Materials anything which is used by teachers or learners to facilitate the learning of language (Tomlinson,

1998).
Material Development is all the processes which are done by writers, teachers or learners to provide
sources of language input, to exploit those sources in ways which maximize the likelihood of intake and to
stimulate purposeful output (Tomlinson, 1998, p.2).

Principles of Second Language Acquisition Relevant to Materials Development

1. Materials should achieve impact
2. Materials should help learners to feel at ease
3. Materials should help learners to develop confidence
4. What is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful
5. Materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment
6. Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught
7. Materials should expose the learners to language in authentic use
8. The learners' attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input
9. Materials should take into account that the positive effects of instruction are usually delayed
10. Materials should take into account that learners differ in learning styles
11. Materials should take into account that learners differ in affective attitudes
12. Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction
13. Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging intellectual, aesthetic and emotional
involvement which stimulates both right- and left brain activities
14. Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice
15. Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback

LANGUAGE CURRICULUM
I. PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALE
● Language is the basis of all communication and the primary instrument of thought.
● Language is the foundation of all human relationships.
II. GUIDING PRINCIPLES
The K-12 Language Arts and Multiliteracies Curriculum is anchored on the following language
acquisition, learning, teaching and assessing principles.
● All languages are interrelated and interdependent.
● Language acquisition and learning is an active process that begins at birth and continues
throughout life.
● Learning requires meaning
● Learners learn about language and how to use it effectively through their engagement with and
study of texts.
● Successful language learning involves viewing, listening, speaking, reading and writing activities
● Language learning involves recognizing, accepting, valuing and building on students’ existing
language competence, including the use of non-standard forms of the language, and extending the
range of language available to students.
III. NEEDS OF THE LEARNERS : THE CONTEXT
Members of Generation Z are adept at multitasking. They can text, read, watch, talk and even eat
simultaneously. However, this has also led to reduced
attention span leading to what psychologists call acquired attention deficit disorder. This generation is
unable to analyze complex data and information as they
cannot focus for very long.
IV. OUTCOMES
1. Communicative Competence
Communicative Competence is a synthesis of knowledge of basic grammatical principles,
knowledge of how language is used in social settings to perform communicative functions, and how
knowledge of utterances and communicative functions can be combined according to the principles of
discourse. Communicative competence is classified into the following competencies.
1.Grammatical/Linguistic Competence
2. Sociolinguistic Competence
3. Discourse Competence
4. Strategic Competence
2. Multiliteracies
Multiliteracies (multi literacy practices) recognize that there are many kinds of literacy at work within
our society. These include traditional literacy practices using texts as well as new literacy practices using
texts of popular culture such as films. Social literacy encompasses how we communicate and exchange
meaning in our society while professional literacy links with the notion of literacy for school or the
workplace.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
COMPONENT 1: Language Learning Process
For effective language acquisition and learning to take place, language teachers must be guided by
the six (6) language teaching principles. These principles explain the
natural process of language development.
1. Spiral Progression
2. Interaction
3. Integration
4. Learner-Centeredness
5. Contextualization
6. Construction
COMPONENT 2: Effective Language Use
● Understanding Culture
● Understanding Language
● Process and Strategies
COMPONENT 3: Making Meaning through Language
Language is the major instrument in communication (oral and written) and the heart of which is the
exchange of meaning. Language learning should focus on guiding students make meaning through
language for different purposes on a range of topics and with a variety of audiences. Students must be able
to adapt to various situations where communication demands greatly vary.
The skills, grammatical items, structures and various types of texts will be taught, and revisited at
increasing levels of difficulty and sophistication. This design allows students
to progress from the foundational level to higher levels of language use.
COMPONENT 4: Holistic Assessment
Assessment is an important aspect of learning and teaching. It should be effectively used to support
the holistic development of our pupils. Our assessment practices should go beyond summative evaluation
and move towards a more holistic approach. Holistic assessment refers to the ongoing gathering of
information on different facets of a child from various sources, with the aim of providing qualitative and
