The Language of Chemistry

Symbol

The specific abbreviation used to denote the name of an element is called its symbol.

Significance of a Symbol
1. A symbol represents a short form of an element.
2. It represents one atom of the element.
3. It indicates the atomic weight of an element. The quantity of the element is equal to its atomic mass or
gram atomic mass or atomic mass unit (amu).

Symbol of Elements
 In 1807, John Dalton, a scientist, tried to name the various elements based on pictorial symbols.
Symbols of some elements as proposed by Dalton are shown in the diagram.
 In 1814, the Swedish Chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius devised a system using letters of the
alphabet. He put forward certain points for presentation.
1. In most cases, the first letter of the name of an element was taken as the symbol for that element
and written in capitals.

Name Symbol
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Hydrogen H

2. In some cases, the initial letter of the name in capital along with its second letter in small was used.

Name Symbol
Calcium Ca
Aluminium Al
Silicon Si

3. The symbols for some elements were derived from their Latin names.

English name of Latin name of the Symbol

the element element
Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Iron Ferrum Fe
Copper Cuprum Cu
Silver Argentum Ag
Gold Aurum Au
Mercury Hydragyrum Hg
Lead Plumbum Pb
Tin Stannum Sn
 The symbols of elements in use today are those as first suggested by the Swedish chemist Berzelius.
 The method suggested by Berzelius forms the basis of the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry) system of chemical symbols and formulae.
 The names and symbols decided by IUPAC are used all over the world for international trade.

Modern Symbols of Elements

The modern symbols of elements are derived from their English or Latin names which are made up of
either the first letter or a letter appearing later in the name.

Name of the Symbol Latin Name Name of the Symbol Latin Name
element element
Hydrogen H — Nickel Ni —
Oxygen O — Manganese Mn —
Boron B — Calcium Ca —
Carbon C — Chlorine Cl —
Fluorine F — Bromine Br —
Iodine I — Chromium Cr —
Nitrogen N — Cobalt Co —
Phosphorus P — Lead Pb Plumbum
Sulphur S — Mercury Hg Hydrargyrum
Barium Ba — Phosphorus P —
Iron Fe Ferrum Sodium Na Natrium
Gold Au Aurum Potassium K Kalium
Silver Ag Argentum Tin Sn Stannum
Tungsten W Wolfram Uranium U —
(German name)
Lithium Li — Zinc Zn —

 Valency
Valency is the combining capacity of an atom or a radical.
For example, valency of carbon is 4 because it combines with four atoms of hydrogen to yield
methane (CH4).
 Valency with respect to Hydrogen atom
The number of hydrogen atoms which combines with or displaces one atom of that element or
radical. The valency is taken to be 1 and is considered as standard.
 Modern definition of valency
The number of electrons which an atom can lose, gain or share during a chemical reaction to attain
the stable configuration of the nearest inert gas element is called its valency.
 Valence electrons
The electrons present in the outermost shell or valence shell are known as valence electrons.
 Definition of valency with respect to valence electrons
The number of electrons donated or accepted or shared by its atom during a chemical reaction is
called valence electrons, and the number of these electrons is called the valency of that element.
 Variable valency
Sometimes, the same element may exhibit one valency in one compound and another valency in
other compound. This property is called variable valency.
 Examples:

Element Symbol Valencies exhibited

(variable valencies)
Copper Cu 1, 2
Iron Fe 2, 3
Sulphur S 2, 3, 4

Ions or Radicals

An ion or radical is an atom or a group of atoms of same or different elements which behave as a single
unit with a positive or negative ion.
Radicals have their own combining power based on which they form chemical formulae.

Classification of ions or radicals depending on their number of charges

The number of charges indicates the number of electrons lost or gained by the atom or group of atoms.
Depending on the number of charges, 1, 2, 3 or 4, the ions or radicals are described as monovalent,
divalent, trivalent and tetravalent, respectively.

List of common electrovalent positive ions or radicals

1. Monovalent electropositive ions

Ammonium NH +
4
Cuprous Cu+
Mercurous Hg+

2. Bivalent electropositive ions

2+
Argentic Ag
2+
Ferrous Fe
2+
Stannous Sn
2+
Cupric Cu

3. Trivalent electropositive ions

3+
Aluminium Al
3+
Chromium Cr
3+
Arsenic As

4. Tetra positive ions

4+
Plumbic Pb
4+
Stannic Sn
List of common electrovalent negative ions or radicals

1. Monovalent electronegative ions

− −
Acetate CH3COO Permanganate MnO4
− −
Bisulphite HSO3 Cyanide CN
− −
Bisulphate HSO4 Hypochlorite ClO

2. Bivalent electronegative ions

2− 2−
Carbonate CO3 Silicate SiO3
2− 2−
Oxide O Chromate CrO4
2− 2−
Sulphate Oxalate (COO)2

SO4

3. Trivalent electronegative ions

3−
Arsenate A5O4
3−
Phosphide P
3−
Phosphate PO4
3−
Borate BO3

4. Tetravalent electronegative ions

4−
Carbide C
4−
Ferro cyanide [Fe(CN)6]
Molecular Formula or Chemical formula

A molecular formula, also known as a chemical formula, is a combination of elemental symbols and
subscript numbers which is used to show the composition of a compound.
Examples:
Silica is represented as SiO2.
Marble is represented as CaCO3.

Writing the Chemical Formulae

Step 1: Write the symbol of a basic radical (element with positive valency) to the left-hand side and that of
the acid radical (element with negative valency) to the right-hand side.
Step 2: Write the valency of each of the respective radicals at the right-hand top of its symbol.
Step 3: Divide the valency by their highest common factor (HCF), if any, to get the simple ratio. Ignore
(+) or (−) symbols of the radicals.
Step 4: Cross the reduced valencies. If 1 appears, then ignore it. If a group of atoms receives a valency
more than 1, then enclose it within brackets.

Magnesium chloride Ammonium sulphate

Example of magnesium chloride and ammonium sulphate

Significance of Molecular Formula

The molecular formula of a compound has quantitative significance. It represents
1. The name of the substance.
2. Both the molecule and the molecular mass of the compound.
3. The respective numbers of different atoms present in one molecule of a compound.
4. The ratios of the respective masses of the elements present in the compound.

Chemical Equation
A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction with the help of chemical
formulae of the reactants and products in the reaction.
The reaction can be represented by either a word equation or by a chemical equation using symbols and
formulae.
Word equation
Chemical equation

Skeletal Equation
A chemical equation in which the total number of atoms of each element on the reactant’s side is not
equal to the number of atoms of the same element on the product’s side is called an unbalanced
equation. This equation is also called a skeletal equation.

The number of oxygen atoms in the reactant on the left-hand side is not equal to the number of oxygen
atoms on the right-hand side.

Balanced Chemical Equation

The equation in which the total number of atoms of each element in the reactants on the left-hand side of
the equation is the same as the number of atoms in the products formed on the right-hand side of the
equation is called a balanced chemical equation.

