from threats)
- Continued child-like enchanted thinking in adolescence
- Reasoning advances from younger child’s capability of self-observation & advancement of
game plans → endorsing strong points & being penalised for weaknesses.
- The formal operational period (11-adulthood) is marked by the ability to apply operations to
abstract concepts such as justice, love, and free will.
- Able to solve abstract problems in a logical way
- More scientific in thinking (logic, comparisons and classification)
- Concerns about social issues
5. Physical development
- First signs of teenage development: height & weight
- Adolescent bodily growth → way by which adolescents reach physical and sexual maturity
- Girls:
• Sexual maturity begins at +- 9 yrs
• Onset of puberty → signalled by menarche – the first occurrence of menstruation.
• have earlier growth spurt than boys (at 11/12 → taller than some boys, same age)
• first period +- 13 yrs - most have developed boobs & pubic hair by now
• SMR 3-4 → menstruation starts
• 1 4-5 → ovulation starts
• large deviations in the start & extent of teenage growth and physical development
o Menstruations have begun earlier → at age 9
o Earlier onset of puberty due to → increased hormone levels in our foods
- Boys:
• Main indicator of sexual maturity / onset of puberty → sperm development
• Caused in reaction to follicle-stimulating hormones
• males begin to show acne, facial and body hair, voice change, muscle development
and the ability to ejaculate
• SMR 2 → boys can ejaculate
- Sexual Maturity Rating (SMR) → also known as Tanner Stages

- Scale used to measure sexual development
• SMR 1 → pre-puberty
• SMR 2 boys → can ejaculate
• SMR 3-4 girls → menstruation starts, ovarian follicles generating enough oestrogen
• SMR 4-5 girls → ovulation starts
• SMR 5 → adult maturity
IDENTITY STATUS pg. 457

▪ Acc to James Marcia → Prescence/ absence of commitment to life goals and values OR crisis’s (active
questioning/exploration) can appear in adolescents
▪ This produces four different identity stages.
▪ Four Different Identity Statuses:

1. Identity diffusion → state of apathy, with no commitment to an ideology
2. Identity foreclosure → premature commitment to visions/values/ roles – often prescribed by parents
3. Identity moratorium → delaying commitment briefly to experiment with alternative ideologies/ careers
4. Identity achievement → is accomplished when a person achieve a sense of self & is able to clearly direct
his/her efforts by thinking through various possibilities.
→ associated with higher self-esteem, conscientiousness, security, achievement
motivation, greater capacity for intimacy
(KNOW)
4. ADULT DEVELOPMENT
▪ Development is a lifelong journey – (not like previously thought only childhood and adolescence concept)
▪ People enter adulthood → 18-20
▪ Boundaries between early, middle, late adulthood becoming blurred
▪ Adult developments
1. Personality development (stability, Erikson’s & Levinsons )
2. Ageing and Physiological changes
3. Ageing and Neural changes
4. Ageing – psychosocial aspects (death and dying, bereavement, grief, loss)
1. PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Stability
▪ Psychological test scores → relative measures → One person’s score relative to another
▪ Scores showed:
- Adults extraversion, neurotic & openness to experience → decreased moderately with age
- agreeableness & conscientiousness → tends to increase
Erikson’s view of Adulthood
6. Intimacy vs Isolation (early adulthood)

▪ Shall I share my life with another person or live alone ?
▪ Key concern → whether one can develop the capacity to share intimacy with others
▪ Individuals seek to. Invest in others, forge important romantic relationships, healthy well-
balanced sense of love
▪ Craig observed: Showing who you are to someone – minus the anxiety of giving portions of
your identity away.
▪ successful resolution of challenge in phase → results in empathy and openness
7. Generativity vs Self-absorption (middle adulthood)

▪ Will I produce something of real value ?
▪ Hopefully acquire genuine concern for welfare of future generations → providing unselfish
guidance to younger people and concern with one’s legacy.
▪ Unsuccessful in doing so → feel life is empty/without progress
8. Integrity vs Despair (late adulthood)

▪ Have I lived a full life ?
▪ Tendency to avoid dwelling on past mistakes & imminent death
▪ Important challenge at this stage → dealing with fear death represents
▪ People need to find meaning/satisfaction I their lives
Levinson’s Four Seasons & Crisis of Midlife

▪ Levinson → life construction, life structure, life course, adult development of the
life structure
▪ Consist of era’s (3) with transition periods (3) in-between.
▪ Transitional periods:
- Last approximately 5-7 years
- Often stressful – individual explores possibilities for change in the self
& world, start to move towards commitment to the vital choices that
form the foundation for a new era.
- Tasks of transitional periods:
• re-evaluate the structure in which the person has been living
• & to explore the opportunity of changes in his perception of
himself or the world.
Levinsons Life cycles of Eras
Era’s Transitional Periods
1. Pre-adulthood 1st era (birth-22yrs)

 Early adult transition (5-7yrs)
2. Early adulthood 2nd era (17-45yrs)
 Midlife transition (5-7yrs)
3. Middle adulthood 3rd era (40-65)
 Late adult transition (5-7yrs)
4. Late adulthood 4th era (60+)
AGEING:
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES
▪ Physical changes as people progress though adulthood: changes in appearance, neuron
loss, sensory loss and hormonal changes.
- Hairline recedes, hair thins/greys
- Body fat increases & muscle tissue decreases
- Motor performance slows & reaction times decreases
- Weight increases through mid-50s – then decline may begin
- Moderate exercise & healthy diet → has been found to protect against stroke/
heart disease & late onset of diabetes
▪ Sensory Domain:
- changes in vision & hearing
- 20/20 visual acuity declines → far-sightedness & low light seeing difficulty
becomes more common
- Hearing sensitivity declines in early adulthood – usually only noticeable after 50
- Men → have greater hearing loss than women (more for high-frequency sound than lower ones)
- Mild hearing → impairs speech perception → burden for cognitive processing
[can be fixed with contacts, hearing aids]
▪ Hormonal functioning in adulthood: Women

- Menopause occurs → end of menstrual periods & loss of fertility (+ - 50yrs)
- symptoms → hot flushes, night sweats, mood changes, reduced sex drive, headaches]
- Menopause - also elevated vulnerability to depression
- Previously thought universally included severe emotional strain → NOW → relatively modest
psychological distress
NEURAL CHANGES
▪ In late adulthood → brain tissue amount & weight decline gradually
▪ Normal part of ageing process → gradual decrease in number of active neurons &
shrinkage of still-active neurons
[does not seem to be a factor in any age-related dementia]
▪ Dementia
o abnormal condition with multiple cognitive deficits that include memory impairment
o can be caused by many diseases (Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s & AIDS etc.)
o Alzheimer’s accounts for 70% of all dementia cases
▪ Alzheimer’s patients exhibit:
o profound/widespread loss of neurons & brain tissue
o accumulation of neural abnormalities (known as neuritic plaques & neurofibrillary tangles)
o Early stage of disease: hippocampal region (NB memory role)
o As the disease advances: throughout brain
o Fluid intelligence (think and reason abstractly problem solve and solve problems, not linked to
learning, experience, and education) is more likely to decline with age
o while crystallised intelligence (based upon facts and rooted in experiences, accumulation of new
knowledge) remains stable or increases.
PSYCHOSOCIAL CHANGES
▪ Death:
o Final stage of life
o Death occurs when → brainstem is permanently damaged & no neurological functioning.
o Average for a person to die has increased over the years.
▪ Bereavement:
o the loss of something, most commonly – someone.
o Can be caused by: death, loss of marriage, a friend, occupational/financial crisis
o bereavement is followed by grief
▪ Grief:
o Psychological & bodily reaction that occurs in people suffer bereavement.
o The observable grief → called mourning
o Physically → appetite, sleeping patterns, energy levels, physical pain
o Socially/psychically → isolation, experience labile (changeable) or dysphoric (depressed)
o Cognitively → too busy with loss to carry out functions (reasoning, problem-solving, memory)
o Different factors influence grief:
- Different cultures
Others:
- Previous losses experienced
- Nature of relationship with deceased
- Emotional repertoire of bereaved person
- Way person died
- Predictability of loss
o 5 stages of Grief  Kübler-Ross

1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance
- Never linear process, move between stages, go back to stages
At risk children & vulnerable children – SA example pg. 463

• Vulnerable children infected with HIV → high rated on PTSD
• 2011 → Government administers HAART → Highly Active Ant-retroviral
• HAART – slows rate at which the virus multiplies
• Number of factors contribute to making children vulnerable:
- Poverty & low socio-economic circumstances
- High crime area
- Drug abuse
- Far away from healthcare
• Early childhood education → improves social behaviour & school readiness for at-risk & vulnerable children
SUMMARY OF DEVELOPMENT (4)
Development: Sequence of age-related changes that occur as individual progresses from conception to death
THREE STAGES OF PRENATAL PERIOD

1. Germinal stage (conception to implantation, first 2 weeks)
2. Embryonic stage (2 weeks to 2 months, starts at implantation)
3. Foetal stage (2 months to birth)
1. Prenatal organogenesis is complete – scientific term for organ growth

Viability: capability to live outside the uterus (usually 24 weeks)
Development INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Genetic disorders (gene abnormalities & Chromosomal abnormalities)
2. Maternal nutritional status during pregnancy
3. Maternal stress and emotions
4. Maternal drug use (alcohol, smoking, marijuana)
5. Maternal illness and psychopathology
6. Influence of culture and family
7. Environmental toxins
Motor development: progression of muscular coordination needed for physical activities

- Cephalocuaudual trend: Head-to-foot direction of movement
- Proximodistal trend: Centre-to-outward tendency
TEMPERAMENT: characteristics of mood/ activity level & emotional reactivity.

THREE BASIC STYLES OF TEMPERAMENT:
1. “easy”
2. “slow-to-warm-up”
3. “difficult”
ATTACHMENT:
- close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants & caregivers
- Theory of Attachment: John Bowlby
- Theory of Attachment: Mary Ainsworth
THREE TYPES OF ATTACHMENT PATTERNS
3. Avoidant attachment
4. Disorganised-disoriented (discovered/added later)
2. Childhood LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

- is continuous NOT stages
Development PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN

- ERIKSON’S STAGE THEORY:
1. Trust vs Mistrust
2. Autonomy vs Shame/doubt
3. Initiative vs Guilt
4. Industry vs Inferiority
5. Identity vs confusion
6. Intimacy vs isolation
7. Generativity vs Self-absorption
8. Integrity vs Despair
- Piaget’s Stage Theory (cognitive development)

1. Sensorimotor period (0-2) (object permanence)
2. Preoperational period (2-7) (conservation)
3. Concrete operational period (7-11) (reversibility, decentration)
4. Formal operational period (11-adulthood) (abstract mental operations to abstract
concepts)
- Vygotsky vs Piaget
socially fuelled and culturally influenced (Vygotsky) VS individually fuelled and universal (Piaget)
- Kohlberg’s Stage theory → Moral Reasoning

▪ Preconventional Level: Stage 1: Punishment orientation
Stage 2: Naïve reward orientation
4. Conventional Level: Stage 3: Good boy/girl orientation
Stage 4: Authority orientation
5. Postconventional Level: Stage 5: Social contract orientation
Stage 6: Individual principles and conscience orientation
- STAGES OF ADOLESCENCE
1. Early adolescence (12-14)
2. Middle adolescence (14-16)
3. Late adolescence (17-19)
- COMPONENTS OF ADOLESCENCE
3. Adolescent 1. Self-esteem
Development 2. Moral development
3. Socialising process
5. Psychological development
- Sexual Maturity Rating (SMR) → also known as Tanner Stages

- Scale used to measure sexual development
- Four Different Identity Statuses:

1. Identity diffusion
2. Identity foreclosure
3. Identity moratorium
4. Identity achievement
Erikson’s view of Adulthood

▪ Intimacy vs Isolation (early adulthood)
▪ Generativity vs Self-absorption (middle adulthood)
▪ Integrity vs Despair (late adulthood)
Levinsons Life cycles of Eras