quantitative feedback to support and guide the child's development. Holistic assessment informs our
teachers of their teaching practices and guides them in the design and delivery of student learning. It will
also enable parents to support their children's development and growth.
Characteristics of Assessment
1. Proximity to actual language use and performance
2. A holistic view of language
3.An integrative view of learning
4. Developmental appropriateness
5. Multiple referencing
 INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD
The Direct Method
In this method, the teaching is done entirely in the language being learned. The learner is not
allowed to use his or her original language. Grammar rules are avoided and there is an emphasis
on good pronunciation.
Grammar-Translation
In this method, learning is largely by translation to and from the target language. Grammar rules are
to be memorized and long lists of vocabulary learned by heart. There is little or no emphasis placed
on developing oral ability. This method is most commonly used in secondary education.
Audio-Lingual
The theory behind this method is that learning a language means acquiring habits. There is much
practice of dialogues in every situation. New language is first heard and extensively drilled before
being seen in its written form.
The Structural Approach
This method sees language as a complex of grammatical rules which are to be learned one at a
time in a set order. So for example the verb “to be” is introduced and practiced before the present
continuous tense which uses “to be” as an auxiliary. This method of learning is common in language
learning apps.
Total Physical Response (TPR)
TPR works by having the learner respond to simple commands such as “Stand up”, “Close your
book”, “Go to the window and open it.” The method stresses the importance of aural comprehension
and the importance of kinesthetic learning.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
The focus of this method is to enable the learner to communicate effectively and appropriately in the
various situations she would be likely to find herself in. The content of CLT courses are functions
such as inviting, suggesting, complaining, or notions such as the expression of time, quantity,
location. Much like The Structural Approach, this method is commonly used in language learning
apps.
Task-based language learning
The focus of the teaching is on the completion of a task which in itself is interesting to the learners.
Learners use the language they already have to complete the task and there is little correction of
errors. The aim here is to highlight the importance of learning the language by making it vital to task
completion.
The Natural Approach
This approach, propounded by Professor S. Krashen, stresses the similarities between learning the
first and second languages. There is no correction of mistakes. Learning takes place by the
students being exposed to language that is comprehensible or made comprehensible to them.
Experienced, Efficient And Free For Students
The benefits of taking an ESL course are clear. By improving your English skills you gain better
access to education, a better earning potential, a better social life, and even better results from
healthcare. At our trade school, we are committed to enhancing our student’s lives, which is why we
are proud to offer our ESL courses free of charge to our students and to extend that offer to their
families. Our seasoned language teachers are experienced in working with international students
from all over the world and are there to help you get the most from your classes. To help your
lessons fit in with your work and home life we also offer day and weekend classes. If you are
interested in taking advantage of this excellent opportunity then call one of our ESL councilors today
on (702) 403-1592.
TEACHING MACRO SKILLS
The aim of any language program is to develop the different macro skills of learners. Many
approaches have been proposed in teaching these macro skills. Some of these approaches are
communicative language teaching, task based approach, integrated approach, and sociocognitive-
transformative approach
Teaching Speaking:
 ● Speaking is a complex process that involves attention to content, vocabulary, discourse, information
structuring, morphosyntax, sound system, prosody, and pragmalinguistic features
● Engaging in communicative interactions and well-designed tasks can enhance oral fluency, which
refers to the speaker's automaticity of oral production .
● Comprehensibility, the ease with which a listener understands L2 accented speech, can be
improved by minimizing filled pauses, hesitations, false starts, and slow speaking rate
● Teaching speaking involves effective communication strategies, discourse organization,
conversational routines, speech acts, and conversation formulas
● Role-play, group discussions, using the target language outside classrooms, using learners' input,
using feedback, and using authentic speeches are effective activities for enhancing speaking
proficiency
● Self-evaluation can also be helpful in improving speech performances
Teaching Listening:
● Listening is a complex process that involves receptive, interpretative, and constructive cognitive
processes
● Metacognitive strategies such as self-monitoring, evaluating comprehension, and planning for
listening can enhance listening comprehension .
● Cognitive strategies like inferencing, elaboration, and summarizing can also improve listening skills .