Balancing of a Chemical Equation

A. Hit and Trial Method
In this method of balancing chemical equations, trials are made to balance the equation by using the
smallest whole number coefficient. Hence, this method is called the hit and trial method.
i. Count the number of times an element occurs on both sides.
ii. An element with the least frequency of occurrence is balanced first.
iii. When two or more elements have same frequency, metallic elements are balanced first.
Example: Pb(NO3)2 PbO + NO2 + O2

In this equation,
Component Reactant Product
Lead 1 1
Nitrogen 2 1
Oxygen 6 5

The balanced equation is

2Pb(NO3)2  2PbO + 4NO2 + O2

B. Balancing a chemical equation by the partial equation method

A chemical equation can be balanced easily by supposing a stepwise complex reaction to take place.
Write equations for these steps and then add these equations. This method is known as balancing by
the partial equation method.
Equation 1: Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to give water and nascent oxygen.

H2O2  H2O + [O]

Hydrogen peroxide Water Nascent Oxygen

Equation 2: Nascent oxygen obtained oxidises potassium iodide in the presence of water to give
potassium hydroxide and iodine.

2KI + H2O + [O]  2KOH + I2

Potassium iodide Water Nascent Oxygen Potassium hydroxide Iodine

Add the steps and cancel what is common on opposite sides.

H2O2  H2O +[O] Equation 1

2KI + H2O + [O]  2KOH + I2 Equation 2

2KI(s) + H2O2 (l)  2KOH (l) + I(s) Final equation

Potassium Hydrogen Potassium Iodine
Iodide peroxide hydroxide

Information conveyed by a balanced chemical equation

 The chemical nature of the reactants and products.
 The nature of elements and radicals involved.
 Chemical composition of the respective molecules.
 The direction of the reaction, i.e. whether the reaction is irreversible (  ) or reversible ( ).
 The states of matter, i.e. whether the substances are present in the solid (s), liquid (l) or gaseous
(g) state.

Limitations of a Chemical Equation

 Concentration of both reactants and products.
 Speed of the reaction.
 Colour change occurring during the reaction.
 Completion of the reaction.
 Change in the evolution of heat, light or sound energy during the reaction.

Molecular Mass
The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of its constituent atoms present in a
molecule.
th
The atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to one-twelfth (1/12 ) the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
 Chemical Changes and Reactions
A chemical reaction is the process of breaking the chemical bonds of the reacting substances (reactants)
and making new bonds to form new substances (products).

A chemical bond is the force which holds the atoms of a molecule together, as in a compound.

Conditions Necessary for a Chemical Change

The following conditions are necessary for a chemical change:

Close physical A chemical reaction occurs when two substances are mixed in their solid
contact (Mixing) state.
Iodine and sulphur react explosively when brought into close contact.
Solution A chemical reaction occurs when two substances are mixed in the
solution form.
Sodium carbonate and tartaric acid vigorously react only in the solution
state.
Heat Some chemical reactions occur only on heating.
Hea t
CuCO3    CuO + CO2
Light Reactions which occur by the action of light are called photochemical
reactions or photolysis. Molecules of the reactants absorb light energy,
get activated and then react rapidly.
Photosynthesis:
Sun light
6CO2 + 6H2O  
 C6H12O6 + 6O2
(Glucose)
Electricity Chemical reactions such as decomposition of compounds occur only
when electricity is passed through the substance.
Elec tric Curr ent
2H2O      2H2 ↑ + O2 ↑
Pressure Some reactions occur only when substances are subjected to high
pressure.
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
Catalyst Some chemical reactions need a catalyst to accelerate or decelerate
their rates of reaction. Catalysts themselves do not take part in the
reaction. A catalyst such as Pt or MnO2 initiates a change in the rate of
the reaction without undergoing any change in its chemical composition.
Pt
4NH3 + 5O2   4NO + 6H2O
800 C

Positive catalyst:
A positive catalyst accelerates a reaction.
Negative catalyst:
A negative catalyst retards a reaction.
 Sound Some chemical reactions proceed only by absorption of sound energy. Sound energ
C2H2 Sound Energy  2C + H2

Characteristics of a Chemical Reaction

1. Evolution of gas In a chemical reaction, a gas may be one of the products.

Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2 ↑
2. Change of colour Some chemical reactions are characterised by a change in the
colour of the reactants.
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
3. Formation of Some chemical reactions are characterised by the formation of a
precipitate precipitate. The precipitate is an insoluble solid substance.
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
4. Change of state In some reactions, a change of a state is observed. The reaction
starts with solid or liquid reactants and ends up with gaseous
products and vice versa.
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)

Types of Chemical Changes or Chemical Reactions

A chemical reaction is the process of breaking chemical bonds of the reacting substances (reactants) and
making new bonds to form new substances (products).

1. Direct A chemical reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single p
combination or synthesis
Combination of two elements: 2Fe(s) +S(s) →FeS(s) IronSulphurIron sulphide

Combination of an element and a compound: 2CO(g) + O2(g) heat 2CO2(g)

Combination of two or more compounds: PbO2(s)+SO2(s)→PbSO4(s)

Lead dioxide Sulphur dioxideLead sulphate
2. Decomposition A chemical reaction in which a single compound splits into two or more
reaction simple substances.

2HgO(s) → 2Hg(s) + O2↑

Mercuric oxide Mercury Oxygen

Decomposition occurs by application of heat or light or by the passage of

electric current.

Electrolysis of acidulated water: On passing electric current through

acidulated water, water produces two volumes of hydrogen gas and one
volume of oxygen gas.

2H2O(l) Electric Current2H2(g) + O2(g)

Thermal decomposition: A decomposition reaction brought about by heat.

2 KClO3 Heat  2KCl + 3O2

In a decomposition reaction:
1) A compound can break up into two or more elements.

(a) 2HgO  2Hg O
(s) (l) 2(g)
elec tric
(b) 2H O   2H O
2 (l) current 2(g) 2(g)

2) A compound can break up to form both elements and compounds.

Hea t
2 KNO3    2KNO2 + 3O2
3) A compound can break up to form two or more new compounds.
CaCO heat CaO CO
3(s) 1000  (s) 2(g)
Thermal decomposition of a metal compound:
(i) Metal hydroxide

(ii) Metal carbonates

 (iii) Metal bicarbonates
Metal bicarbonates or metal hydrogen carbonates decompose
to give metal carbonate, water vapour and carbon dioxide.

NaHCO3  Na2CO3

 H2O CO2
sodiumhydrogencarbonate sodiumcarbonte

(iv) Metal nitrates

3. Reversible A reaction in which the direction of a chemical change can be easily

reaction reversed by changing the conditions under which the reaction is taking
place.

3Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 4H2

Thermal dissociation
A reaction in which a substance dissociates into two or more simpler
substances on the application of heat is called a thermal dissociation
reaction. It is a reversible reaction.
Heat

NH4Cl(s) Cool NH3 + HCl(g)

4. Displacement A reaction in which the more reactive element displaces the less reactive
reaction element from its compound.
Zinc displaces copper in copper sulphate to form zinc sulphate.