▪ Pre-adulthood 1st era (birth-22yrs)
4. Adulthood  Early adult transition (5-7yrs)
Development ▪ Early adulthood 2nd era (17-45yrs)
 Midlife transition (5-7yrs)
▪ Middle adulthood 3rd era (40-65)
 Late adult transition (5-7yrs)
▪ Late adulthood 4th era (60+)
AGEING:
▪ PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES
- Physical (hair greys, slower motor performances, incr weight)
- Sensory (hearing/eyesight decrease)
- Hormonal (menopause)
▪ NEURAL CHANGES
- brain tissue amount & weight decline gradually
- Dementia
- Alzheimer’s
▪ PSCYHOSOCIAL CHANGES
- Bereavement
- Grief
- 5 stages of Grief - Kübler-Ross (DABDA)
1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance
Week 3 & 4: Abnormal Psychology: Chapter 15
Abnormal Psychology
Aetiology
▪ The study of causation of mental disorders
Epidemiology
▪ the study of patterns/causes/effects of diseases/disorders in specific populations
Clinical picture
▪ Constellation of visible signs/symptoms associated with a particular mental disorder
▪ Interpretation of which leads to specific diagnosis
Comorbidity
▪ Mental disorder existing simultaneously but independently with another mental disorder – within the same
individual.
Dangerousness
▪ Extent to which individual with a mental disorder (or displaying abnormal behaviour) – is likely to cause harm
to self/others.
▪ E.g. Tom has history of being a gang member, he has a girlfriend – girlfriend broke up – clinical psychologist
must assess self-harm (suicide) and harm to others (homicidal)
Delusions
▪ Strongly held false belief by individual – even though evidence presented is contradictory.
▪ E.g. Sipho believes he is Michael Jackson – spends hours performing his dance moves for his pending
international performance.
Hallucination
▪ false (often vivid) perception in the absence of external stimuli – that appears real & located in the outside
world to the individual.
▪ Can occur in any sensory modality (visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile)
▪ E.g. auditory hallucination → Silas complains he hears angry voices telling him to set fire to his clothes – but
there is no one in the room
Deviance
▪ Extent to which individuals attitudes/behaviour differs from norms/accepted standards
▪ e.g. Tom – hijacks cars and sells it for cash for cocaine – against the law – thus deviant behaviour
Diagnosis
▪ determining the nature of a case of mental disorder OR distinguishing one mental disorder from another
based on identifying signs/symptoms of mental disorder.
Differential Diagnosis
▪ determining of which disorder may be producing symptoms of a mental disorder
▪ E.g. Tom consciously steals money from parents – one criterion is evident in conduct disorder, kleptomania
and antisocial personality disorder.
Clinical psychologist needs more info – (age, severity/duration of symptoms) - assess if he is displaying other
symptoms/criteria to determine a diagnosis which best describes his abnormal behaviour.
Distress
▪ the level of anxiety/sorrow/pain individual subjectively experiences due to a mental disorder.
Malingering
▪ pretending to suffer from a physical/psychological illness – or exaggerating symptoms – in order to avoid
unwelcome duties (work, military service, funds)
▪ e.g. drug dealer has been arrested – reports hearing voices and looks dishevelled – sudden presentation of
symptoms - court adjourns to observe him in a psychiatric hospital
Prognosis
▪ predication of probable cause of a disorder
Psychosis
▪ symptoms /abnormal behaviour where individual has lost contact with reality & shows profound
deterioration in the ability to perform daily activities.
Symptoms
▪ individuals subjective complaints
▪ reported subjective experience of the individuals
▪ e.g. tells doctor breasts are sore
Signs
▪ physical changes in individual presented for treatment
▪ e.g. person is depressed – has downcast facial expression, drop in appetite/weight, neglected
appearance/not bathing/changing clothes.
Syndrome
▪ common patterns of symptoms over time.
▪ E.g. experienced number of symptoms – low mood and tiredness – forms part of major picture of depression
ABNORMALITY pg. 585
- Abnormality – is characterised by individuals displaying behaviour that is rare/unusual.
- Unhelpful/maladaptive behaviour to situations/context person lives in – also constitutes abnormal behaviour
- Abnormality (in mental health) – suggest impairments in individuals daily functioning
- Emil Kraepelin: → biomedical model of illness

▪ Founder of modern scientific psychiatry
▪ defined mental illness as → rooted in a biological or disease/medical model.
- Medical Model of Mental Disorders proposes that:

▪ view mental illness as a disease & to identify/classify symptoms similarly to signs/symptoms of
physical disease.
▪ Many psychologists/psychiatrists are informed by medical model
▪ use structured cognitive tools
(diagnostic manuals to accurately identify, describe, classify, inform treatment of abnormal
behaviour)
▪ Psychiatrists & psychologists → Trained to develop diagnostic competence / expertise to identify
abnormal behaviour → in order to identify mental disorders
▪ Classification systems of mental disorders (ICD & DSM) continue to evolve with scientific research.
TWO MEDICAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS: (KNOW EDITIONS)
1. ICD - 10
▪ The International Classification of Disease (10th Edition) → World Health Organisation
▪ ICD-11 currently being developed
2. DSM - 5
(The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th Edition)
American Psychiatric Association. Was published in 2013)
▪ based on observable behaviours (symptoms)

▪ not based on presumably aetiology (causal pathways) of mental disorders
▪ Provides professionals with a common language of categories → to communicate key
features/symptoms of a mental disorder that individual may display.
o Each category is a collection of related disorders
o and each disorder has specific diagnostic criteria.
o Diagnostic criteria identifies:
• symptoms
• behaviours
• cognitive functions,
• personality traits,
• physical signs
• duration of key features of disorder
MEDICAL MODEL APPLIED TO ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR

- Disorder
- condition in which there’s a disturbance of usual orderly processes of an individual’s biopsychosocial
development.
- Symptoms
- reported subjective experiences
Example:
o psychologist assessed Lebo’s facial expression – lack of emotional rage shown → sign of
constricted affect (one sign of depressive mood)
o Claimed he was constantly tired → symptom of depressive disorder → fatigue/loss of energy
almost daily
- History
- Before 18th century – Western world regarded mental illness as → supernatural forces & morality
of affected person.
- Medical model aided in understanding abnormal behaviour – treatment of individuals with disorders
improved.
MEDICAL MODEL
▪ thinks of abnormal behaviour as a disease.
▪ Key terms used referring to abnormal behaviour:
▪ Mental illness
▪ Psychological disorder
▪ Psychopathology (pathology → manifestations of disease)
▪ Research shows that:
▪ Many psychological disorders are partially linked to genetic/biological factors → thus appear
similar to physical illnesses which has less negative connotations
RECENT CRITICISM OF MODEL:

▪ Critics feel medical model outlived its usefulness:
→ due to diagnoses of abnormal behaviour pin potentially derogatory labels on people
▪ “anorexic”, ‘schizophrenic”, “mentally ill” labelled individuals leads to stigmatisation
→ negative social judgement
▪ Mentally ill people often viewed as:
→ dangerous, erratic, incompetent, inferior (especially in media)
▪ Stereotypes promote distancing, disdain, prejudice, rejection
▪ Even when fully recovered - patients who were labelled struggle to find a place to live,
securing a job, friends.
▪ Stigma → deep-rooted, not easily reduced, constant
OTHER CRITICISM:
▪ Thomas Szasz (2011) argued:
• the medical model’s disease analogy converts moral/social questions about what acceptable
behaviour is into medical questions
• Strictly speaking → disease/illness can affect only the body – thus can be no mental illness
• Minds can be “sick”
• abnormal behaviour is a deviation from the norm - rather than an illness
• “problems in living” rather than medical problems
▪ Allen Frances (2012):

• Argued DSM-5 has over-pathologised everyday human distress.
▪ Horowits (2002):
• Diagnosing individuals is not a neutral activity
• Deeply influenced by professionals, pharmaceutical companies, patient advocacy groups, the
media → who have interest in mental health.
Medical concepts proven valuable in diagnosing abnormal behaviour:

▪ Diagnosis
▪ Aetiology
▪ Prognosis
PSYCHODIAGNOSIS: CLASSIFICATION OF DISORDERS pg. 589

DSM – 5 used currently
▪ Key issue for DSM-5 authors → whether to reduce commitment to the Categorical approach:
• Questioned if people can be reliably placed in non-overlapping diagnostic categories
• There is however enormous overlap – thus vague boundaries between disorders.
E.g. schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders reflects a dimensional approach towards
psychotic disorders that share a common genetic basis.
- Dimensional approach *
• Describes persons pathology in how they score on a limited number of continuous dimensions
• Such as: degree to which they exhibit anxiety/depression/agitation/hypochondria, paranoia and so
forth.
- Comorbidity – coexistence of two or more disorders
• Widespread comorbidity raises issue that specific diagnoses do not reflect distinct disorders but
variations of same underlying disorders
CRITERIA OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR (NB)
1. Deviance
2. Dysfunctional behaviour
3. Personal distress
1. Deviance
▪ you have disorder → if you differ from societies acceptable norms
▪ What constitutes normality – influenced by cultures & time
e.g. homosexuality
▪ When people violate standards/expectations →seen as behaving unusually/strangely, regarded as
mentally ill.
EXAMPLE 1:
o Transvestic fetishism - a paraphilia where man achieves sexual arousal via dressing in
traditionally women’s clothing.
o Behaviour is regarded as disordered because a man clad in bra’s, dresses is contrary to
Western culture’s norms.
EXAMPLE 2:
o Delusions → strongly held false belief despite contradictory consensual evidence
o E.g. woman believes she is Virgin Mary → regarded as delusion of grandeur
2. Dysfunctional behaviour
▪ Considered to have a psychological disorder if their ability to do daily activities becomes
Impaired / Maladaptive/ dysfunctional → to extent where it is not contributing to personal growth or
society.
▪ Example: Bank manager cannot work because he’s too depressed to even get dressed/out of bed
The maladaptive quality of the behaviour makes it disordered.
3. Personal distress
▪ Significant personal suffering
▪ Depressed people
• may/may not show deviant/maladaptive behaviour.
• these people are usually labelled with having a disorder when they describe their personal
pain/suffering → friends/relatives/mental health professionals .
▪ people viewed as disordered when only one criterion is et (although two three criteria may apply in
a case)
▪ The criteria of mental illness are not nearly as value-free as the criteria of physical illness.
• E.g. physical illness – malfunctioning heart -- people can agree on regardless of personal
values
• E.g. Mental illness – difficult to draw line between normality and abnormality
• Diagnosing psychological disorders involves value judgements which reflect:
• Cultural values, social trends, political forces, scientific knowledge of the day
• E.g. language barriers impact SA hospitals diagnostic/treatment procedures
▪ People only evaluated for disorders when their behaviour becomes distinctly deviant/maladaptive/
distressing.
▪ Normality and abnormality exist on a continuum – which can change over time.
▪ Changeable nature of disorders – supports prioritising prevention & treatment of psych disorders
PREVALENCE OF PSCYHOLGOICAL DISORDERS

▪ Epidemiology – study of distribution of mental/physical disorders in a population
▪ Prevalence (within epidemiology) – refers to % of population exhibiting a disorder during a specific time
▪ Most interesting data in menta health cases:
• estimate of life prevalence (percentage of people who endure a specific disorder at any time in their
lives)
▪ IN SA → psychopathology is not necessarily explained via biopsychosocial model alone:
• Same condition experienced by Xhosa patients could be explained as schizophrenia OR Amafufunyana
(psychotic state by bewitchment)
▪ Debate of:
• Where to draw line between normal difficulties OR fully fledged mental illness.
(when symptoms qualify as a disease)
DSM-5 Categories disorders list
generalised
• Anxiety disorders specific
-
oe
• Obsessive-compulsive & related disorders - ocD
• Trauma- & stressor-related disorders - PTSD
(NB: anxiety/obsessive-compulsive and trauma-related disorders strong overlap although listed separately)
• Dissociative disorders dissociative anyantity
-
disorde e
• Depressive disorders major -

DD
• Bipolar and related disorders

disorder
- bipolar
factitions is dedisorder
• Somatic symptom and related disorders
-
-
illness anxi 2t4
- conversion disorder
• Schizophrenia spectrum & other psychotic disorders Schizophrenia -
(Schizophrenia Is last of major clinical syndromes)

• Personality disorders
• Eating disorders
Three major categories of mental disorders

1. Anxiety
2. Depressive disorders
3. Schizophrenia spectrum
ANXIETY DISORDERS
- Not as much genetics, not necessarily lifelong
- Anxiety is natural & universal
- Anxiety disorders → marked by feelings of excessive fear and anxiety & related behaviour disturbance
- Anxiety disorders:
• Person fears real/perceived threats & anxiously anticipates future threats.
• Reduces fears/anxiety levels via avoidance behaviours
- More anxiety in females than males (estimated ratio 2:1)
- THREE MAIN TYPES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS:

1. Generalised anxiety disorder
2. Specific phobic disorder
3. Panic disorder
[4. Agoraphobia – related to panic disorder, but listed separately]
These disorders are not mutually exclusive → those who develop one anxiety can suffer from another at
some point in their life.
1. Generalised anxiety disorder

• Chronic, high level of anxiety that is not tied to any specific threat
• gradual onset – more frequently in females more than men.
• Anxiety accompanied by: trembling, muscle tension, diarrhoea, dizziness, faintness, heart
palpitations, sweating.
• EXAMPLES:
- Worry constantly → about yesterday/future problems & mistakes, about minor
matters related to family/finance/ work ect
- Worry is out of proportion to the actual likelihood/impact of the anticipated event
- Hope worrying will help impede negative events
- Individuals report experiencing → distress in relation to how much they worry &
worrying impairs daily function significantly.
• NB: focus of worry may shift from one concern to the other.
2. Specific phobic disorder

• Irritational fear of a specific object or situation that obviously interferes with ability to function.
• anxiety has a specific focus
• Mild phobias are extremely common
• Phobic reactions usually followed by physical symptoms of anxiety (trembling, palpitations)
• phobic responses can be developed to anything: needles, water, animals ect.)
• Example:
Person(32) is afraid of elephants - refuses to go on gaming trips – had
previous traumatic experience of elephant stampede when he was 13 – he
only recalled this during a therapy session.
3. Panic disorder
• recurrent attacks/surges of overwhelming anxiety that usually occurs suddenly/unexpectedly.
• Paralysing feelings are accompanied with physical symptoms (accelerated heart rate, sweating,
trembling, shortness of breath)
• Symptoms often misinterpreted as heart attacks
• Person is apprehensive of when next attack will be - thus avoids situations (behavioural change) in
order to avoid potential attack
• Onset of panic disorder → late adolescence
4. Agoraphobia (related disorder to panic disorder but listed separately)