● Note-taking and other academic listening activities can be integrated with speaking, reading, and
writing to enhance listening proficiency .
● Graded listening tasks can be used to address concerns about the difficulty of using authentic
materials for listening practice .
● Strategy-based approaches, such as Mendelsohn's proposal, involve making learners aware of the
value of using strategies, activating schema, providing guided listening practice, and allowing
learners to assess their performance
Teaching Reading:
● Reading is a language skill that can be developed through systematic practice .
● Reading involves both bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing focuses on
textual decoding, while top-down processing emphasizes schema and reader interpretation
● Reading comprehension can be enhanced by developing reading strategies and reading skills .
● Reading programs should include exposure to authentic materials that are at the learners' level and
interests .
● Teachers can help students improve reading skills by relating the text to their schema, providing
things to search for in the text, encouraging discussion, and asking students to write about what
they have read
● Developing writing skills can be facilitated by being a good reader, as reading provides knowledge
on lexemes, syntax, morphology, and orthography
Teaching Writing:
● Writing is a non-linear, exploratory, and generative process that allows the writer to put ideas into
text .
● Writing skills can be developed through practice and reflection on the world around the writer .
● Different types of writing, such as personal narratives, expository writing, and argumentative
essays, can be taught at different levels
● Grammar plays a role in enhancing writing skills, but it should be incorporated in a way that does
not defocus learners from the meaning orientation of writing pedagogy .
● Feedback on grammar should be directly linked to the editing stage and satisfy learners' perceived
needs .
● Linguistic accuracy is important in written output, as it ensures clarity of meaning
Teaching Viewing:
● Viewing is a skill that involves the interpretation and understanding of visual information.
● It is important to expose learners to authentic materials that are at their level and align with their
interests
 ● Viewing can be taught by providing opportunities for learners to engage with visual texts, such as
videos, images, and infographics.
● Teachers can guide learners in analyzing and interpreting visual information, discussing the main
ideas, and making connections to their own experiences .
● Strategies such as pre-viewing activities, predicting, and post-viewing discussions can enhance
learners' comprehension and critical thinking skills
● Learners can also be encouraged to reflect on the purpose, audience, and message of visual texts,
as well as the visual elements used to convey meaning
Instructional materials / teaching aids in teaching
Instructional materials include any tools a teacher uses in his classroom to help foster learning.
Basically, any resource a teacher uses to help him teach his students is instructional material.
Instructional materials constitute alternative channels of communication, which a teacher can use to convey
more vividly instructional information to learners.
Classification of instructional materials
● Prints ● Realia
● Audio aids ● Audio- visuals
● Visuals ● Electronic interactive
Reasons/ importance of using instructional materials in teaching and learning of English
● Instructional materials attract attention
● Arouse interest
● supplement descriptions and illustrations
● promote retention
● consolidate what has been learned
● encourages independent thinking among the learners
● promotion of learners centered pedagogies
Factors to consider when choosing instructional materials/ teaching aids
There are numerous factors a teacher is to put into his mind when selecting a teaching aid for English
lesson;
● Ability of the learners to interpret relate the resource to the particular concept
● The side of the classroom; bigger class requires materials that can benefit all the learners
● Visibility: instructional materials if visual, it must be clear for learners to see including learners with
mild visual problems
● Cost: it is advisable that a teaching aid should be cost friendly not to expensive
● Equitable access; it should be accessible and useful to all the learners in the class
● Durability
Role of Instructional Material
● Instructional materials play a crucial role in language learning, as they define the elements and
methods of instruction and supervise the content and procedures of the learning process .
● They serve as a resource for presenting materials, providing activities for practice and
communicative interaction, and offering references on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc.
● Instructional materials also serve as a source of motivation and ideas for classroom activities, acting
as a syllabus and supporting less experienced teachers .
● They can include various types of materials such as printed materials (books, workbooks,
worksheets, readers), non-print materials (cassettes, audio materials, videos, computer-based
materials), and materials that combine print and non-print elements (self-access materials, online
materials) .
● Additionally, materials not specifically designed for instruction, such as magazines, newspapers,
and TV materials, may also play a role in teaching a foreign language