5. Double A reaction in which ions of the reactants exchange places to form two new
displacement compounds.

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

6. Double A type of chemical change in which two compounds in a solution react to

decomposition form two new compounds by the mutual exchange of radicals.
These reactions are of two types—precipitation reaction and neutralisation
reaction.
Precipitation reaction

The insoluble solid formed during a double displacement reaction is called a

precipitate.
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2 → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
 Neutralisation reaction

The reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water is called a
neutralisation reaction.

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Uses of neutralisation reaction in everyday life:

a) Venom of honey bee contains formic acid. When someone is stung
by a bee, formic acid enters the skin and produces pain which can be
relieved by rubbing the spot with slaked lime or baking soda both of
which are bases.
b) Acidity is caused by excess secretion of HCl by stomach glands. It
can be relieved by taking milk of magnesia or sodium hydrogen
carbonate, both of which are bases. On the other hand, deficiency of
HCl is covered up by taking any suitable acid in the dilute form.

Hydrolysis

It is the process in which a salt and water react to form an acidic or a basic
solution.

1) Hydrolysis of a salt formed by the reaction of a strong base and a

weak acid forms a basic solution which turns red litmus blue.
2) Hydrolysis of a salt formed by the reaction of a strong acid and a
weak base forms an acidic solution which turns blue litmus red.

Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions

Each substance has a fixed amount of stored energy, which is in the form of potential energy. This energy
is called its chemical energy.

The formation of gas bubbles in a liquid during a reaction is called effervescence.

Exothermic change

A chemical change which takes place with the release of heat energy is called an exothermic change.

C + O2 → CO2 + Heat

Endothermic change
A chemical change which takes place with the absorption of heat energy is called an endothermic change.

C + 2S + Heat → CS2
Photochemical reaction

A chemical reaction which proceeds with the absorption of light energy.

6CO2 + 6H2O Sun light
   C6H12O2

Electrochemical reaction

A chemical reaction which proceeds with the absorption of electric energy.

2KCl Elec tric Curr ent + ‒

     K + Cl
 Water
Activity Series of Metals

 The series of metals arranged in the decreasing order of their reactivity is called an activity or reactivity
series.
 Hydrogen is a non-metal. It has been included in this series because it can form a positive ion. It would
occupy the position based on its formation of a positive ion.
 Metals above hydrogen may displace hydrogen from water and dilute acids, but the metals below
hydrogen cannot displace hydrogen.

Activity Series of Metals

Solutions
 Solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, the components of which
cannot be seen separately.
 Solute: A substance which dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
 Solvent: A medium in which the solute dissolves.

Solution = Solute + Solvent

 True solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, the composition of which is not
fixed and may be varied within certain limits.
 Dilute solution: A solution in which the amount of solute is relatively small as compared to the amount
of solvent.
 Concentrated solution: A solution in which the amount of solute is relatively large as compared to the
amount of solvent.
 Saturated solution: A solution which cannot dissolve any more quantity of solute in a given amount of
solvent at a given temperature.
 Unsaturated solution: A solution which can dissolve more of the solute in a given amount of solvent
at a given temperature.
 Supersaturated solution: A solution which contains more of the solute than what is present in its
saturated solution at a particular temperature.
 Aqueous solution: A solution in which water has been used as a solvent.
Example: Solution of common salt or sugar in water
 Non-aqueous solution: A solution in which the solvent used is other than water.
Example: Sulphur dissolved in carbon disulphide
Non-aqueous solvents are alcohol, benzene, ether and acetone.

Solubility
Solubility of a solute in a particular solvent at a particular temperature is the maximum amount of a
solute in gram which can be dissolved in 100 gram of a solvent at that temperature.

Solubility Curve
 A solubility curve is a line graph which shows changes in the solubility of a solute in a given
solvent with a change in temperature.

Variation in the solubility of some solids with changing temperature

Inferences from Solubility Curves

 Decrease in solubility of substances with rise in temperature. Example: Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)
 Increase in solubility of substances with rise in temperature. Examples: Sodium nitrate
(NaNO3), potassium nitrate (KNO3), potassium bromide (KBr3)
 Slight increase in solubility with increase in temperature. Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl)
 Anomalous solubility. Example: Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4.10H2O)

Crystals and Crystallisation

 Water of crystallisation: The fixed amount of water which is associated with crystals and which
form an integral part of the crystal is called water of crystallisation.
 Decrepitation: The heating of some crystals which produce a crackling sound is called decrepitation.
Example: Sodium chloride crystals
 Hydrated salt: A salt which contains a fixed number of water molecules, as water of
crystallisation, with loose chemical bond is called a hydrated salt.
 Anhydrous salt: A salt which does not contain any fixed number of water molecules, as water
of crystallisation, with loose chemical bond is called an anhydrous salt.
 Efflorescence: Crystalline hydrated salts which on exposure to the atmosphere lose their moisture
(water of crystallisation) partly or completely to the atmosphere and change into the amorphous
state. Examples: Washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O), Glauber salt (Na2SO4.10H2O)
 Deliquescence: Water-soluble salts absorb moisture from the atmosphere and dissolve in it to form a
saturated solution. The substance is called a deliquescent substance and the phenomenon is called
deliquescence.
Examples: Caustic soda (NaOH), caustic potash (KOH), magnesium chloride (MgCl2), zinc chloride
(ZnCl2), ferric chloride (FeCl2)
 Hygroscopy: When a substance can absorb moisture from the air without changing its state
(solid/liquid), the substance is called hygroscopic, and the phenomenon is known as hygroscopy.
Examples: Copper oxide (CuO), calcium oxide (CaO), copper sulphate (CuSO4), concentrated
sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
 Desiccants: Substances which can readily absorb or remove moisture from other substances are
called desiccants. Most of the hygroscopic substances are desiccants (drying agents).
Examples: Fused calcium chloride (CaCl2), fused phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), anhydrous calcium
chloride CaCl2), quick lime (CaO), concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
 Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding

Parameters of an Atom

Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons (p)

Atomic mass number (A) = Number of protons (p) + Number of neutrons (n)

The atomic number, atomic mass number and symbol of an element are
written as -Mass number X or Z X
Atomic numberA

The mass of an atom is measured in a unit called Dalton and is expressed as u.

Particles which constitute the nucleus are called nucleons. Proton and neutrons are nucleons.
Electronic Configuration of Elements
 Electrons in the K shell have minimum energy. Electrons in subsequent shells have higher energies.
 The arrangement of electrons of each element is called the electronic configuration of the element.
 It is represented by numbers which correspond to the electrons in the
shells. The electronic configurations of some elements:

Electronic configuration

Hydrogen Helium Nitrogen

 The symbol of hydrogen is H; the number of electrons is one. Therefore, the electronic configuration is
also 1. Because it has only one electron, it will occupy the K shell.
 The symbol of helium is He. It has two electrons. The electronic configuration is also two. Both these
electrons will occupy the K shell. This arrangement is known as a Duplet.
 The symbol of nitrogen is N. The number of electrons is 7. Therefore, the electronic configuration is 2,
5. This means five electrons are in the L shell.
 All Noble gases, except helium, have eight electrons in the outermost shell. This arrangement is
known as an Octet.