• Fear of going out to public places
• “marketplace/openness” fear
• Fear is triggered by real/anticipated exposure by:
- public/open spaces, enclosed spaces, standing in line, being in a crowd /being outside home
• Due to fear → become confined at home, although will venture out with a trusted person.
▪ AETIOLOGY OF ANXIETY DISORDERS: pg. 592

1. Biological factors
2. Conditioning & learning
3. Cognitive factors
4. Stress
1. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
• Concordance rate → percentage of twin pairs or other pairs of relatives who exhibit the
same disorder.
• Concordance rates used to assess impact of heredity on psychological disorders
• Factors
▪ Inhibited temperament inherited & genetic hypothesis
▪ Anxiety sensitivity
▪ Neural activity
Research line 1:
• IF relatives with more shared genetic similarity show higher concordance rates THAN
relatives who share less genetic overlap → supports genetic hypothesis.
Findings consistent with this notion:
- Inherited differences in temperament might make some people more vulnerable
than others to anxiety disorders.
- Kagan(1992) → infants displayed inhibited temperament → characterised by
shyness/timidity/wariness which appears to have strong genetic basis.
- temperament is a risk factor for developing anxiety disorders.
Research line 2:
• Anxiety sensitivity makes people vulnerable to anxiety disorders.
Acc to this: some people are highly sensitive to internal physiological symptoms of anxiety.
• anxiety sensitivity -neurological basis (GABA)
• People will high level anxiety believe:

o physiological symptoms (heart palpitations, incr respirations) → is a sign of
impeding negative physical/psychological or social events.
o Prone to overreact with fear when they experience these symptoms
o Anxiety breeds anxiety → may result in anxiety disorder
Research line 3:
• Link between anxiety disorders and neurochemical activity in brain may exist
• neurochemical basis for anxiety disorders
o Valium (medication) → reduces excessive anxiety & appears to alter
neurotransmitter activity at GABA synapses.
o Disturbances in neural circuits using GABA may play a role in some types of anxiety
disorders.
o Obsessive compulsive disorders → abnormalities in neural circuits using serotonin.
2. CONDITIONING & LEARNING

• Anxiety responses can be acquired via classical conditioning & maintained via operant
conditioning.
How this works:
- Neutral stimulus (elephant) paired with scary even (stampede) → classically conditioned.
- Avoidance response is negatively reinforced – because it results in anxiety reduction →
involves operant conditioning.
- Conditioning process sustains specific anxiety responses
• Preparedness concept - Martin Seligman

- explains developing phobias
- Some people are biologically prepared via evolutionary history to acquire phobias
more easily than others.
- Explains why people have more ancient fears (sakes) than modern ones (hot irons).
UPDATED VERSION of preparedness - 2001
- Evolved module of learning
- Maintain evolved module is automatically activated by stimuli & related to past
survival threats in evolutionary history
3. COGNITIVE FACTORS
• Certain thinking styles – make some people more vulnerable to anxiety disorders
• People likely to suffer from anxiety disorders because they tend to:
a) Misinterpret harmless situations as threatening
b) Focus excessive attention on perceived threats
c) Selectively recall info that seems threatening
4. STRESS
• precipitates onset of anxiety disorders
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDERS & RELATED DISORDERS

- Marked by obsessions & compulsions
- Constant unwanted thoughts (obsessions) & urges (compulsions)
(e.g. person obsessed with germs → tissues to pick up things)
- Specific type of obsessions tend to be associated with specific compulsions
(e.g. obsessions with germs paired with cleaning compulsions)
- Obsessions: thoughts that constantly intrude on one’s consciousness in a distressing way

- centres on personal failures, suicide, sexual acts, harming others
- Compulsions: actions that one feels forced to do.

- Involve stereotypical rituals that temporarily relieve anxiety
- E.g. constant handwashing, checking locks
- Can be severe disorder → severe social & occupational impairments
- Separately listed disorders under OCD & related Disorders:

▪ Hoarding → Individuals who have difficulty throwing things away –extent requiring treatment)
▪ Excoriation (skin picking) → Repetitive and compulsive picking of skin – leading to tissue damage.
TRAUMA-RELATED & STRESSOR-RELATED DISORDERS
- PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder)
- Enduring psychological disturbance due to experiencing a major traumatic event.
- Causes → war, rape & assault, car accident, natural disaster, witnessing a death
- Symptoms:
▪ Re-experiencing event via nightmares/flashbacks
▪ Emotional numbing
▪ Alienation
▪ Social problems
▪ Increased sense of vulnerability
▪ Elevated arousal, anxiety, guilt.
- Predicting factors of PTSD:
▪ greater personal injuries/losses, greater exposure to event & more exposure to
events grotesque aftermath
▪ Key predicator of vulnerability → the intensity of one’s reaction at the time of the
traumatic event.
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
▪ Two dissociative syndromes:
1. Dissociative amnesia
2. Dissociative identity disorder (DID) → more environment than genetics
(mistakenly called schizophrenia)
1. Dissociative amnesia
- Sudden loss of memory for important personal information
(too extensive to be normal)
- Memory loss can occur for a single traumatic event OR extended period surrounding event.
- Amnesia observed after → disasters, rapes, witnessed death
2. Dissociative identity disorder (DID)

- Disruption of identity marked via experiencing two or more largely complete & unusually very
different personalities.
(multiple personality disorder)
- Individuals fail to integrate incongruent aspects of their personality into a normal coherent whole.
- Divergences in behaviour – far beyond what people normally display in adapting to different roles.
- Doesn’t occur in isolation → people have history of anxiety, mood, personality disorders.
- Controversial diagnosis and/or culturally bound/ epidemic to north America (no conclusion)
- Some people think people in intentional role playing to excuse failings.
- Some critics - think therapists role in developing pattern of behaviour
- DID people – feel they have more than one identity:
▪ each personality has their own name, memory, traits.
▪ Unaware of various personalities – although tests show otherwise
(Shy person may develop extraverted alternative personality)
▪ Transitions between personalities → suddenly
▪ Bizarre disparities between personalities
(Different personalities → may have different age, race, gender,
sexual orientation)
▪ Aetiology of dissociative disorders:

• Excessive stress
• Causes are obscure, little is known, controversial
• Some maintain → rooted in severe emotional trauma that occurred during childhood
DEPRESSIVE & BIPOLAR AND RELATED DISORDERS
- Marked by emotional disturbances which disrupt physical, perceptual, social & thought processes.
- Mood disturbances come and go – periods of normality in-between
- Unipolar disorder: experience emotional extremes at just one end of the mood continuum.
- Bipolar disorder: experience emotional extremes at both end of mood continuum (depression & mania)
- Stronger genetics, Lifelong condition
- 5-6 episodes over life → depressive periods of
- Types
1. Major depressive disorder (episodic & chronic)
2. Bipolar disorder
3. Depressive disorders, bipolar disorder & suicide
1. Major depressive disorder

▪ Show persistent feelings of sadness & despair and a loss of interest in previous sources of pleasure
▪ Negative symptoms form core of depression
▪ Feature → anhedonia → diminished ability to experience pleasure
▪ Can occur any point in life
▪ Common disorder (higher in women than men)
▪ Depressed people:
- lack energy for daily tasks,
- sleep pattern & appetite changes
- sluggish, talk slowly
- anxiety, irritability & brooding commonly observed
- self-esteem drops – feel worthless
- feelings of hopelessness, dejection, boundless guilt
- Exhibit other symptoms of other disorders → substance-use & anxiety disorders
▪ DSM-5 makes provision for the death of loved one

▪ Episodic depression - more common
Chronic depression - early onset, high rate of comorbidity, severe impairment of functioning.
▪ MDD Common disorder → twice higher in women than men:

- Not due to genetics
- Rather women’s vulnerability to depression due to points in reproductive cycles
E.g. post-partum depression ‘baby blues’, postmenopausal depression.
- Two arguments:
• Women experience greater stress & adversity (sexual abuse, role constraints ect.)
• Women tend to dwell longer on difficulties → increase vulnerability to depression.
Characteristics Manic Episodes Depressive episodes

Emotional Elated, very sociable Miserable, hopeless, irritable
Cognitive Racing thoughts, impulsive Slowness, obsessive worrying, negative

self-image
Motor Hyperactive, tireless, less sleep needed, Less active, tired, difficulty sleeping,
increased sex drive/appetite decreased appetite/sex drive
2. Bipolar disorder
▪ Experience of one or more hypomanic (or manic) episodes as well as periods of depression.
▪ One manic episode → enough to qualify for diagnosis
▪ Onset is age-related → early teens/twenties
▪ Less common than unipolar disorders
▪ Manic episodes:
- Euphoria mood
- Self-esteem skyrockets (optimism, energy, extravagant plans)
- Hyperactive
- Mind racing – judgment often impaired
- E.g. spend impulsively & sexually promiscuous
▪ Milder forms of manic episodes can seem attractive

- Increase in self-esteem, optimism, energy → deceptively seductive
- Surges of productivity/creativity
- Mild manic can escalate to frightening/disturbing levels
▪ Depression periods
- Negative irritability & depression
3. Depressive disorders, bipolar disorder & suicide

▪ Suicide associated with depressive & bipolar disorders
Women attempt suicide more – but men actually kill themselves more.
▪ Most people who kill themselves – have some psychological disorder
AETIOLOGY OF DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS:

• Genetic vulnerability
- Heredity creates predisposition for disorder
- Environment determines whether predisposition becomes an actual disorder.
- Genetic influence stronger in bipolar than unipolar
• Neurochemical & Neuroanatomical factors

- Predisposition to certain neurochemical abnormalities in the brain
- Mood disorders correlate with abnormal levels of two neurotransmitters:
1. Norepinephrine
2. Low serotonin
- Serotonin – underlies most forms of depression
- Mood disorders & structural abnormalities in the brain associations:
▪ depression & reduced hippocampal volume (hippocampus – memory consolidation)
▪ depression & suppressed neurogenesis (forming new neurons)
▪ More cortisol – inhibits neurogenesis
▪ suppressed neurogenesis → central cause of depression
(antidepressant drugs – promote neurogenesis)
• Hormonal factors:
- Depressed people → have elevated levels of cortisol → stress hormone produced by HPA activity
- During stress→ brain sends signals along two pathways.
▪ One path called hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis (HPA):
▪ hypothalamus → pituitary gland → adrenal cortex.
▪ Overactivity along HPA axis responding to stress → role in developing depression.
- Some believe hormonal changes may eventually inhibit neurogenesis
• Cognitive factors
- Seligman’s concept of learned helplessness –model of depression based on animal research.
- Proposed depression is caused by learned helplessness → passive “giving up” behaviour due to
unavoidable adverse events (e.g. uncontrollable shocks in labs)
- Pessimistic explanatory
- personal flaws rather than situation
- Rumination- repetitively focus their attention on depressive feelings
- Reformulated learned helplessness:
▪ Roots of depression lie in how people explain setbacks and other negative events they
have experienced
▪ Attribute setbacks to personal flaws -- not situational factors
▪ Depressed people who think more of depression – experience it longer than depressed
people who distract themselves.
▪ Rumination also associated with anxiety, binge eating, drinking.
- Cognitive models of depression → negative thinking leads to depression.
- Problem with cognitive theories → difficult to separate cause from effect
• Interpersonal roots
- Behavioural approach → inadequate social skills leads to depressive disorders.
- Acc to this
▪ depressed people lack skills to get important reinforcers (good friends, jobs, supportive
spouses ect.)
▪ lack of reinforcers could lead to negative emotions and depression
▪ depressed people unintentionally provoke rejection due to their irritability, pessimism.
▪ depressed people → fewer sources of social support which increases vulnerability to
depression.
• Precipitating stress
- Strong link between stress & onset of depressive & bipolar disorders
SOMATIC SYMPTOM AND RELATED DISORDERS

- Cultural factors must be considered → it influences frequency, expression & interpretation of somatic
complaints.
- Types
1. Somatic symptom disorder
2. Illness anxiety disorder
3. Conversion disorder
4. Factitious disorder
1. Somatic symptom disorder (SSD)

• Somatic (bodily) symptoms that are very distressing OR have significant disruption of functioning
& excessive/disproportionate thoughts, feelings and behaviours regarding symptoms.
• Must be persistently symptomatic (6months) → to be diagnosed with SSD
Somatic symptoms must be:
• Very distressing/disruptive & accompanied with excessive thoughts, feelings, behaviours.
• Cannot diagnose SSD just because their medical symptoms cannot be explained (like older DSMs
used to)
• People who have SSD – have another medical diagnosis that requires medical assistance
2. Illness anxiety disorder

• Illness & somatic concerns are a central to a person’s identity and self-image.
• Generally no symptoms
• Frequent conversation topic & bring it up during stressful events
• Characteristics:
- Repeatedly examine themselves
- Excessive info-gathering of suspected illnesses & constant need for assurance
- Avoid places they feel will compromise health
- Never satisfied with diagnosis – see multiple doctors
3. Conversion disorder
• The key features is neurological symptoms that are incompatible with neurological disorders
• Body converting psychological symptoms into physical symptoms
• Characterised by pain, paralysis (in women)
• More common in females
• E.g. Hit by car → no physical symptoms but experiences neurological symptoms
4. Factitious disorder
• Intentional falsification of medical/psychological signs & symptoms in oneself or others →
without an external reward
• Persistent problems regarding perception and identity of individual
E.g. claimed vomiting blood – but no proof.
• popularised as Munchausen syndrome
• Why is it listed under somatic symptoms disorders category ?
- People present to professionals with somatic symptoms & medical disease conviction
• Factitious disorder imposed on another:
- when a person falsifies illness in another vulnerable person (e.g. his/her child)
NB: what separates it from malingering ?