LEARNING THEORIST
COGNITIVE THEORIST
Cognitive learning theories focus on cognitive development, or “how the mind constructs knowledge”.
 A cognitive approach to learning generally believes that the learning process happens through
experience, trial-and-error, and thinking through ideas to develop understanding and knowledge within the
mind. The most famous cognitive development theorist is Jean Piaget who developed his stage theory of
children’s cognitive development. Cognitive approaches are also popular among educational technologists
through learning process approaches such as the cognitive tools approach to teaching.

1. Constructivist Theory
The constructivist learning theory believes that new information is ‘constructed’ in the mind. We often
contrast a constructivist learning process to a behaviorist process. Whereas a constructivist believes a
student needs to develop genuine understanding through trial, error and logic, a behaviorist believes in
learning through transmission of new information from an educator to a student. The constructivist learning
theory emphasizes that we use our prior knowledge in the learning process. We’ll think about what we
already know and how our new information can contribute to or challenge our existing knowledge. If some
new information challenges what we already know, we need to amend our existing understandings of the
world in order to repair them. If some new information builds on what we already know, we can simply stack
the new knowledge onto the old knowledge. Over time, as more and more new knowledge enters our
minds through experience, we develop increasingly more complex understandings of how the world works.
2. Social Constructivist Theory
The social constructivist learning theory embraces the notion of constructivism. However, social
constructivists believe that the learning process is an inherently social practice. We learn new information
through social interaction first and then internalize that new information over time. The most famous social
constructivist is Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky’s learning theory believed that we learn through ‘external speech’,
for example when talking out loud to work through an issue. As we get older and more intellectually
competent, we develop ‘private speech’ where we talk things through in our minds, thereby internalizing the
learning process. Vygotsky also argues that students learn best when in interaction with a ‘more
knowledgeable other’. That more knowledgeable other can model language use and the steps required for
completing a task. By being exposed to others’ explanations and modeling, learners see others’
perspectives and explanations. These explanations can help us critique and improve on our own thought
processes. The third contribution of Vygotsky was the concept of the zone of proximal development. This
concept highlights that students need to be taught things that are just too hard for them to complete alone,
but achievable with the support of the more knowledgeable others.
3. Cognitive Constructivist Theory
The cognitive constructivist learning theory believes in the fundamental principles of a constructivist
learning theory, but disagrees with social constructivists on the role of social interaction in learning. Instead,
cognitive constructivists focus entirely on the inner mind and how it develops over time. While social
constructivists might believe more in ‘nurture’ for learning, cognitive constructivists believe more in the role
of ‘nature’ for learning.
4. Bloom’s Domains Of Learning
Benjamin Bloom developed his theory of domains of learning to explain the differences between lower-
order surface learning approaches and higher-order cognitive approaches.
Higher-order learning tends to enable students to demonstrate deeper knowledge of a topic and greater
ability to apply it in the real world. Lower-order learning involves the ability to replicate already existing
knowledge in simpler, less creative ways. Bloom created his taxonomy of learning to demonstrate the
different levels of learning that can be demonstrated in students’ work:
5. Cognitive Load Theory
Sweller’s cognitive load theory is a cognitive theory that emphasizes that teachers need to take into
account the mind’s ‘cognitive architecture’ when teaching.
6. Multimodal Learning Theory
The multimodal learning theory (also known as CTML: the “cognitive theory of multimedia learning”)
focuses on how we learn in an era of screen-based technologies. According to this theory, people learn
primarily through two ‘channels’: aural and visual’.
7. Kolberg’s Stages Of Moral Development
Kolberg’s stage theory was inspired by Piaget’s learning theory. He developed his stages of learning theory
to explain how children’s morality develops over time.
Like Jean Piaget, Kolberg believed children learned certain tasks and abilities only once their mind had
developed enough to cognitively handle it.
8. Gestalt Theory
Gestalt theory presupposes that learners seek structure and unity in the things they learn. We want to be
able to see the ‘whole picture’ in order to develop a better understanding of the thing under analysis.
When we only see part of something, we don’t have enough of a holistic understanding to truly make wise
decisions or develop deep critical insightsThis learning theory, then, shows us that the whole is more than
the sum of its parts. With incomplete understanding of things, we can only make small, contextualized
deductions. With complete understanding, we can make more agile and informed decisions.
9. Pragmatic Education
Pragmatic education theory highlights the importance of getting things done. Pragmatic theorists think that
any knowledge that is being learned needs to have a purpose. We also call pragmatists ‘utilitarians’
because everything needs to have utility.