Valence Electrons
The outermost shell of an atom is called its valence shell, and the number of electrons present in the
valence shell is known as valence electrons.
 The number of valence electrons also indicates the metallic or non-metallic nature of the element.
If an atom has three or lesser valence electrons, then it is a metal. On the other hand, an element
with four or a higher number of valence electrons is a non-metal.
 The valence electrons participate in chemical bonding.
 Valency of an element represents the combining capacity of the element.
 Elements that have eight electrons in the valence shells, and Helium with two electrons are called
inert gases.

Reasons for Chemical Activity of Atoms

The chemical activity of an element depends on the number of electrons in the valence shell of its atoms.
Chemically active elements have an incomplete octet in the valence shell of their atoms.
Atoms complete their octets by sharing, accepting or donating electrons.
 Chemical Bond
A chemical bond is defined as the force of attraction between any two atoms in a molecule to maintain
stability.

Noble Gases
 Have stable electronic configuration, i.e. their outermost shell is complete hence chemically unreactive.
 They have 8 valence electrons except helium with 2 valence electrons.

Atoms of Elements – Other than Noble gases

 Have unstable electronic configuration, i.e. their outermost shell is incomplete.
 They can lose, gain or share electrons and are chemically reactive.

Reasons for Chemical Bonding

 The driving force for atoms to combine is related to the tendency of each atom to attain stable
electronic configuration of the nearest inert noble gas.

Isotopes
 Atoms of the same element differing in the number of neutrons in their nuclei are known as isotopes.
Thus, isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different atomic mass numbers.

Examples of Isotopes
Element Number of Isotopes
1
Protium ( H )
1
2
Hydrogen Three Deuterium ( H)
1
3
Tritium ( H)
1

Subatomic particles in Isotopes

Element Isotopes Numbe o Number o Number o
r f neutron f electron f
proton s s
Carbon Carbon-12 6 6 6
Carbon-13 6 7 6
Carbon-14 6 8 6

Average atomic mass of chlorine

The isotopes of chlorine, found in nature are in the ratio 3 : 1.
35 37
So, in any sample of chlorine, Cl will constitute 75% and Cl will constitute 25%.
17 17

Therefore, in any sample of chlorine, the average atomic mass will be 35.5 u.
Radioactive Isotopes
 The unstable isotopes which emit various types of radiations are known as radioactive
isotopes.
 A few commonly used radioactive isotopes are carbon-14, arsenic-74, sodium-24, iodine-131, cobalt-
60 and uranium-235.

Applications of Isotopes
 Uranium-235 isotope is the fuel of choice for nuclear power plants.
 Cobalt-60 is the isotope of choice for radiotherapy.

Isobars
The atoms of different elements having different atomic numbers but the same mass number are known
as isobars.
Examples of Isobars:

Isobars Number of Number of Mass

protons neutrons number
Chlorine-37 17 20 37
Argon-37 18 19

Methods for Achieving Chemical Bonding

There are three methods in which atoms can achieve a stable configuration.
 Transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to the other to form an electrovalent bond.
 Sharing of one, two or three pairs of electrons between two atoms to form a covalent bond.
 When the shared electron pairs are contributed by only one of the combining atoms, the bond formed
is known as a coordinate bond.

Redox Reaction

A chemical reaction in which loss of electrons and the gain of electrons take place simultaneously is
called a redox reaction.
Example:

In the reaction, hydrogen acts as a reducing agent and reduces copper oxide to copper. This is a
reduction reaction.
+2 -
Reduction: Cu + 2e → Cu
Simultaneously, copper oxide acts as a oxidizing agent and oxidizes hydrogen to water and this is an
oxidation reaction.
 - +
Oxidation: 2H – 2e → 2H
Electrovalent (or Ionic) Bond

 The chemical bond formed between two atoms by transfer of one or more electrons from the atom of a
metallic electropositive element to an atom of a non-metallic electronegative element.
 The compound formed by such electrovalent bonding is called ionic compound.
 The number of electrons donated or accepted by the valence shell of an atom of an element so as to
achieve stable electronic configuration is called electrovalency.
 Since the electrostatic force of attraction between opposite charges is much higher, it makes the ionic
compounds stable.

Formation of Electrovalent Compounds

A metallic atom loses electrons to attain a stable electronic configuration and become a cation.


   Na+
 e
Example: Na
2, 8, 1 2, 8
(Neutral) (Cation)

A non-metallic atom gains electrons to attain a stable electronic configuration and become an anion.


   Cl–
 e
Example: Cl
2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
(Neutral) (Anion)
Cations and anions are oppositely charged particles which attract one another to form an electrovalent
bond leading to the formation of an electrovalent compound.

Ionic Equation
+
Na − 1e− → Na
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8)
−
Cl + 1e− → Cl
(2, 8, 7) (2, 8, 8)

+ −
Na + Cl → Na Cl → NaCl

Electron dot Structural Diagram

Atomic or Orbit Structural Diagram

Covalent Bond

 The chemical bond formed due to mutual sharing of electrons between the given pairs of atoms of
non-metallic elements. The compound formed with such sharing of electrons is called covalent
compound.
 The atoms of non-metals usually have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outermost shell (except carbon which
has 4 and hydrogen which has just 1 electron in the outermost shell.)
 The atoms of such elements do not favour the loss of its electrons due to energy considerations and
thus the transfer of electrons is not possible. Each atom contributes equal number of electron(s).

Types of Covalent bonds

 Single Covalent Bond
It is formed by sharing one pair of electrons between the atoms, each contributing one electron.
A single covalent bond is denoted by putting a short line ( ) between the two atoms.
Example: Hydrogen molecule can be written as H H.

 Double Covalent Bond

It is formed by sharing two pair of electrons between the atoms, each contributing two electrons.
Example: Oxygen molecule can be written as O=O.

 Triple Covalent Bond

It is formed by sharing three pair of electrons between the atoms, each contributing three electrons.
Example: Nitrogen molecule can be written as N≡N.
 Covalency
The number of electron pairs which an atom shares with one or more atoms of the same kind or different
kind to achieve stable electronic configuration is called covalency.

Non-polar Covalent Compounds

Covalent compounds are said to be non-polar when the shared pair of electrons are equally distributed
between the two atoms. Examples: H2, Cl2, O2.

Polar Covalent Compounds

Covalent compounds are said to be polar when shared pair of electrons are unequally distributed between
the two atoms. Examples: H2O, NH3.

Formation of Methane Molecule – Non-Polar Covalent Compound

One atom of carbon shares four electron pairs, one with each of the four atoms of hydrogen.

Before combination (4 [H] and 1 [C] atom) After combination (CH4 – Methane molecule)

Formation of Water – Polar Covalent Compound

Atom Electronic Nearest noble gas To attain stable

configuration electronic
configuration of
nearest noble gas.
1
Hydrogen 1H [1] Helium [2] Hydrogen needs one
electron to complete
the duplet.
16
Oxygen O [2,6]
8 Neon [2,8] Oxygen needs two
electrons to
complete the octet.