- in absence of external reward → falsification has to happen in the absence of external
reward
SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTUR, & OTHER PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS
Lifelong condition, Psychotic symptoms
- marked by delusions, hallucinations, disorganised speech, deterioration of adaptive behaviour
- often display similar symptoms to severe mood disorders
NB Difference
Schizophrenia – disturbed thought
Mood disorders – disturbed emotion
- Course and outcome

▪ Emerges in adolescence, early adulthood
▪ Can be sudden emergence – but usually subtle/gradual
▪ People who develop schizophrenia – have long history of peculiar behaviour, cognitive & social deficits.
▪ Most do not manifest fully fledged disorder during childhood
▪ Schizophrenia falls in Three Groups:
1. Treated successfully – have full recovery (usually have milder disorder)
2. Partial recovery – can return to independent life for a while.
3. Experience regular relapses for rest of their lives - (endure chronic illness, marked by extensive
hospitalisation)
- Symptoms of schizophrenia – no single symptom is inevitably present

1. Delusions and irrational thought
2. Deterioration of adaptive behaviour
3. Hallucinations
4. Disturbed emotion
5. Positive vs negative symptoms
1. Delusions and Irrational thought

▪ central feature → Cognitive deficits and disturbed thought
▪ Characteristic → train of thought deteriorates – thinking is chaotic, not logical/linear
▪ Delusions: false beliefs maintained even though they clearly are out of touch with reality
Delusions are common (e.g. believe they are a tiger with a deformed body)
▪ Believe:
- thoughts are broadcasted
- thoughts are injected into their mind against their will OR controlled by external forces
- delusions of grandeur → maintain they are famous/important
e.g. believe you are Michael Jackson
▪ Experiences “loosening of associations”
- First talks about cars – then radio – then politics ect.
2. Deterioration of adaptive behaviour

▪ Deterioration in quality of routine functioning at work, socially, personal care
▪ E.g. lack of personal hygiene, late to work
3. Hallucinations
▪ Sensory perceptions occur in absence of real, external stimulus OR gross distortions of
perceptual input.
▪ Most common → auditory hallucinations
▪ E.g. hear voices
4. Disturbed emotion
▪ Emotional tone is disrupted
▪ Blunted or flat affect → show little emotional responsiveness
▪ Inappropriate response → laugh when hearing about child’s death
▪ Schizophrenic → may be emotionally volatile, unpredictable
e.g. talkative with colleagues but deadpan face discarding clothes and purchasing matches
5. Positive vs negative symptoms

▪ Theorists raised doubts about dividing schizophrenia into subtypes → thus subtypes no longer
classified as subtypes in DSM-5.
[Paranoid, residual, disorganised, undifferentiated schizophrenia,
catatonic (extreme impairment in body movement]
Catatonia → listed separately in manual
▪ Rather focused on positive vs negative symptoms:

▪ Negative symptoms involve behavioural deficits:
- flattened affect (outward emotion expression)
- asociality (social withdrawal)
- anhedonia (lack of pleasurable experiences)
- apathy (lack of motivation)
- impaired attention
- alogia (reduced amount of speech)
▪ Positive symptoms involve behavioural excesses/ peculiarities:

- Hallucinations
- Delusions
- Bizarre behaviour
- Wild flights of ideas
Aetiology of Schizophrenia:
1. Genetic vulnerability
2. Neurochemical factors
3. Structural abnormalities
4. Neurodevelopmental hypothesis
5. Expressed emotion
6. Precipitating stress
1. Genetic vulnerability
- Genetics play a role
- People inherit polygenically vulnerability for schizophrenia
- Overlap in genetic vulnerability with bipolar & depressive disorders:
▪ HOWEVER: schizophrenia is associated with chromosomal abnormalities →
which is not evident in bipolar disorder.
2. Neurochemical factors
- Psychotic disorders are accompanied by changes of neurotransmitter activity
- Dopamine hypothesis: excess dopamine activity is the neurochemical basis for
schizophrenia
(although riddled with problems ect. )
- Research suggests:
▪ Dagga use during adolescence may precipitate schizophrenia in young people
who have a genetic vulnerability to the disorder.
▪ Some thought schizophrenia leads to self-medicating via dagga (studies don’t
support this)
Rather → There is a causal link between dagga use and emergence of
schizophrenia.
▪ Mechanisms are a mystery → current thinking is that the key chemical
ingredient (THC) may increase neurotransmitter activity in dopamine circuits
3. Structural abnormalities
- Schizophrenic people → exhibit attention, perception & info-processing deficits
- Deficits caused by neurological defects
- MRI & CT scans suggest:
▪ an association between enlarged brain ventricles & schizophrenia
(ventricles → hollow, fluid-filled cavities in brain)
- enlarged brain ventricles meaning → debated
▪ some say deterioration/failure to develop – is a consequence of schizophrenia
▪ OR contributing cause of the illness
- Other structural abnormalities found via brain imaging:
▪ Reduction in both grey & white matter
(reductions reflect → loss of synaptic density & myelinisation)
▪ Suggest schizophrenia is caused by disruptions in brains neural connectivity –
impairing the normal communication along neural circuits.
4. Neurodevelopmental hypothesis
- Neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia → asserts schizophrenia is caused in
part by disruptions in normal maturational process of brain before or at birth.
- Insults to the brain during prenatal development or at birth → can cause subtle
neurological damage that elevates individuals vulnerability to schizophrenia later in
adolescence/ early adulthood.
5. Expressed emotion
- How family dynamics influences the course of schizophrenia after onset of disorder
- Expressed Emotion (EE): degree to which relative of a patient displays highly critical or
emotionally over-involved attitudes towards the patient
- E.g. hostility of family members, excessive emotional involvement (over-protective etc.)
- Families expressed emotion → good indicator of the course of schizophrenia
- After release from hospital → patients with families high in expressed emotion → show
relapse rates 3x higher than patients with families with low expressed emotion.
- High expressed emotion families → sources of more stress than social support.
6. Precipitating stress
- Stress plays key role in triggering schizophrenia
- High stress may precipitate schizophrenia in someone who is vulnerable (biological and
psychological factors)
- High stress can also cause relapses
PERSONALITY DISORDERS
- Extreme, inflexible personality traits that cause subjective distress / impaired social life or occupational
functioning.
- Associated with ways of thinking/feeling about oneself and others – that affects how individual functions in life
- Gender implications with diagnosis:
▪ Men more often → antisocial personality disorder
▪ Women more often → borderline personality disorder
- DSM-5 lists 10 personality disorders & 3 clusters:
▪ Cluster A: odd/eccentric behaviour (schizophrenia lines )

o Paranoid
o Schizotypal
o Schizoid
▪ Cluster B: Dramatic, impulsive emotional, erratic (emotional, mood disorders lines )

o Antisocial
o Borderline
o Histrionic
o Narcissistic
▪ Cluster C: Anxious or fearful (anxiety disorders lines )

o Avoidant
o Dependent
o Obsessive Compulsive
- Types
1. Antisocial personality disorder
2. Borderline Personality Disorder
3. Narcissistic Personality disorder
1. Antisocial personality disorder
- Marked by impulsive, callous, manipulative, aggressive & irresponsible behaviour that reflects
a failure to accept social norms
- More common in males
- Antisocial doesn’t they shun social interaction
▪ Antisocial because they choose to reject accepted social norms (moral principles &
behaviours)
- Characteristics:
▪ Chronically violate right of others
▪ Use social charm to gain other’s liking/loyalty for exploitation purposes
▪ Skilled at faking affection for exploitation
▪ Don’t feel guilty about transgressions – as they don’t accept social norms they violate
▪ Lack an adequate conscience
▪ Many keep behaviour within the boundaries of the law – might even be high status
(e.g. cut-throat business men, corrupt politicians, drug dealers)
▪ Antisocial personalities - Have many maladaptive traits
▪ Rarely experience genuine affection for others
▪ Sexually → promiscuous & predatory
▪ Tolerate little frustration and pursue immediate gratification
- These characteristics make them: unreliable employees, unfaithful spouses ect.
- Usually have history of divorce, child abuse & job instability
2. Borderline Personality Disorder

- Marked by instability in social relationships, self-image and emotional functioning
- More common in females
- Turbulent relationships marked by fears abandonment
- Switch between idolizing & devaluing people
- They are intense, anger issues, poor control of emotions
- Tend to be moody, shifting between panic, despair and emptiness feelings
- Prone to impulsive behaviours (reckless spending, sexual behaviour, drugs)
- Exhibit → fragile, unstable self-concept – as goals, values shift suddenly
- Elevated risk for self-injurious behaviour (cutting, burning oneself, suicide)
3. Narcissistic Personality disorder

▪ Marked by grandiose sense of self-importance/entitlement & excessive need for
attention/admiration.
▪ More common in males
▪ Seem self-confident → actually fragile → need compliments & easily threatened by criticisms
▪ Sense of entitlement → becomes arrogant expectations that they require special treatment &
extra privileges
▪ hard to fill need for admiration
▪ routinely complain that accomplishments are not appreciated & given the respect they
deserve by others.
▪ CRTITICS → too much focus on grandiosity – not enough on vulnerable, hidden symptoms
Aetiology of Personality Disorders:

▪ Heredity & environmental factors
▪ Contributing factors towards antisocial personality → dysfunctional family, erratic discipline, parental
neglect & parental modelling of exploitative & amoral behaviour.
▪ Culture and context
▪ Contributing factors towards borderline personality → primarily early exposure to trauma (physical/sexual)
EATING DISORDERS
▪ Disturbances in eating behaviour with preoccupation with weight & unhealthy efforts to control weight
▪ No psychological disorder is associated with greater fatality rates
▪ Types:
1. Anorexia nervosa
2. Bulimia nervosa
3. Binge-eating disorder
1. Anorexia nervosa
▪ Intense fear of gaining weight, disturbed body image, refusal to maintain normal weight & use
of dangerous methods to lose weight.
▪ Two subtypes:
1. Restricting type anorexia nervosa (reduce food intake, starve themselves)
2. Binge-eating / purging type (vomit after meals, excessive exercise, laxatives & diuretics)
▪ BOTH suffer from disturbed body image (no matter how thin  insist they’re fat)
▪ Only thing that makes them happy → losing weight
▪ Rarely recognise maladaptive over-controlling quality behaviour → thus rarely seek treatment
of their own – need family, friends
▪ leads to other problems:
▪ amenorrhea (loss of menstrual cycles)
▪ gastrointestinal problems
▪ low blood pressure
▪ osteoporosis (loss of bone density)
▪ metabolic disturbance → cardiac arrest/ circulatory collapse
2. Bulimia nervosa
▪ Engaging in out-of-control overeating & then unhealthy compensatory effects
▪ E.g. induced vomiting, laxatives, excessive exercise
▪ Eating binges done in secret → then intense guilt & worried both gaining weight → feeling
motivate strategies to undo overeating
▪ Typically have normal weight → vomiting doesn’t reduce so much calories nor does
laxatives/diuretics. Food still absorbed
▪ Bulimia exists with other disorders: depression, anxiety, substance-related disorders
▪ Bulimia similarities to anorexia nervosa:

▪ Morbid fear of food
▪ Preoccupation with food
▪ Rigid maladaptive behaviours to controlling weight due to naïve all-or-nothing
thinking.
▪ Bulimia differences to anorexia nervosa:

1. Bulimia is much less life-threatening
2. People with bulimia recognise their behaviour is pathological – recognise they
can’t control eating patterns.
3. Binge-eating disorder
▪ Eating binges that cause distress - but no purging, fasting, or excessive exercise (e.g.
bulimia)
▪ Usually overweight
▪ Caused by stress, not as serious, more common
▪ Aetiology
• Genetic vulnerability → not as strong
• Personality factors:
▪ anorexia nervosa → obsessive, rigid, emotionally restrained
→ Studies found perfectionism is a risk factor for anorexia nervosa
▪ bulimia → impulsive, overly sensitive, low self-image
• Cultural values
▪ Western societies have socialised the need for women’s appearance to be attractive.
▪ Standards promoted by media
▪ Restrictive eating practices → culture-bound to Western industrialised countries
▪ Pro-ana (pro-anorexia) & pro-mia (pro-bulimia) websites advocate that women pursue
thinness despite endangering health.
• Role of the family

▪ Some mothers endorse social media → good to be thinner
▪ Some parents model unhealthy dieting behaviours.
• Cognitive factors
▪ Disturbed thinking
▪ All or none thinking
▪ Negative automatic thinking
CULTURE & PATHOLOGY

Two ways to view psychological disorders
1. Relativistic view 2. Universalistic OR Pan-cultural view
• Criteria for mental illness varies across cultures • View criteria of mental health as the same
• No universal standard for normality & around the world
abnormality • Basic standards of normality and abnormality
• For them: DSM-5 reflects a Western, are universal across cultures
ethnocentric, white, urban, upper class • Maintain Western diagnostic concepts have
orientation → which has little relevance to other validity in other cultural contexts
cultures
DEBATE ABOUT CULTURE & ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR REVOLVE AROUND:

1. Are the psychological disorders seen in Western societies – found throughout the world?
2. Are the symptom patterns of mental disorders invariant across cultures
1. Are equivalent disorders found throughout the world ?