Before combination [2 H and 1 O atom] After combination (Water molecule)

Two single covalent bond

 The Periodic Table
Approaches to Periodic Classification of Elements

Dobereiner’s Triads
In 1829, Dobereiner classified elements with similar chemical properties into groups of three called
Triads. He noted that the atomic weight of the middle element in a triad is the arithmetic mean of the
other two. This is called Dobereiner’s Law of Triads.

7Li11Na39K At. wt. of Sodium =7 + 39 = 23

2

 Reasons for discarding the Law of Triads

1. Dobereiner, however, could not arrange all the known elements at that time in the form of triads.
2. The law was not applicable even in the same family.

Newlands’ Law of Octaves

Newlands proposed a Law of Octaves which states, ‘When elements are arranged in the increasing order
of their atomic masses, the properties of the eighth element are similar to the first’. Therefore, his
classification was known as Newlands’ Octaves.

Newlands’ Octaves

• Merits of Newlands’ Classification

1. This system worked well with the lighter elements. For example, Lithium, Sodium and Potassium
were brought together.
2. It relates the properties of the elements to their atomic masses.
3. For the first time, it was shown that there is a distinct periodicity in the properties of elements.
• Reasons for discarding Newlands’ Theory
1. The idea of Octaves could not be applied to noble gases. After their discovery, noble gases
became the ninth element, and not the eight, which had similar properties. For example, Helium
or Neon became the ninth element, and not the eighth element, with similar properties.

2. This classification could not be applied to heavier elements, i.e. those lying beyond Calcium.
Every eighth element after Calcium did not show properties similar to the first one.
3. As more elements were discovered, they could not be fitted into Newlands’ Octaves.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Law

The physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses.

 Essential features of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

1. There are eight vertical columns called groups. They are numbered from I to VIII. Groups I to
VII are further divided into two subgroups A and B.
2. All the elements of a sub-group have similar properties and show same valency, which is equal
to the group number.
3. There are seven horizontal rows, known as periods. They are numbered from 1 to 7. As one moves
from left to right in a period, there is a gradual change from metallic to non-metallic properties.

 Merits of Mendeleev’s Table

1. Grouping of elements: Mendeleev generalised the study of the elements then known as the study
of a mere eight groups.
2. Gaps for undiscovered elements: To make sure that elements with similar properties lie in the
same group, Mendeleev left some gaps in the periodic table. These gaps were left for subsequent
inclusion of the elements not known at that time. The elements were discovered later.
3. Prediction of properties of undiscovered elements: Mendeleev could predict the properties of
unknown elements on the basis of the properties of the elements lying adjacent to the vacant
spaces. They were named as Eka-boron, Eka-aluminium and Eka-silicon. The properties of these
three elements were similar to the actual elements discovered later. Eka-boron was similar to
Scandium, Eka-aluminium was similar to Gallium and Eka-silicon was similar to Germanium.
4. Incorrect atomic mass was corrected: He was able to correct the values of the atomic masses of
elements such as Gold and Platinum, when he placed these elements according to the similarity in
their properties.
 Defects in Mendeleev Periodic Table
1. Anomalous pairs
The following pairs of elements did not follow Mendeleev’s Principles:
Cobalt (58.9) with higher atomic mass precedes Nickel (58.6) in the periodic table.
Tellurium (127.6) with higher atomic mass than Iodine (126.9) is also placed before it in the
periodic table.

2. Position of Isotopes
The isotopes of an element are atoms of that element with similar chemical properties but different
atomic masses. According to Mendeleev’s Periodic Law, isotopes of an element must be given
separate places in the periodic table because they have different atomic masses.

3. Grouping of chemically dissimilar elements

Elements such as Copper and Silver bear no resemblance with the alkali metals such as Lithium
and Sodium, but they have been placed together in the first group.

4. Separation of chemically similar elements

Elements which are chemically similar such as Gold and Platinum have been placed in separate
groups.

5. Electronic arrangement
It does not explain the electronic arrangement of elements.

6. The position of hydrogen

Hydrogen was not given a fixed position. It was considered in Group IA as well as in Group VIIA,
because it forms a positive ion as in HCl as well as a negative ion as in NaH.

Modern Periodic Law

The physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

 Main features of the Modern Periodic Table

1. The modern periodic table contains 7 horizontal rows called periods and 18 vertical columns
called groups.
2. Apart from the seven rows, there are two additional rows placed separately at the bottom of the
table.
3. The entire table is divided into four blocks—s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block.
4. The modern periodic table is also called the Long Form of the Periodic Table.
5. The similar properties which recur after a regular interval are called periodic properties.
 Anomalies in Mendeleev’s Classification of Elements

Position of Isotopes
All the isotopes of an element have the same number of protons, so their atomic number is also the
same. Because they have the same atomic number, they can be put in one place in the same group.

Position of Argon and Potassium

Argon with an atomic number lower than Potassium was placed after Potassium in the periodic table.
According to the Modern Periodic Law, the elements are arranged in the order of their increasing
atomic number. Thus, Argon with a lower atomic number should come first, followed by Potassium
with a higher atomic number than Argon.

 Periodicity in the Modern Periodic Table

In the modern periodic table, properties reappear at regular intervals due to similar electronic
configurations. This happens because the elements in a group have the same number of valence
electrons, and the elements in a period show a gradual increase in the number of valence electrons.

• Salient features of the Modern Periodic Table

Groups
i. The modern periodic table has eighteen vertical columns known as groups, arranged from left to right
in the order: IA, IIA, IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB, VIII (three columns), IB, IIB, IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA and
Zero.
ii. A group is determined by the number of electrons present in the outermost shell.
iii. Groups 1, 2 and 13 to 17 [IA to VII A] are called normal elements.
iv. Groups 3 to 12 [IB to VII B and VIII] are called transition elements.
v. Group 18 [Zero], at the extreme right, contains noble or inert gases.
vi. Reactive metals are placed in groups 1[IA] and 2[II A].
vii. Transition elements [metals] are placed in the middle.
viii. Non-metals are placed in the upper right corner of the periodic table.

Periods
i. The horizontal rows of elements in a periodic table are called periods. There are seven periods in the
long form of the periodic table.
ii. The elements in a period have consecutive atomic numbers.
iii. The first period contains 2 elements and is called a very short period.
iv. The second period contains 8 elements and is called a short period.
v. The third period contains 8 elements and is also a short period.
vi. The fourth period contains 18 elements and is called a long period.
vii. The fifth period contains 18 elements and is also a long period.
viii. The sixth period contains 32 elements and is called a very long period.
ix. The seventh period contains the remaining elements and is incomplete.
Types of elements in the Modern Periodic Table
1. Representative elements
(s-block and p-block elements) - Groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17

2. Transition elements
(d-block elements) – Groups 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12

3. Inner transition elements

(f-block elements) – Group 3 Lanthanides and Actinides

4. Inert gases (or noble gases)

th
The elements of the Zero group, the 18 vertical column, are known as inert gases or noble gases.

• Merits of the Long Form of the Periodic Table

1. It is based on the atomic number, which is a more fundamental property compared to atomic mass.
2. The position of the element in the table is related to its electronic configuration.
3. It shows regular changes in the properties of various elements when moving across a period or
down a group.

• Defects of the Long Form of the Periodic Table

1. The position of Hydrogen is not satisfactory, as its properties relate to Group IA as well as to Group
VIIA.
2. It could not accommodate the inner transition elements, i.e. Lanthanides and Actinides, in the main
body of the periodic table.
3. A few elements are not arranged according to their electronic configuration.

Characteristics of the Modern Periodic Table

i. Number of shells and valence electrons
(a) Down a group, i.e. from top to bottom
The number of shells increases successively, i.e. one by one such that the number of shells that an
element has equals the number of the period to which that element belongs.

(b) Across a period, i.e. from left to right

On moving from left to right in a given period, the number of shells remains the same.
For example, in the third period, the number of shells remains three, i.e. equal to the number of the
period.

ii. Valency
Valency denotes the combining capacity of the atom of an element. It is equal to the number of electrons
an atom can donate or accept or share.
On moving down in a given group, the number of electrons in the outermost shell, i.e. valence electrons,
remains the same.
In a given period, the valency of the elements, with respect to Hydrogen, increases arithmetically from 1
to 4 and back to 1.
 Elements of Li Be B C N O F
nd
2 period
Hydrides of LiH BeH2 BH3 CH4 NH3 H2O HF
elements
Valency w.r.t. 1 2 3 4 3 2 1
hydrogen

iii. Properties of elementsThe elements in a given group possess similar electronic configuration
because the number of electrons in the respective outermost shells is the same. They have similar
physical and chemical properties, which change uniformly.
In a period, the number of electrons in the valance shell changes; therefore, the properties of elements
in a period differ significantly.

iv. Atomic size (atomic radii)

It is the distance between the centre of the nucleus of an atom and its outermost shell.

Trends in Atomic Size

(a) Down a group
In a group, the size of an atom increases as one proceeds from top to bottom. This is due to the
successive addition of shells as we move from one period to the next in a group.

(b) Across a period

In a period, the size of an atom decreases from left to right. This is because the nuclear charge
increases from left to right in the same period, thereby bringing the outermost shell closer to the
nucleus.

v. Metallic character
Elements which have a tendency to lose their valence electrons and form a positive ion are considered
as metals.

Trends in metallic character

(a) Down a group
On moving down a group, the increased atomic size is greater as compared to the increased nuclear
charge. Therefore, the metallic nature increases as one moves down a group, i.e. an atom can lose
electrons easily.

(b) Across a period

On moving across a period, the nuclear charge increases and the atomic size decreases, and hence,
elements cannot lose electrons easily.
Therefore, the metallic nature decreases across a period on moving from left to right.
 Study of the First Element – Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the first element of the periodic table. It was discovered by Cavendish and named by
Lavoisier.

Position of hydrogen in the periodic table

 Hydrogen belongs to the first group and the first period of the periodic table.
 Although the properties of hydrogen should be similar to those of the other members of the first group,
this is not the case.
 Some of the properties of hydrogen resemble the properties of Group IA elements (Alkali metals), and
some of the properties resemble the properties of Halogens (VIIA).
 Thus, hydrogen was put at the top of the periodic table so that the symmetry of the modern periodic
table is not disturbed.

Dual Nature of Hydrogen

Hydrogen has an electronic configuration of 1.
 Hydrogen loses 1 electron and behaves like electropositive alkali metals [Group 1 (IA)].
 Hydrogen gains 1 electron and behaves like electronegative halogens [Group 17 (VIIA)].
Similarity of Hydrogen with Alkali Metals and Halogens

Similarity of hydrogen with alkali Similarity of hydrogen with

metals [Group 1 (IA)] halogens [Group 17 (VIIA)]
Electronic Electronic configuration = 1. Thus, One electron less than the
configuration there is 1 electron in the outermost nearest noble gas.
valence shell. Examples:
Examples: H = 1 (He = 2)
H = 1; Li = 2, 1; Na = 2, 8, 1; K = 2, F = 2, 7 (Ne = 2, 8)
8, 8, 1 Cl = 2, 8, 7 (Ar = 2, 8, 8)
Ion formation Electropositive character exhibited. Electronegative character
Examples: exhibited.
− 1+
H – 1e → H Examples:
− 1+ − 1−
Li – 1e → Li H + 1e → H
− 1+ − 1−
Na – 1e → Na F + 1e → F
− 1−
Cl + 1e → Cl
Valency Electrovalency of one exhibited. Electrovalency and covalency
1+ 1+ 1+
H , Li , Na exhibited.
Hydrogen forms
NaH (electrovalent)
CH4 (covalent)
Chlorine forms
NaCl (electrovalent)
CCl4 (covalent)
Reactions Strong affinity for non-metals.
Examples: O, S, Cl
Hydrogen forms H2O, H2S, HCl
Sodium forms Na2O, Na2S, NaCl
Reducing agent Acts as a reducing agent.
Hydrogen:
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
Sodium:
CuO + 2Na → Cu + Na2O
Atomicity Diatomic molecules are formed
(Two atoms linked by a single
bond).
Hydrogen
H:H or H–H → H2

Chlorine
Cl:Cl or Cl–Cl → Cl2
Preparation of Hydrogen – General Methods
1. General methods – From cold water and metals
Metals react with cold water to form metal hydroxide and liberate hydrogen gas.
Reactions:
2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2↑
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2↑
Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2↑

2. General methods – From boiling water/steam and metals

Magnesium Mg + H2O → MgO + H2↑  Mg, Al, Zn and Fe do not react with
(boiling water) cold water. They react with boiling
Aluminium 2Al + H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2↑ water and liberate hydrogen gas, but
(steam) the reaction is very slow.
Zinc Zn + H2O → ZnO + H2↑  Mg, Al, Zn and Fe react with hot steam
(steam) in the heated state and form the
Iron Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 4H2↑ corresponding oxide and hydrogen gas.
(steam)  Iron reacts with steam, and the reaction
is reversible.

3. General methods – From acids

Magnesium Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2↑

Aluminium 2Al + 3H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2↑
Zinc Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2↑
Iron Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2↑

4. General methods – From concentrated alkalis

Aluminium 2Al + 6NaOH → 2Na3AlO3 +3 H2↑

(Sodium aluminate)
2Al + 2KOH + 2H2O → 2KAlO2 +3 H2↑
(Potassium meta aluminate)
Zinc Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2↑
(Sodium zincate)
Zn + 2KOH → K2ZnO2 + H2↑
(Potassium zincate)
Lead Pb + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + H2↑
(Sodium plumbate)
Preparation of Hydrogen – Laboratory Method
Laboratory method by using granulated zinc, dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid.
Reactions:
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2↑
(dilute)
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2↑
(dilute)

Collection:
Hydrogen gas is collected by the downward displacement of water.