▪ Serious psychological disorders (schizophrenia, depression & bipolar) – are identifiable in all cultures
▪ Hallucinations, delusions, disorientated people → accepted as disturbed in all societies
▪ However → there are cultural disparities in what constitutes delusional or hallucinations
▪ Some cultures don’t recognise less sever forms of psychological disturbances
(generalised anxiety, illness anxiety, narcissistic personality → as listed in DSM-5)
▪ See them rather as common difficulties/ peculiarities → not fully fledged disorders
▪ Culture bound disorders: abnormal syndromes found only in a few cultural groups:
▪ Koro → obsessive fear that one’s penis that will withdraw into ones abdomen
(Chinese males in Malaya, southern Asia)
▪ Windigo → intense craving for human flesh & fear that one will turn into a cannibal
(exclusively Algonquin Indian cultures)
Are The Psychological Disorders Seen In Western Societies Found Throughout The World?
• Dissociative Identity Disorder and Eating disorders
• Culture-bound disorders (Koro, Windigo)
• Taijin kyofusho (found in Japanese culture
- key difference between social anxiety disorder & Taijin kyofusho ?
- Taijin kyofusho → is about offending/ bringing embarrassment on to
others in social context. Key difference due to culture.
SYMPTOM EQUIVALENCY
• Are the symptom patterns of mental disorders invariant across cultures
• Delusions → in SA, believing your Nelson Mandela won’t be common anywhere else
2. Are the symptom patterns culturally invariant ?

▪ The more a disorder has a strong biological component → more it is expressed in similar ways
across cultures
▪ Delusions are a common symptom of schizophrenia in all cultures:
▪ However specific delusions usually tied to cultural heritage
▪ One culture → thoughts are transmitted into mind via electrical lines
▪ Other culture → thoughts due to bewitchment
▪ Delusions → in SA, believing your Nelson Mandela won’t be common anywhere else
▪ Depression are the most varied

▪ Western culture → more guilt & self-deprecation feelings lie at core of depression
▪ Other societies → feelings aren’t central , more somatic symptoms (headaches, tired
etc.
→ more psychological symptoms (dejection, low-self-esteem)
The Traditional African Model of Abnormal Behaviour

▪ African cultures → have diviners who provide culture-related explanations of mental disorders.
▪ E.g. sangoma’s
▪ African worldwide view →individual is viewed holistically with no separation between mind, body and soul.
▪ Interdependence of people within African cultures explains why mental distress is understood & healed within
the communal context
▪ Thus not unusual for community to be present during ritualistic healing ceremonies.
Disorders Summary
Disorder Marked by Types Aetiology
▪ concordance rate / genetics hypothesis
▪ Neurochemical factors → anxiety sensitivity-
Anxiety disorders Class of disorders marked 1. Generalised anxiety disorder neurological basis (GABA))
by feelings of excessive fear 2. Specific phobic disorder • Fear obtained via classical & maintained via
Anxiety and and anxiety 3. Panic disorder operant conditioning
obsessive [4. Agoraphobia – • preparedness
compulsive related to panic disorder] • certain thinking styles (misinterpret, selective
disorders strong recall, excessive attention on perceived threats
overlap but listed etc)
separately • Precipitating stress before onset
Obsessive- Marked by constant OCD: obsessive compulsive disorder

compulsive unwanted/ uncontrollable
disorders & related thoughts (obsessions) & separately listed under OCD
disorders urges (compulsions) related: Hoarding
- Excoriation(skin-picking)
Trauma-related & Psychological disturbance

stressor-related after major traumatic PTSD
disorders event Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Lose contact with portions 1. Dissociative amnesia • Excessive stress

of consciousness/memory 2. Dissociative identity disorder • severe emotional trauma in childhood
Dissociative Disruptions in sense of (DID) --- (mistakenly called • causes obscure/ little known, controversial
disorders identity schizophrenia)
• norepinephrine & low levels of serotonin
• Structural abnormalities:
- depression & reduced hippocampal volume
1. Major depressive disorder - depression & suppressed neurogenesis
(episodic & chronic) • Hormonal factors:
Depressive & bipolar 2. Bipolar disorder - (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical
and related Disturbed mood/emotion 3. Depressive disorders, bipolar axis (HPA)
disorders disorder s& suicide - Hyperactivity in response to stress
- More cortisol – inhibits neurogenesis
• Cognitive factors → learned helplessness,
rumination, personal flaws not situation
• Interpersonal roots → behavioural approach →
inadequate social skills leads to depressive
disorders.
1. Somatic symptom disorder
Somatic symptom 2. Illness anxiety disorder
and related 3. Conversion disorder
disorders 4. Factitious disorder
1. Delusions and irrational • Neurochemical factors:
thought - dopamine hypothesis – excess dopamine
2. Deterioration of adaptive activity → basis for schizophrenia
behaviour • Structural abnormalities:
Schizophrenia 3. Hallucinations - enlarged brain ventricles
spectrum, & other Disturbed thought 4. Disturbed emotion - Reduction in both grey & white matter
psychotic disorders 5. Positive vs negative - Loss of synaptic density & myelinisation
symptoms • Neurodevelopmental hypothesis → prenatal &
birth disruption in brain maturation
• Expressed emotion (EE)
Ways of thinking/feeling 1. Antisocial personality • Genetic & Environmental factors (cognitive
about oneself and others disorder styles, coping patterns, exposure to stress)
Personality 2. Borderline Personality • primarily early exposure to trauma
disorders Personality disturbances → Disorder (physical/sexual)
where attachment went 3. Narcissistic Personality • contributing factor → dysfunctional family etc. .
wrong during development disorder • cultural context
1. Anorexia nervosa • Genetic vulnerability IS NOT as strong

- Restricting type anorexia • Personality traits
EATING DISORDERS nervosa • Culture context (pro-an, pro-mia sites)
- Binge-eating / purging type • Role of the family → bad role models
2. Bulimia nervosa • Cognitive factors →disturbed thinking
3. Binge-eating disorder ( All or none thinking & Negative automatic thoughts )
Week 5/6/7: Personality: Chapter 12
PERSONALITY (purple - textbook) (Blue – Podcasts/slides etc.)

▪ PERSONALITY:
▪ individuals unique set of consistent behavioural traits.
▪ TWO DEFINITIONS OF PERSONALITY

1. Individualistic definition → emphasises an individual person
- person’s attributes and qualities that make them unique.
2. Social definition → emphasises social context/ environment

- Unique style of interacting with others and of reacting to the environment.
- e.g. SA people personalities are anxious, fearful → due to crime/violent context.
▪ WE ARE ALL EXPERTS IN PERSONALITY

▪ constantly evaluate own & others personalities
▪ Language of personality:
▪ “e.g. she is chatty, my boss is so stupid” phrases(adjectives) for describing personality
▪ Participate in personality via language (these adjectives)
▪ Form opinions of others’ personality – used to include/exclude from life/ social processes or practices
- e.g. social media → Tinder → include/exclude people
- IMPORTANT DEBATES IN PERSONALITY THEORY --- [NB & NOT IN TEXTBOOK]

1. Free will versus Determinism
2. Nature versus Nurture
3. Past versus Present
4. Uniqueness versus Universality
5. Consistency versus Malleability
1. Free will vs Determinism

▪ choices made OR shaped beyond peoples control ?
choices made (humanistic) OR shaped beyond peoples control (psychodynamic)
▪ Humanistic personality theories
- emphasize free will
- argue that people make conscious/forward thinking decisions to achieve their
highest potential.
▪ Psychodynamic theories:
- quite deterministic
- argue that behaviour is shaped by unconscious forces – which undermine rational
behaviour
2. Nature VS Nurture
▪ Born with OR shaped by environment ?
Born with (nature, biological) OR shaped by environment (nurture, behavioural) ?
▪ Biological perspective → argue nature, personality is based on genetic makeup
▪ Behavioural perspective → argue nurture, personality is learned/shaped via environment
3. Past versus Present

▪ Shaped by past OR shaped by present?
Shaped by past (psychodynamic) OR shaped by present (humanistic) ?
▪ Psychodynamic perspective
- past emphasised
- argue childhood experiences shape personality in adulthood.
▪ Humanistic perspective
- present emphasised
- argue personality is motivated by presented circumstances which motivate people
to move forward and upward in life.
4. Uniqueness versus Universality
▪ Unique OR similar across people ?
unique (cognitive behavioural personality theories) OR similar across people ( biological
personality perspective) ?
▪ Cognitive behavioural personality theories
- uniqueness emphasised
- personality is influence by people’s unique thinking processes and patterns.
- Due to cognitive sensory and perceptual processes which are highly individualistic &
differ between people
▪ Biological personality theories (Trait theories)
- universality emphasised
- argue that there are core personality traits that all people are born with
(E.g. introversion)
5. Consistency versus Malleability

▪ Permanent VS ever-changing/evolving?
Permanent (consistency, behavioural personality theories) VS
ever-changing/evolving (malleability, humanistic personality theories) ?
▪ Behavioural personality theories:
- emphasise consistency
- argue that personality is a matter of learned responses to behaviour that is
rewarded or punished.
- Mechanical view
▪ Humanistic personality theories
- emphasise malleability
- argue that personality is based on people’s ever-changing needs in response to
always moving forward.
Debates Summary:
1. Free will vs Choices OR Humanistic → free will & choice /in control
Determinism Beyond peoples Psychodynamic → unconscious forces & determinism
control ?
2. Nature VS Born OR Biological theory → nature, genetic makeup, innate
Nurture Environment shapes Behavioural → nurture, personality is shape
personality ?
3. Past versus Past OR Psychodynamic → past, childhood experiences

Present Present Humanistic Personality → present,
motivated by present circumstances
4. Uniqueness Unique OR Cognitive behavioural personality → uniqueness,

versus Similar/Shared ? Due to cognitive sensory and perceptual process which are
Universality highly individualistic & differ from person to person
Biological perspectives (trait theory) → universality,

core personality traits similar across people
(e.g. introverts)
5. Consistency Permanent Behavioural theories → consistency,

versus personality people relate to other people based on whether we will be
Malleability OR rewarded/ punished. (mechanical)
Ever-changing
personality ? Humanistic personality → malleability
Constantly changing to move forward/challenge themselves .
Growth
▪ Concept of personality used to explain:

• Stability of behaviour over time & across situations (consistency)
• Behavioural differences among people reacting to the same situation (distinctiveness in personality
traits)
▪ Personality traits: durable disposition to behave a certain way in various situations

• Adjectives represent personality traits (honest, dependable, moody, impulsive, anxious ect. )
• e.g. Lindi is very conscientious, Sbu is too timid
• Raymond Cattell (1950):
o used statistical procedure of factor analysis to reduce 171 traits → 16 basic dimensions of
personality.
o Factor analysis:
• correlations among many variables are analysed to find closely related clusters of
variables.
• If measurements of many variables (traits) correlate highly with one another →
assume single factor is influencing them all.
Factor analysis used to identity these hidden factors.
• Hidden factors → basic, higher-order traits that determine → less basic but more
specific traits.
• Cattell concluded → personality can be described completely by measuring just 16
dimensions.
• McCrae & Costa
o used factor analysis to create a simpler five-factor model.
o maintain → personality traits are derived from just 5 higher order trait
FIVE-FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY

1. Neuroticism • Anxious, hostile, self-conscious, insecure & • Worried vs calm
vulnerable • Insecure vs secure
• High neuroticism: Overreact more than others • Self-pitying vs self-satisfied
to stress
• Exhibit: impulsiveness & emotional instability
2. Openness to • Curiosity, flexibility, vivid fantasy, • Imaginative vs down-to-

experience imaginativeness, artistic sensibility, earth
unconventional attitudes • Variety vs routine
• High in openness: preference
Tolerant of ambiguity & less need for closure • Independent vs conforming
on issues
3. Agreeableness • Sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, modest, • Soft-hearted vs ruthless

straightforward • Trusting vs suspicious
• Associated with: • Helpful vs uncooperative
- constructive approaches to conflict
resolution
- Empathy and helping behaviour
4. Conscientious • Disciplined, well-organised, punctual, • Well-organised vs

(constraint – in dependable disorganised
some models) • Constraint is associated with: • Careful vs careless
- strong self-discipline & • Self-disciplined vs weak-
- ability to regulate oneself effectively willed.
5. Extraversion • Outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly, assertive, • Sociable vs retiring

(positive gregarious • Fun-loving vs sober
emotionality) • Positive emotionality (referred to in some • Affectionate vs reserved
trait models)
Studied extensively
• Positive outlook on life
• Motivated to pursue social contact, intimacy,
interdependence
- CRITICISM OF FIVE-FACTOR PERSONALITY (next page)
• Need more than 5 factors to account for diverse personality variation
• Argued honesty-humility – should be recognised as fundamental 6th factor
- Assessing 5-factor personality across university student races found that:

• No significant differences across races – but there were on certain individual factors
• The greatest difference → openness to experience (particularly openness to feelings)
o Whites → scored high
o Indian →intermediate
o Blacks → low
Speculation its due to social/cultural/economic differences between races
- FOUR PERSONALITY THEORIES

1. Psychodynamic perspectives (Freud, Jung)
2. Behavioural perspectives (Skinner, Bandura)
3. Humanistic perspectives (Rogers, Maslow)
4. Biological perspectives (Bronfenbrenner)
1. Psychodynamic Perspectives
Umbrella term for theories:
1. Based on/ inspired by Sigmund Freuds’ work
2. focus on unconscious mental processes.
FREUDS PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY → Freud