Manufacture of Hydrogen – By the Electrolysis of Water

Hydrogen is commercially obtained by the electrolysis of water.
Water is a poor conductor of electricity. Thus, a less volatile acid such as sulphuric acid is added to water
to make it a good conductor of electricity. This is called acidulated water.
On passing electric current through this acidulated water, water dissociates.
+ −
H 2O H + OH
+
H , being positively charged, moves towards the cathode (negatively charged electrode).

At cathode,
+ −
H +e→H
H + H → H2

At anode,
− −
OH − e → OH
OH + OH → H2O + O
O + O → O2
Hence, water dissociates to give hydrogen and oxygen by passing an electric current through acidulated
water.
2H2O → 2H2 + O2

Bosch Process
The Bosch process consists of the following steps.
Step 1:
Steam is passed over hot coke (at 1000°C) in a special type of furnace called a converter to form carbon
monoxide and hydrogen gas. This mixture is called water gas.

Step 2:
Excess of steam is mixed with water gas, and the entire mixture is passed over heated ferric oxide
and chromic oxide. Ferric oxide acts as a catalyst and chromic oxide as a promoter.
Step 3:
In this step, carbon dioxide is removed from the reaction mixture. The mixture of carbon dioxide and
hydrogen is forced through cold water under pressure at 30 atmospheric pressure or through caustic
potash solution, which dissolves carbon dioxide leaving behind hydrogen gas.

2KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O

Step 4:
In this last step, the mixture is passed through ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride solution so as to
dissolve carbon monoxide. Thus, hydrogen gas is obtained.

CuCl + CO + 2H2O → CuCl.CO.2H2O

Physical Properties of Hydrogen

 Colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.
 Non-poisonous.
 Solubility is very low.
 It can be liquefied.
 Vapour density is 1, much lighter than air.

Chemical Properties of Hydrogen

 It is neutral to litmus.
 It is combustible but does not support combustion.
 Nascent hydrogen: Fresh hydrogen formed at the time of generation is called nascent hydrogen.

 Reaction with oxygen

Hydrogen burns with a pop sound in oxygen and burns with a pale blue flame forming water.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

 Reaction with Chlorine

H2 + Cl2 2HCl

 Reaction with Hydrogen (Haber process)

Three volumes of hydrogen and one volume of nitrogen react at temperature 450–500°C at a pressure
of 200–900 atm in the presence of finely divided iron (catalyst) and molybdenum (promoter).

 Reaction with sulphur

Hydrogen gas when passed through molten sulphur reacts to give another gas, hydrogen sulphide.

H2 + S → H2S
 Reaction with metals
Dry hydrogen when passed over heated metals, such as Na, K and Ca, reacts to give their
corresponding hydrides.
2K + H2 → 2KH
2Na + H2 → 2NaH
Ca + H2 → CaH2

 Reaction with metallic oxides

Hydrogen reduces metal oxides to give metals; thus, hydrogen is a reducing agent.
Fe2O3 + 3H2 → 2Fe + 3H2O
Fe3O4 + 4H2 → 3Fe + 4H2O
PbO + H2 → Pb + H2O
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O

Uses of Hydrogen
 As a fuel in oxy-hydrogen blow torch
 In meteorological balloons
 In the manufacture of ammonia
 In the manufacture of hydrogenated oils
 For producing artificial petrol from coal
 In the extraction of metals
 As a reducing agent
 Study of Gas Laws

Gas

Gas is the state of matter in which inter-particle space is large and inter-particle attraction is weak.
Because of this, the particles become completely free to move randomly in the entire available space.

 Kinetic molecular theory of gases

The kinetic molecular theory of a gas states that a gas is composed of molecules/particles which are
in constant random motion. This theory helps in explaining the simple relationship of the pressure,
volume and temperature of a gas.

Properties of gases
Gases

1. Do not have definite shape or volume

2. Are compressible
3. Can be expanded
4. Exert pressure in all the directions
5. Have low densities
6. Diffuse readily
7. Can be liquefied

Behaviour of Gases in Different Conditions

1. An increase in the pressure at a constant temperature decreases the volume of a gas.
2. A decrease in the pressure at a constant temperature increases the volume of a gas.
3. An increase in the temperature at a constant pressure increases the volume in a given mass of a
gas.
4. A decrease in the temperature at a constant pressure decreases the volume in a given mass of a
gas.

Gas Law

The behaviour of a gas under known conditions of temperature, pressure and volume is described by
laws known as gas laws.
The standard variables used during gas laws are pressure (P), temperature (T) and volume (V).

Units of temperature Units of volume Units of pressure

 3 3
Celsius (°C) 1 litre = 1 dm = 1000 cm Atmosphere
3 3
Kelvin (K) 1 dm = 1000 cm = 1000 ml Torricelli (torr)
3
Normal temperature: 273 K = 1 cm = 1 ml cm of mercury (Hg)
0°C Millilitre (ml) mm of mercury (Hg)
Litre (l)
3
Relationship between Cubic centimetre (cm ) Relationship:
3
Celsius and Kelvin: Decimetre cube (dm ) 76 cm of Hg = 760 mm of Hg
K = °C + 273 1 mm Hg = 1 torr
Relationship:
3
1 litre = 1000 ml = 1000 cm
3
1 ml = 1 cm
Pressure–Volume Relationship in Gases
At constant temperature, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas decreases when the pressure increases,
and it increases when the pressure decreases.

Temperature–Volume Relationship in Gases

When the pressure is kept constant, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas increases with increase in
temperature, measured in Kelvin or Absolute scale, and it decreases with decrease in temperature.
P1V1 = P2V2 = K (T = Constant)

Boyle’s Law

At constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of a dry gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.

Graphical verification of Boyle’s Law

1. V vs 1/P: When variation in volume (V) is plotted against (1/P) at a constant temperature, a
straight line passing through the origin is obtained.

2. V vs P: When variation in volume (V) is plotted against pressure (P) at a constant temperature, a
hyperbolic curve in the first quadrant is obtained.
 3. PV vs P: When variation in PV is plotted against pressure (P) at a constant temperature, a straight
line parallel to the X-axis is obtained.

Charles’s Law

At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of a dry gas increases or decreases by 1/273 of its
original volume at 0°C for each degree centigrade rise or fall in temperature.

Graphical Representation of Charles’s Law

T vs V: The relationship between the volume and the temperature of a gas can be plotted on a graph. A
straight line is obtained.
Absolute Zero

The temperature −273°C is called absolute zero.

Absolute or Kelvin scale of temperature

The temperature scale with its zero at −273°C and each degree equal to one degree on the Celsius scale
is called Kelvin or the absolute scale of temperature.