- father of psychoanalysis
- Psychodynamic theory → focuses on unconscious mental processes,
- Psychoanalytic Theory attempts to explains personality, motivation, psychological disorders via:
• Unconscious motives & conflicts
• Early childhood experiences
• Methods people use to cope with sexual/aggressive urges
- FREUDS MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS:

▪ sex and sexual repression emphasis
▪ treatment developed for mental disorders → psychoanalysis.
▪ A psychosexual theory of personality.
EXAM Question:
Why does Freud emphasis Sex ?
- developed theory during era of sexual repression (Victorian Period)
- Victorian Period → Social hygiene movement frowned upon matters related to sex &
sexuality
- sex only reserved for procreation only between married individuals
- Confinement of sex to marriage/procreation led to “nervous breakdowns” → laid
foundation of Freuds work
- Thus he argued → sexual instincts affect our behaviour
Developed Treatment for sexual obsessions/neurosis → psychoanalysis

- Talking therapy
- Free association technique → encouraged people to talk about every feeling thought
- Analysed thoughts/dreams called → dream analysis
- Compiled theory of personality about of series of psychosexual conflicts during
childhood that have unconscious influence on adulthood behaviour.
- Three main ideas that underpin Freud’s theory:

▪ Personality is governed by unconscious forces.
2. Unconscious forces are shaped by childhood experiences.
1. Childhood involves a series of psychosexual conflicts.
- CRITICISM OF FREUDS THEORY

1. Behaviour governed by unconscious factors of which they’re unaware
suggests → Individuals are not masters of their own minds
2. Adult personalities shaped by childhood experiences & other factors beyond one’s
control.
Suggests → Individuals are not masters of their destinies
3. Emphasising great importance of how people cope with sexual urges
Suggests → Offended those who held conservative values of his time
LEVELS OF AWARENESS
- Freudian slips - “slips of the tongue” → reveal person’s true feelings
- Freud stated dreams expressed hidden desires.
- THREE LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS:
1. Conscious
2. Preconscious
3. Unconscious
1. Conscious
- Whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time
- E.g. current train of thought, aware your eyes are tried, feel hungry
2. Preconscious
- Material just below the surface of awareness that can easily be retrieved
- E.g. your middle name, argument with friend yesterday
3. Unconscious
- Thoughts, memories, desires that are well below level of conscious awareness.
- Still exert great influence on behaviour
- E.g. forgotten trauma from childhood, repressed sexual desires, hidden
feelings of hostility towards a parent.
- Freud believed → unconscious is much bigger than conscious & preconscious.
Id → only operates Unconscious

Ego and Superego → operate at all 3 levels
FREUDS STRUCTURE OF PEROSNALITY

1. Id 2. Ego 3. Superego
Primitive, instinctive component of : Decision-making component of personality Moral component of personality that
personality that operates acc to that operates acc to reality principle includes social standards of what
pleasure principle. represents right and wrong
Pleasure principle: Reality principle: Focus is on Perfection

demands immediate gratification of Delays gratification of ids urges until In some people: Superego is irrationally
urges appropriate outlet situations can be found demanding for moral perfection → these
individuals are plagued by excessive guilt
Primary-thinking process Secondary thinking process Moral component
(primitive, illogical, irrational, fantasy- (rational, realistic, problem-solving
orientated) orientated) Following Parental and societal rules/
regulations
Operates entirely unconscious Operate at all levels of consciousness Operate at all levels of consciousness
According to Freud → id, ego & superego are distributed differently across 3 levels of awareness
“I want that right now! ” “let’s figure out a way to work together “ “good people don’t think about those
things “
e.g. Eats in lecture because so hungry e.g. so hungry but wait until lecture is over → e.g. not eat chips at all during lecture
realize packet creates too much noise because they are unhealthy
▪ “reservoir of physic energy” ▪ Mediates id and social world/practical
→ houses raw biological urges realities ▪ Superego emerges from ego
that energise human behaviour ▪ Considers social realties (norms, rules) in ▪ Cruel/ punitive because it seeks to
(to sleep, eat, copulate ect.) deciding how to behave. be morally perfect
▪ Strives to avoid negative consequences
▪ Seek immediate satisfaction form society (e.g. punishment from
that triggers internal conflict parents)
with ego & superego. ▪ Attempts to achieve long-term goals via
putting off gratification
▪ Copes with reality to delay Id from
expressing itself during socially
unacceptable times
LECTUER 7 live → we all need some narcissism
CONFLICT & TYRANNY OF SEX AND AGGRESSION

FREUD ARGUED/BELIEVED:
- Behaviour is the result of ongoing internal conflicts between id, ego, superego.
Example:
▪ Id → urge to punch someone irritating you
▪ Ego → will try to keep urge in check → cant punch because society will condemn you
▪ Thus → conflict
- People’s lives are dominated by conflict – people move from one conflict to another
Example:
▪ 7am you wake up for class
▪ Id → pleasure principle – urges you for immediate extra sleep
▪ Ego → reality principle – says you need to attend class else you’ll fail
▪ Id → assures you that you’ll get an A and says go back to sleep
▪ Superego → jumps in when you start to relax → makes you feel guilty about the money your
parents pay for your degree.
▪ Thus → huge battle before even getting out of bed
- Conflicts with sexual/aggressive impulses are especially likely to have far-reaching consequences
& norms that dictate sexual/aggressive drives are routinely frustrated. Freud thought:
1. Sex/aggression – subject to more complex/ambitious social control than basic motives

o Subtle norms govern sexual/aggressive behaviour.
o Often people get inconsistent messages about appropriateness – this
creates confusion.
2. Sexual & aggressive drives are thwarted more regularly than other biological urges.
o Thirsty ? – you drink water from nearby fountain (biological)
o Find someone attractive ? – don’t normally propose hooking up (sexual)
o Someone infuriates you ? – you don’t just punch (aggressive)
ANXIETY AND DEFENCE MECHANISMS

- When internal conflict lingers for days/months/years → conflicts often occur entirely in unconscious.
- May be unaware of battles → can produce anxiety that appears in conscious awareness.
- Arousal of anxiety → crucial event in Freuds theory of personality functioning.
- Defence mechanisms used to ward off anxiety.
- Defence mechanisms:
- unconsciousness reactions that protects a person from unpleasant emotions (anger, sadness, guilt)
- Mental exercises that work via self-deception → to not confront information that is too
overwhelming/uncomfortable/frustrating.
IMPORTANT FOR EXAM
DEFENCE MECHANISMS
FREUD identifies 7 ways ego defend pressure form id & superego
Defence mechanism Definition Example

1. Repression Keep distressing thoughts/feelings • Traumatised soldier has no memory of
buried in unconscious. details of close brush with death.
• Forget name of someone you dislike
• Most basic and widely → repression may be guilty.
used defence mechanism • Mother ignore that daughter is lesbian
• “motivated forgetting” by suggesting dates with boys
2. Projection Attributing one’s own • Husband cheats on wife, so makes her

thoughts/feelings to someone. feel guilty by questioning her
• Makes individual feel whereabouts
guilty • Student worried about exam → makes
• Self-deception witnessed friends more worried than themself
3. Displacement Diverting feelings (usually anger) • After parent scolding → girl takes
from original source to a substitute anger out on her brother.
subject. • Boss is horrible → slam door
• Self-deception witnessed (irrelevant target) or must hold back
anger (due to social restraints) → thus
maybe ends up lashing out at those
closest.
• Person reprimanded by boss → at
home nit-picks flaws of partner
4. Reaction formation Behaving the opposite of one’s true • Men who constantly ridicule/hate gay
feelings. men → because of own homosexual
• Tell-tale sign → desires
exaggerated opposite • Parent must discipline child → spoils
behaviour with expensive/outlandish gifts
5. Regression Reversion to immature behavioural • Adult has a temper tantrum when he

patterns does not get his way.
• When anxious about self-worth - some
adults reverts to boasting and
bragging.
• Mother becomes clingy/needy every
time visiting mothers house
6. Rationalisation Creating false but plausible excuses • Student watches TV instead of

to justify unacceptable behaviour studying →” it won’t help anyway”
• Cheating someone in business →
reduces quilt to “everyone does it “
7. Identification Inflating one’s self-esteem by • Insecure man joins the fraternity to

forming an imaginary/ real alliance boost self-esteem .
with some group/ person • Overweight teen girl → adopts a
dominating appearance to appear
tough
8. Sublimation Channelling unconscious, • Person obsessed with sex → becomes
unacceptable impulses into socially a sex therapist
acceptable/admirable activities • Channels Aggression in rugby
[ Stages are NOT in Exam ]
DEVELOPMENT: Freuds PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
- Freud claimed → basic foundation of individuals personality is developed by 5 years
- Stage Theory of development
• Young children deal with immature but powerful sexual urges (refers to many urges for physical
pleasure)
• Sexual urges shift in focus as child develops through stages
• Names of stages → based on where children focus their erotic energy during that stage
• Psychosexual stages:
o developmental periods with characteristic sexual focus that leaves a mark on adult personality.
o Each stage → has developmental challenges/tasks → how they are handled shapes personality
• Fixation:
o failure to move forward from one stage to the other as expected.
o child’s development stalls for a while
o fixation caused by → excessive gratification of needs during specific stage OR excessive
frustration of needs
o leads to overemphasis on psychosexual needs prominent during stage.
o fixations left over from childhood → affects adulthood
(Know this)
Freuds 5 Psychosexual stages:
o developmental periods with characteristic sexual focus that leaves a mark on adult personality.
1. Oral (birth-1yr) =. pleasure derived sucking.
2. Anal (2-3 yrs.) = pleasure derived from defecating.
3. Phallic (4-5 yrs.) = pleasure derived from genitals.
4. Latency (6 -12yrs) = no erotic pleasure.
5. Genital = (puberty onwards) = pleasure derived from sexual intercourse.
In EXAM: Differences Important

Freud and Jung had major falling out over 2 reasons:
1. Jung argued that human behaviour is not only motivated by sexual impulses and urges.
- Felt Freud placed too much emphasis on sexual urges on peoples personality
2. Jung placed greater emphasis on the role that spirituality and ancestry plays in shaping personality
- Felt Freud neglected consider spirituality/ancestry/heritage are important & shape
personality
FREUDS STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
[ Stages are NOT in Exam ]
Stage Age Key task/experiences
1. Oral 0-1 Pleasure derived from/ Erotic focus → Mouth (sucking, biting)
Key task: weaning (breast/bottle):
• Way children’s feedings experiences are handled → crucial to subsequent
development
• Attributed NB importance to way child is weaned.
• Fixation at oral stage → could form basis for obsessive eating/smoking later
in life, amongst others.
2. Anal 2-3 Erotic focus → Anus (defecating, expelling, retaining faeces)

Key task: potty training (crucial event):
• Severely punitive (intended punishment, harsh) → leads to certain

outcomes
• Heavy reliance on punitive measures leads to association between genital
concerns and anxiety that punishment aroused.
• Genital anxiety → from severe toilet training could lead to anxiety about
sexual activities later in life.
3. Phallic 4-5 Erotic focus → Genitals (masturbating)

Key task: Identifying with adult role models, coping with Oedipal crisis.
• Sexual energy toward oneself

• Boys develop erotically tinged preference for mother
Feel hostility towards father – view as competitor for mothers affection
• Same for girls – special attachment for father
Girls learn boys have different genitals and supposedly develop penis envy:
▪ Girls feel hostile towards mother because they blame her for
anatomical “deficiency”
Oedipal Complex:
• Children manifest erotically tinged desires for opposite-sex parent while
feeling hostility towards same-sex parent.
• Acc to Freud → Children need to resolve this by purging sexual longings for
opposite-sex parent and removing hostility for same-sex parent.
• Healthy psychosexual development – rests on oedipal conflict resolution.
Why?
Continued hostility with same-sex may prevent child from adequality
identifying with parent.
Freud predicted → without identification, sex-typing, conscience and other
developments will not progress normally.
4. Latency 6-12 Erotic focus → None (sexually repressed)
Key tasks: Expanding social contacts
• Childs sexuality is largely repressed – becomes latent (dormant/hidden)

• With puberty child progress to genital stage.
5. Genital Puberty Erotic focus → Genitals (sexual intercourse)

onwards Key tasks: Establishing intimate relationships, Contributing to society via working
• Sexual urges reappear → channelled mostly towards other sex peers not
oneself.
• Freud felt:
▪ foundation for adulthood personality is solidly entrenched now
▪ Future developments are rooted in early/formative experiences.
▪ Unconscious sexual conflicts rooted in childhood experiences →
cause most personality disturbances.
Carl Jung → said Freud overemphasised sexuality.
JUNG’S ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
- Developed Systems of personality → two unconscious continuous systems
- Freud considered Jung to be his successor
- Jung disagreed with Freud, friendship ended → new brand of psychoanalysis → analytical psychology
- Jung: Emphasised unconscious determinants of personality (like Freud) BUT proposed the unconscious consists
of two layers:
2 Unconscious Systems that continuously shapes personality

1. Personal unconsciousness (similar to Freud)
2. Collective consciousness (Jung’s most unique concept -differs from Freud completely)
1. Personal unconsciousness
- (first layer)
- Houses material that is not within one’s conscious awareness because it has been
repressed or forgotten.
- Similar to Freuds unconscious → a reservoir of material that was once conscious but
has been forgotten or suppressed.
- About individual history/past
2. Collective unconsciousness (NB FOR EXAM)

- deeper second layer
- Jung’s most unique/mysterious concept - completely diff from Freud
- Storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people’s ancestral past.
- A repository/ storage for the experiences of hidden or latent experiences inherited
from people’s ancestral past
- Each person shares a collective unconscious with the human race.
▪ Refers to societal and ancestral memories/ experiences that are collected
over generations → which unconsciously influence peoples behaviours
presently
▪ Heritage that people inherit – from one generation to next
▪ Each person’s personality is linked to past ( with childhood and history of
species/culture/ancestry etc)
▪ Example of collective unconscious → how Apartheid history of
violence/oppression still affects SA people today.
- “whole spiritual heritage of mankind’s evolution, born anew in brain structure of
every individual”
- Called ancestral memories → archetypes
- Archetypes:
▪ emotionally charged images/thoughts forms that have universal meaning
(Not memories of actual, personal experiences)
▪ Archetypes → show up in dreams, cultures use of symbols in art, literature
and religion.
▪ Like Freud → Jung depended extensively on dream analysis in treating
patients.
Personal unconscious → individuals history & past

Collective unconscious → societies history & past social- political, economic, cultural events
EVALUATING PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVES
- Research has demonstrated:
▪ Unconscious forces - can influence behaviour
▪ Internal conflict - plays a role in generating psychological distress
▪ Early childhood experiences – power influences on adult personality
▪ defence mechanisms - used to reduce experiences of unpleasant
emotions
- CRITICISMS OF PSYCHODYNAMIC FORMULATIONS:

1. Poor testability
→ too vague & conjectural to permit clear scientific test)
→ how do you prove Id & collective consciences ?
2. Unrepresentative samples
→ Freuds theories based on narrow sample of upper-class, neurotic, sexually repressed
women.
→ Not representative of Western Europe or other cultures
3. Inadequate evidence
→ Psychodynamic theories depend too heavily on clinical case studies in which it is much
too easy for clinicians to see what they expect.
→ Re-examinations of Freuds clinical work → suggested he distorted patients case
histories to make them work for his theory
4. Sexism
→ Psychodynamic theories characterised by a sexist bias against women
(Sex bias has been reduced considerably_
→ Approach is male-centred point of view
2. Behavioural Perspectives pg. 487
- Consider role of environment as important in developing personality
- Behavioural personality theorists are influenced by the school of behaviourism
- Behaviourism: theory where scientific psychology should only study observable behaviour
Behavioural theories – rooted in empirical research – rather than clinical intuition
- Research – was mainly focused on learning – little attention given to personality studies
- Dollard & Miller → attempted to translate Freudian ideas into behavioural terminology → interest picked up
- Focused on how external environment moulds overt behaviour.
SKINNERS IDEA’S APPLIED TO PERSONALITY

- B. F. Skinner → operant conditioning
- Theory describes personality development by explaining response tendencies acquired via
operant conditioning.
- SKINNER Argued for/felt that:
▪ useless to speculate private, unobservable cognitive processes, showed no
interest in what’s happening ‘ inside’ people
▪ strong determinism → asserting behaviour is fully determined by
environmental stimuli.
▪ Free will is an illusion
▪ Saw no reason to break developmental process into
stages
▪ Didn’t attribute special importance to early
childhood experiences
▪ Maintained that environmental consequences
( reinforcement, punishment, extinction) determine
people’s patterns of responding.
Skinners Major Contributions:

1. Response Tendencies
2. Personality is developed through learned responses from the environment
(reinforcement/punishment)
1. Response Tendencies:
- Individuals personality is a collection of response tendencies that are linked to various
stimulus situations.
- People show some consistent patterns of behaviour → because they have some stable
response tendencies – acquired via experience.
- can change due to new experience ( strengthened/weakened by new experiences)
▪ responses leading to negative consequences (punishment) –are weakened
▪ vice versa: response followed by favourable consequence – strengthened
e.g. crack jokes – people laugh – tendency to tell jokes increases
- Stable enough – to create degree of consistency in persons behaviour
- Specific situation → may be associated with response tendencies varying in strength,
depending on past conditioning.
- Felt conditioning strengthens/weakens response tendencies ‘mechanically” – without
persons conscious participation
2. Personality shaped via learned responses from the environment (via reinforcement/punishment)
(KNOW)
1. Reinforcement: when the environment rewards behaviour
- E.g. Child cry’s continuously given positive attention → likely develop attention
seeking personality in adulthood - was reinforced in childhood
2. Punishment: when the environment forbids behaviour
- E.g. child continuously reprimanded every time doesn’t obey rules →
submissive/ docile behaviour as adult
- likely to develop dependent or avoidant personality → because disobedient
behaviour was punished
BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
- not strictly influenced by behaviourism
- He broadened field of behaviourism stating → observable behaviour should also include other factors -
cognition
- Bandura known as – cognitive behavioural personality theorist
BANDURA’S Contributions [KNOW terms]

• Cognitive behavioural personality theory - Emphasised that learned behaviour includes cognitive processes.
• Reciprocal determinism
• Observational learning.
• Models
• Self-efficacy
MAJOR DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BANDURA AND SKINNER (NB FOR EXAM)

Bandura B. F. Skinner
Personality development does not only occur via People only behave based on only
learning (rewarded/punished behaviour) whether rewarded/ punished.
but also cognitive processes (thought before
behaving) Robotic fashion
People have capacity to reflect make decisions Both Skinner & Watson don’t take
before they behave – which then produces an action thought/cognition into account
MAIN which is rewarded/punished
Learned responses + cognitive processes Only Learned responses
Example of Free will vs determinism debate

Banduras theory:
Includes both the influence of the environment in Theory Largely deterministic
shaping personality & people are active in making
meaningful choices/ acting upon environment
1. Response Tendencies
Reciprocal determinism 2. Personality via learned responses from the
EXTRA environment(reinforcement/punishment)
Active participants Passive participants
Not mechanical process Mechanical process
COGNITIVE PROCESSES AND RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM

▪ social cognitive theory → (originally “social learning theory”)
▪ Bandura conducted research on personality, behavioural theory & aggression determinants
▪ Bandura, Mischel & Rotter critique Skinners theory of pure behaviourism because :
- people are conscious, feeling, thinking beings.
- By ignoring cognitive processes → Skinner ignored the most distinctive/important feature of
human behaviour.
▪ Bandura:
- Agreed with behaviourism that personality is largely shaped via learning.
- conditioning is not a mechanical process in which people are passive participants.
- People are ‘self-organising, proactive, self-reflecting, self-regulating’
Therefore people influence their life circumstances & outcomes.
▪ Reciprocal determinism
- idea that internal mental events, external environments and overt behaviour all influence one
another.
- personality is influenced by the power of the environment and people’s choices and actions.
▪ Environment determine behaviour & Behaviour also determines the environment → people can select
their environments and act to alter them (e.g. changing friend groups)
▪ Personal factors (cognitive structures – beliefs/experiences) determine and are determined by both
environment and behaviour.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
▪ Bandura’s foremost theoretical contribution
▪ Observational learning:
- when organism’s responding is influenced by behaviour of others, who are called models.
- People learn through observing the behaviour of other people.
▪ Both classical and operant conditioning → can occur vicariously when one person observes another’s
conditioning. E.g. observational learning → watching sister get in trouble for not studying – will
encourage you to study.
▪ Model:
- person whose behaviours is observed by another / the behaviour of the person that we observe
- Peoples characteristic patterns of behaviour are shaped by models they are exposed to.
E.g. parents modes/teachers/ politicians/ religious leaders
- More likely to follow famous musicians behaviour than parents
▪ Many response tendencies – are product of imitation
▪ Reasons likely for imitation:
1. Adults/children mimic people they respect/like
2. Children tend to imitate same-sex role models more than opposite-sex models.
3. Imitate behaviour of attractive/powerful people
4. people see similarity between models and themselves
5. People copy a model if they see their behaviour → leads to positive outcomes.
SELF-EFFICACY
▪ Self-efficacy:
- one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviours / accomplish goals
▪ Perceptions of self-efficacy are subjective and task specific.
▪ High self-efficacy → feel confident that they can execute responses needed to earn reinforcers
e.g. confident to execute reposes necessary to earn reinforcers
▪ Low self-efficacy → worry that necessary responses may be beyond their abilities.
e.g. doubtful of ability to handle academic challenges.
Evaluating Behavioural Perspectives

1. Dehumanising nature of radical behaviourism
▪ Skinner & others criticised for →heavily denying free will existence & importance of cognitive
processes
▪ Radical behaviourist view → strips human behaviour of its unique human elements.
▪ Cannot provide accurate model of human functioning
2. Dilution of behavioural approach
▪ The increase use of social cognitive processes (which was previously neglected) → blunted
criticism
▪ BUT – social cognitive theory undermines foundations of behaviourism – the idea that only
observable behaviour should be studied in psych.
▪ Critics feel – not very behavioural anymore
3. Humanistic Perspectives
- Humanism: emphasises unique qualities of humans – especially freedom & potential for personal growth.
- Optimistic-, growth- , health-orientated approach → laid foundation for positive psychology movement
- Humanistic perspective → 3rd force in psychology
- Opposition to psychodynamic & behaviourisms determinism
- Humanists assume:
o People can rise above primitive animal heritage
o largely conscious & rational beings – who are not dominated by
unconscious, irrational conflicts
o people are not pawns of deterministic forces
Major Contributions of Rogers:

▪ Rogers argued that people always know what is best for them; they naturally gravitate towards personal
growth; they are forward thinking and moving.
▪ self-concept
▪ Incongruence
▪ Conditional love
▪ Unconditional love
ROGERS PERSON-CENTRED THEORY

- Emphasis on persons subjective view
- Rogers:
o person-centred theory
o one of founders for human potential movement
o Movement emphasised – self-realisation via sensitivity training, encounter groups – to foster
personal growth
THE SELF (Rogers)

o saw personality structure as one construct → the self (known as self-concept)
o Self-concept:
▪ collection of beliefs of one’s own nature, unique qualities & typical behaviour
▪ own mental image of yourself → collection of self-perceptions
“I am hardworking”
▪ aware of self-concept → not unconscious (like Freud)
▪ people’s self-concept reasonably accurate – congruent with reality
▪ people may distort self-concept – for favourable self-concept (e.g. social media)
o Incongruence:
▪ Degree of disparity between one’s self-concept & one’s actual reality
(gap between self-concept & reality)
OR person whose self-concept is defined by an idealised version of themselves
▪ E.g. of incongruence → People obsessed with cosmetic surgery, social media
Acc to Rogers:
- Everyone experiences some incongruence
- Too much incongruence → undermines one’s psychological well-being
- Incongruence is produced by conditional love
- Makes one prone to recurrent anxiety – which triggers defensive behaviour –
which fuels more incongruence
Self-Concept Actual experience
Congruent
Self-Concept Actual experience
Incongruent
DEVELOPMENT OF SELF (Rogers)
o Rogers → how childhood experiences promote congruence/incongruence
o Acc to Rogers:
▪ People have strong need for → affection, love, acceptance from others
▪ Some parents make affection conditional → dependent on child meeting expectations, good
behaviour
When parental love is conditional →fosters incongruence

▪ Conditional love: when people are made to feel worthy only when they have fulfilled certain
conditions laid down by significant others.
▪ children block out self-concept – (experiences that make them feel unworthy of love)
▪ they do this because they are worried about parental acceptance – which appears unstable
▪ if individuals grow up believing affection is highly conditional → they will go on to distort more &
more experiences in order to feel worthy of acceptance – from wider range of people.
When parents display unconditional love → Fosters congruence

▪ Unconditional love = refers to no conditions nor restrictions that are placed
on a child’s/person’s need for love from their parents/loved ones.
▪ children have less need to block out experiences unworthy experiences
because they have been assured they are worthy of affection → no matter
what they do.
ANXIETY AND DEFENCE

- Acc to Rogers:
▪ Experiences that threaten peoples personal views of themselves → principle causes of anxiety.
▪ The more inaccurate your self-concept → more likely to have experiences that clash with self-
perception’s
▪ Highly incongruent self-concept’s → more likely to experience recurrent anxiety
▪ To avoid anxiety - they behave defensively – with effort to reinterpret their experience so that it
appears consistent with their self-concept
▪ THUS: Ignore, deny, twist reality → protect & perpetuate their self-concept
ROGERS VIEW OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT & DYNAMICS
Believe affection Need to distort Relatively Recurrent

from others shortcomings to feel incongruent anxiety
is conditional worthy of affection self-concept
Defensive behaviour
protects inaccurate
self-concept
MASLOWS THEORY OF ACTUALISATION
- Abraham Maslow → optimistic view of human nature – doesn’t dwell on disorder causes
- Like Rogers, Maslow argues that people are innately driven to move forward and succeed in
life (motivation is biological – comes naturally to people)
Major Contributions of Maslow

▪ Hierarchically of needs
▪ description of healthy personality
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS – Maslow