Conversion of temperature from Celsius scale to Kelvin scale and vice versa

The value on the Celsius scale can be converted into Kelvin scale by adding 273 to it.
Example: 20°C = 20 + 273 = 293 K

Gas Eequation

The gas equation is an equation used in chemical equations for calculating the changes in volume of
gases when pressure and temperature both undergo a change, thereby giving a simultaneous effect of
changes of temperature and pressure on the volume of a given mass of a dry gas.
P
= Constant
T

 Ideal gas: It is an imaginary gas which follows all the gas laws and has 0 volume at 0 K.
Standard or Normal Temperature and Pressure (STP/NTP)

 Volumes of gases change with temperature and pressure. Thus, a standard value of temperature and
pressure is chosen to which gas volumes are referred.
 Volumes of gases are converted to Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) conditions and then
compared easily.
 The standard values chosen are 0°C or 273 K for temperature and 1 atmospheric unit (atm) or 760
mm of mercury for pressure.

Standard temperature = 0°C = 273 K

Standard pressure = 760 mm Hg
= 76 cm of Hg
= 1 atmospheric pressure (atm)
 Atmospheric Pollution
 Pollutant: A pollutant is defined as undesirable matter present in excess in the environment.

 Environmental pollution: It is defined as the effect of undesirable changes occurring in our

surroundings which has harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings.

 Air pollution: It is defined as the presence of a contaminant in the atmosphere in a concentration

large enough to injure human, plant and animal life.

 Smog: A pollutant which is a combination of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, partially oxidised
hydrocarbons and their derivatives produced by industries and automobiles from a dark, thick dust
and soot laden fog is known as smog.

 Photochemical smog: Smog formed by the photochemical reaction in the atmosphere is known as
photochemical smog.

Types of Pollutants Present in the Atmosphere

Pollutants Natural sources Man-made sources

1. Oxides of carbon Respiration Combustion of fossil fuels
CO, CO2 Volcanic eruptions Automobile exhausts
Incomplete combustion of petrol
and diesel
2. Oxides of sulphur Decay of vegetable Burning of fossil fuels
SO2 (major source) matter and animals Exhausts from industrial plants
SO3 Volcanic eruptions such as sulphuric acid plants and
smelting plants
3. Oxides of nitrogen Certain microbes Fertiliser industry, nitric acid plants,
NO, NO2 (major Lightening discharge automobile exhausts
source), N2O

4. Hydrogen sulphide Volcanic eruptions By-product in industrial processes

H2S
5. Particulates Disintegration of soil and Various industrial smoke,
Dust, fumes, smoke, rocks insecticide, tobacco smoke,
mist metallurgical plants, chemical
processes
Factories in big cities release nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide as their wastes. These gases dissolve
in rainwater during rains and form nitrous acid and sulphurous acid. As the rain falls, these acids come
down to the ground as acid rain.
 Acid rain refers to rain which has a pH less than 5.6. It is mainly caused by atmospheric pollutants.
 Natural sources: Bacterial decomposition, forest fires and volcanic eruptions.
 Man-made sources: Industries, smelting plants, power plants and automobile exhausts.

Formation of Acid rain

Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur interact with water vapour in the presence of sunlight in the atmosphere to
form a mist of nitric acid and sulphuric acid, respectively. This mist remains as vapours at high
temperature and condenses at low temperatures. These acids mix with rain (snow or fog) and fall down to
the Earth resulting in acid rain.

Formation of nitric acid and nitrous acid

 Nitrogen and oxygen combine in the presence of thunder and lightning to form nitrogen oxide.
 Nitrogen oxide then gets oxidised in the atmosphere to form nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen dioxide
combines with water to form a mixture of nitrous acid and nitric acid.

N2 + O2 → 2NO
(Nitrogen oxide) 2NO + O2 → 2NO2
(Nitrogen dioxide) 2NO2 + H2O →HNO2+

HNO3
(Nitrous acid) (Nitric acid)

Formation of sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid

1. Impurities in coal: Coal used in power plants contains up to 4% sulphur. On combustion, it forms
pollutant sulphur dioxide (i.e. oxides of sulphur).

S + O2 → SO2
(Sulphur dioxide)

2. Sulphur dioxide reacts with water vapour to form sulphurous acid.

SO2 + H2O → H2SO3

(Sulphurous acid)

3. Sulphur dioxide can also be oxidised to sulphur trioxide.

2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
(Sulphur trioxide)

4. Sulphur trioxide reacts with water vapour to form sulphuric acid.

 SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
(Sulphuric acid)

Impact of Acid Rain

1. Changes the acidity of soil
The acids present in acid rain such as nitric acid, nitrous acid, sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid
increase the acidity of soil.

2. Affects water bodies and marine organisms

The water of lakes and rivers becomes acidic and may no longer support aquatic life.

3. Material damage
It increases corrosion of metals, disintegrates paper and leather and weakens building materials such
as marble, limestone, slate, mortar, statues and sculptures.

4. Impact on living things

Acid rain damages forests. It gets absorbed by plants and animals directly or indirectly and thus
enters the food chain, affecting humans. It can affect a person's breathing at sufficiently high
concentrations.

Global Warming

Global warming is excess accumulation of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, ozone and chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) which causes warming of the Earth.

Greenhouse Effect
 The greenhouse effect is the process of heating up of the Earth’s atmosphere due to trapping of the
Sun’s infrared radiations reflected from the Earth’s surface by gases such as carbon dioxide, water
vapour, nitrous oxide, ozone and methane, which are called greenhouse gases.
 These gases act as a thermal blanket and do not allow the heat energy to escape, thus causing the
heating up of the atmosphere.
 Because of the greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, the planet is ideally warm for the survival of
life. However, excess accumulation of greenhouse gases is causing further warming of the Earth
which results in global warming.
Ozone

Ozone is a light bluish gas found in the upper layer of the atmosphere called stratosphere. It is a
poisonous gas with a chlorine-like smell.
It is formed by the action of ultraviolet rays of the Sun on oxygen.

3O2 → 2O3
(Oxygen) (Ozone)

 The ozone layer acts as a blanket in the atmosphere at a height of 16 km above the Earth’s
surface.
 It absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays (UV radiations) coming from the Sun and prevents them from
reaching the surface of the Earth.

Depletion of the Ozone Layer

The decrease in the quantity of ozone in the upper layer of the atmosphere is called depletion of ozone.
This is also known as ozone hole. Due to this hole, ultraviolet rays of the Sun can reach the Earth and
cause diseases such as skin cancer.
Pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen and chlorine free radicals are produced in the atmosphere.
Molecules of ozone react with these pollutants and are destroyed. This causes depletion of the ozone
layer.

Harmful Effects of the Ozone Layer

1. Ozone is a poisonous gas. It causes respiratory problems.
2. It damages vegetation (plants and trees).
3. It causes damage to automobile tyres and asphalt.
4. In the stratosphere, the reactive species of chlorine get locked up and are unable to stop depletion of
the ozone layer. Locking of chlorine monoxide and chlorine free radicals is called scavenging. In the
atmosphere, nitrogen dioxide scavenges chlorine monoxide and methane scavenges chlorine atoms.
These scavengers react with chlorine monoxide and chlorine free radicals [Cl].

ClO(g) + NO2 → ClONO2(g)

Cl(g) + CH4(g) → CH3(g) + HCI(g)