▪ Human motives are organised in hierarchy of needs.
▪ Hierarchy of needs:
- systematic arrangement of needs, acc to priority where basic needs
must be met before less basic needs are aroused.
- Needs at bottom of pyramid → most basic
- Needs at top of pyramid → progressively less basic needs
(top are growth needs – knowledge, aesthetic beauty)
- When a person satisfies a level of needs reasonably well (complete
satisfaction not needed) → satisfaction activates needs at next level
▪ Maslow argued:
- People have innate drive for personal growth – evolution to higher state of being
- self-actualisation need → need to fulfil one’s potential
→ highest need in Maslow’s motivational hierarchy.
PROGRESSION
if lower needs are satisfied
GROWTH NEEDS
(uppermost of pyramid)
REGGRESSION
if lower needs not satisfied
HEALTHY PERSONALITY
▪ Self-actualised people
- have exceptionally healthy personalities – marked by continued personal growth
- e.g. of self-actualised person – Nelson Mandela
- Identified traits characteristic of self-actualised people
▪ tuned into reality
▪ at peace with themselves
▪ open & spontaneous – retain fresh appreciation of world around them
▪ Socially → sensitive to others’ needs & enjoy rewarding interpersonal relationships
▪ Not dependent on others for approval & or uncomfortable with solitude
▪ Thrive at work – enjoy their sense of humour
▪ Have “peak experiences” (profound emotional highs) → more often than others
▪ Good balance between many polarities in personality
▪ (e.g. both child-like and mature, rational and intuitive, conforming and rebellious)
EVALUATING HUMANISITIC PERSPECTIVES
1. Poor testability
- Generating hypothesises – difficult to scientifically test
- Difficult to define/measure → self-actualization & personal growth
2. Unrealistic view of human nature
- Maslow’s self-actualising people → sound too perfect
- Not very research orientated
Differences & Criticisms

Psychodynamic Behavioural perspective Humanistic perspective Biological
perspective perspective
▪ Too deterministic ▪ Too deterministic ▪ Optimistic ▪ Too much
▪ Primitive, animalistic ▪ Denying free will & approach emphasis on
drives importance of (Both Rogers & inheritance
▪ Overemphasised cognitive processes Maslow) ▪ Doesn’t
sexuality ▪ Preoccupation with ▪ Persons subjective take into
animal research views are more account
▪ Mechanicalistic view important than social
of personality objective reality context
▪ Optimistic- ,
growth, health-
orientated
approach
4. Biological Perspectives
o Personality is genetically inherited.
o Twin Studies on personality → cited as evidence that personality is genetic.
o Hans Eysenck → developed behavioural genetics – role genes play in shaping personality
ARGUED 3 CORE PERSONALITY TRAITS PEOPLE BORN WITH:
1. Extraversion
2. Neuroticism
3. Psychopathy
Biological perspectives consists of Trait & Evolutionary Theories

1. TRAIT THEORIES
- Def: Durable disposition in which people behave (Disposition → inherited)
- Five Factor Model of personality
BEHAVIOURAL PERSPECTIVES
▪ Research supports → many personalities are largely inherited
▪ Observed both identical & fraternal twins:
o Wondered if environmental factors (rather than heredity) were responsible for twins’ greater
personality resemblance ?
o University of Minnesota did a test
o Admitted same personality test to both identical & fraternal twins → both reared apart and
together.
Results:
personality similarity of twins raised apart > personality similarity of fraternal twins raised together
o Thus: behavioural genetics supports → notion that genetic blueprints shape individuals personalities
2. EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES
▪ Personality has biological basis → due to natural selection – favouring traits over human history
▪ Focuses on → how various personality traits & ability to recognise traits in others → contributed to
reproductive fitness in ancestral human populations.
▪ Natural selection = when personality traits continuously present in people because of their adaptive
value for the humankind.
▪ E.g. extraversion tends to survive/ adaptive purpose → create networks → rich people
help poorer via supportive systems
▪ E.g. explorers/ colonisers (Vasco da Gama) → able to discover new land via extraversion
▪ E.g. introversions → favourable for future pandemics survival
Evaluating Biological Perspectives

▪ Researchers compiled convincing evidence that → biological factors exert considerable influence over
personality
▪ However, there are weaknesses in this approach
1. Inordinate focus on heritability is ill-advised → researchers focusing too much on
determining size of heritability coefficient
2. Efforts to put behaviour into genetic and environmental components are artificial
→ effects of nature & nurture are too complicated to separate.
CULTURE AND PERSONALITY (NB FOR EXAM)
▪ culture plays in shaping our personality – can’t deny it
▪ Individualistic personality theories behaviour (psychodynamic, behavioural, humanistic biological) →
emphasis on individual behaviour RATHER THAN focusing on norms/values imbedded within social
environment.
- Promote values that are consistent with Eurocentric /Western contexts where people are
encouraged to be individualistic/ competitive.
▪ South African context → have cultures that emphasise community/interdependence/ interconnectedness
rather than individualism.
- E.g. self-actualization → sought after, very individualistic characteristic → discriminates against
interdependence/ community etc.
▪ Becomes culturally bias to use individualistic theories to understand personalities of SA cultures (Black, Zulu
communities – emphasis on collectives, don’t think of individual)
▪ Must be critical of applying Freud/ Bandura etc - to avoid discrimination
TEXTBOOK:
▪ Research aimed to establish:
o Whether Western personality constructs are relevant to other cultures ?
o Whether cultural differences are seen in the prevalence of specific personality traits ?
o Studies found continuity & variability across cultures
▪ RESEARCH : Hazel Markus & Shinobu Kitayama on Culture and Personality:
o Compared American & Asian conceptions of self
o American culture:
- Parents aught children self-reliance, feel good about themselves
- View themselves as special individuals
- Encouraged to excel in competitive events & stand out
- Learn to define themselves acc to personal attributes, abilities, accomplishments &
possessions
- Westernised view encouraging strive for success (especially physical possessions)
▪ African cultures → don’t attribute personal esteem & success with a persons’ physical possessions
▪ Personality has been studied regarding cultural syndromes of individualism VS collectivism:
▪ Individualism: personal goals ahead of group goals & defining one’s identity in terms of personal
attributes
▪ Collectivism: Group goals ahead of personal goals & defining one’s identity in terms of the group one
belongs to.
▪ (Ones family, tribe, work group, social class, caste ect.)

▪ Individualisation & Collectivism → leads to cultural differences in self-enhancement
▪ Self-enhancement: focusing on positive feedback form others & exaggerating one’s strengths & seeing oneself
as above average.
▪ Self-enhancement → Prevalent in individualistic cultures – less common in collectivist cultures
▪ IN SA:
o Westernised views encourage striving towards Rogers’ self-actualisation
o Many traditionally inclined Africans – do not focus on individual achievements as much – rather
collective as a whole.
o Western-inclined cultures – independent, move out of families home sooner
o African – many generations living together, raise own families in same home
▪ Traditionally:
o Afr. & Eng. whites in SA
→ adopt European-Western culture, individualism.
o Black societies
→ group is central, in-group norms have priority over personal feelings/wishes,
self is interdependently defined, more collectivist.
Urie Bronfenbrenner Theory of Ecology
▪ Formed ecological theory → effectively accounts for context where individual lives.
▪ Children exist in several different systems – which all interact in a complex manner.
▪ Acc to Bronfenbrenner → child’s development is always changing – does not remain static.
▪ System divided into four levels
1. Microsystem
2. Mesosystem
3. Exosystem
4. Macrosystem
1. Microsystem
- Child and others in immediate environment (nuclear family)
[Most direct & immediate to child]
- Time spent with individuals in microsystem → significant impact on child’s development
- Child can have more than one microsystem ( 1. Family 2. Day-care)
2. Mesosystem
- Reciprocal interactions between various microsystems – home, neighbourhood, school,
peers
- E.g. something happening in family (divorce) may influence child’s functioning at school
3. Exosystem
- Social setting around surrounding the child.
- Indirectly influenced by social setting – although child may not directly experience the
consequence of this.
- E.g. religious institutions, media, parent’s work environment
4. Macrosystem
- Broadest context
- Cultures and subcultures – each with own value/ belief system
- E.g. various cultural groups share same common identity, heritage, values
- Cultural groups live in larger contexts – SA contexts
- Macrosystems evolve over time
- Each successive generation develops a unique macrosystem due to influence of socio-
historical events/changes
FOUR Personality Perspectives Summary
Theory About Evaluating theories
 Structure of personality 1. Poor testability

1. Psychodynamic (Id, Ego, Superego) ▪ too vague & conjectural to permit
perspectives clear scientific test
 Level of awareness
(conscious, preconscious, unconscious) 2. Unrepresentative samples .
▪ Not representative of other cultures
focuses on unconscious  Conflict - Sex and Aggression ▪ Mainly repressed women studied
mental processes
 Anxiety and defence mechanisms (8) 3. Inadequate evidence
( Freud & Jung ) ▪ Arousal of anxiety ▪ depend too heavily on clinical case
studies.
 Psychosexual stages (Freud) ▪ Suggested Freud distorted patients
▪ Oral, anal, Phallic, latency, genital case histories → for his theory
▪ Fixation 4. Sexism
▪ Approach is male-centred point of view
 Analytical psychology (Jung)
1. Personal unconsciousness
2. Collective consciousness
Archetypes
 Role of environment important in 1. Dehumanising nature of radical

2. Behavioural developing personality behaviourism
▪ Denying free will & importance of
Perspectives  Response tendencies & learned Reponses cognitive processes
dictate personality (Skinner) ▪ strips unique human elements
Consider role of ▪ inaccurate model of human functioning
environment as important  Bandura’s
▪ Social cognitive theory 2. Dilution of behavioural approach
(Skinner & Bandura )
▪ Reciprocal determinism ▪ Behaviourism introduced social
▪ Observational learning cognitive process (prev. ignored)
which contradicts basis of behaviourism
 Self-efficacy (which only studies observable
behaviour)
 Rogers Person-Centred Theory 1. Poor testability

3. Humanistic ▪ The Self ▪ difficult to scientifically test
▪ Difficult to define/measure → self-
Perspectives - Self-concept
actualization & personal growth
- Incongruence
- Conditional/conditional ▪
Uniqueness & potential for parents 2. Unrealistic view of human nature
growth ▪ Development of Self ▪ self-actualising people → sound too
▪ Anxiety and Defences perfect
(Rogers & Maslow )
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ▪ Not very research orientated
▪ Self-actualization
 Behavioural perspective Attacked for neglecting social context

4. Biological ▪ Genetics shape personalities
perspectives Weaknesses
 Evolutionary perspective - Inordinate focus on heritability is ill-advised
▪ Personality has biological basis → → researchers focusing too much on
many personalities are due to natural selection determining size of heritability coefficient
largely inherited - Efforts to put behaviour into genetic and
 Culture & personality environmental components are artificial
( Bronfenbrenner )
▪ Individualism VS collectivism → effects of nature & nurture are too
complicated to separate.
 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory:
(microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem)

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PSYCHOLOGY 144 SUMMARIES

DEVELOPMENT pg. 430

Three stages of prenatal period

Germinal stage → Embryonic stage → Foetal stage

▪ First 24h to 36h → cell partition starts

External cells → maintains embryo

Internal coat → forms the embryo

▪ Day 6/7 → Blastocyst connects with uterine wall

▪ By day 12 → Implantation - completely buried in uterine tissue

- Blastocyst internal cells → start to concentrate cells in a specific area.

Week 8 (last embryonic stage):

2. MATERNAL NUTRITIONAL STATUS DURING PREGNANCY

- Access to nutrients fluctuates over time:

3. MATERNAL STRESS & EMOTION

- Other effects correlated with maternal stress for child:

- Central nervous system (CNS) indicators:

PRESCRIPTION AND OVER-THE-COUNTER DRUGS

6. INFLUENCE OF CULTURE & FAMILY

NB: FOR PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

CULTURAL VARIATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

TEMPERAMENT pg. 440:

▪ THREE BASIC STYLES OF TEMPERAMENT (observed by Thomas & Chess) :

Observed by Thomas & Chess:

- infant-mother attachment → not spontaneous:

Initially little special preference for mother

6 – 8 months ▪ great preference for mother – protests when she’s gone

Mary Ainsworth: Patterns of Attachment

THREE TYPES OF ATTACHMENT PATTERNS

2. Anxious-ambivalent attachment (resistant attachment)

4. Disorganised-disoriented attachment (discovered later)

- maternal behaviours – key influence over the type of attachment formed

Language development in children

First 6 months cry coo, laugh → then babble

10 -13 months sounds that correspond to real words

Vocabulary increases slowly for next few months

18 months + Learn rapidly when they realise everything has a name:

End of 2nd year: Begin to combine words into sentences

- can express complex ideas (requiring plurals and past tense)

- gradually acquire finer points of grammar usage (not one leap)

Stage Theories assume that:

ERIKSON’S STAGE THEORY

▪ Can I do things or must I always rely on others ?

▪ Will I produce something of real value ?

8. Integrity vs Despair ▪ Have I lived a full life ?

4 MAJOR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

▪ Beginning of stage – innate reflexes dominate behaviour

Conservation: awareness that physical quantities remain constant despite

▪ REASONS FOR CHILDREN’S NOT UNDERSTAND CONSERVATION?

3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL PERIOD

▪ Children graduate to relatively adult modes of thinking in this stage:

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

2. Children simultaneously display thinking patterns characteristic of many stages

3. Not a universal process (like Piaget argued)

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

How they differ in children’s cognitive development:

Culture has great influence on cognitive Universal process

Language acquisition plays a crucial Viewed language mastery – as just another

o Heinz’s dilemma - moral dilemma created by Lawrence Kohlberg