BEHAVIORAL THEORIST
Behavioral theories do not focus on what happens within the mind at a neurological or developmental level.
Instead, they focus on only observable behaviors.
According to a behaviorist approach, nothing is learned unless there is a tangible behavioral change that
can be seen, heard or measured.
1. Classical Conditioning Theory
Classical conditioning was a learning theory developed by Ivan Pavlov in the early 1900s. The theory
shows that we learn to associate two things if we experience them as usually being proximal to one
another.
In other words, we associate one thing with another if they usually come as a pair.
2. Operant Conditioning Theory
Operant conditioning builds on classical conditioning. While classical conditioning shows that some things
are learned subconsciously, operant conditioning shows that the same principles can be used to
consciously learning things.

HUMANISTIC THEORIST
Humanism is a philosophy that emphasizes the high importance and value of human life.
1. Humanist Theory Of Education
Humanist theory posits that human beings need comforting, welcoming environments in order for optimal
learning to occur.
When applied to education, humanism emphasizes two pillars:
● Holistic wellbeing: the importance of a student’s whole wellbeing, not just their intellectual
knowledge;
● Choice-based approach: the importance of giving children the sense they have control over their
lives.
The most central humanist theorist for educators is Maslow. Maslow developed his hierarchy of needs,
which highlights how students will learn best when they feel safe, secured and well cared for. When a
student’s basic needs are met, they will be more creative and confident learners.
2. Existentialist Theory Of Education
According to existentialists, there is no god or higher power than man. Therefore, humans have to deal with
two facts of life:
● The meaning of life is what we make it.
● We are condemned to choose.

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIST
Sociological theories of education focus on the role of education in structuring our societies and cultures.
1. Poststructuralist Theory
The poststructuralist theory of education believes that power structures are distributed throughout our
classrooms. Poststructuralists want to ensure language in the classroom is inclusive to ensure education is
socially just.Everywhere we look, power is being exercised. For example, in our school books, we might
ask questions like:
2. Critical Theory In Education
A critical theory approach to education is similar to a poststructuralist approach. This learning theory
believes in the importance of critiquing how power operates in classrooms to marginalize and harm minority
students.
However, a critical theory approach has a slightly different focus. The critical theory approach to education
focuses on advocating for working-class minorities. In other words, while poststructuralists focus on
inclusive language, critical theorists focus on promoting the belief systems of the oppressed.
3. Progressive-Democratic Theory
The progressive-democratic theory believes in creating a classroom that is democratic and that empowers
students. It is a reaction to education systems that narrowly see teaching as a means for providing students
with knowledge to become workers in the economy.
The most famous progressive-democratic educator, John Dewey, was also a constructivist! So, you’ll see a
lot of constructivist values in this theory. Students are encouraged to learn through a discovery approach
and do project-based tasks.

CYBERNETICS THEORIST
In education, cybernetic theory plays a significant role in understanding the dynamics of learning
systems and the interactions between learners, teachers, and educational environments. A cybernetic
theorist in education would explore how information, feedback, and control mechanisms influence the
learning process and educational outcomes.
Here are some key aspects a cybernetic theorist in education might focus on:
● Feedback Mechanisms: Cybernetic theory emphasizes the importance of feedback loops in
controlling and regulating systems. In education, this could involve studying how feedback from
assessments, teacher guidance, or peer interactions impacts students' learning processes and
performance.
● System Dynamics: Cybernetic theorists would analyze educational systems as complex, dynamic
entities composed of interconnected components. They might investigate how changes in one part
of the system (such as curriculum design or teaching methods) affect other parts (such as student
engagement or academic achievement).
● Self-Regulation: Cybernetic theory highlights the role of self-regulation in learning, where learners
actively monitor and adjust their behavior to achieve learning goals. A cybernetic theorist might
explore strategies for fostering self-regulated learning skills in students and how technology can
support these processes.
● Adaptation and Control: Education systems must adapt to changes in students' needs, societal
demands, and technological advancements. Cybernetic theory provides insights into how
educational systems can maintain equilibrium through adaptive responses and effective control
mechanisms.
● Communication and Interaction: Understanding communication processes and interactions within
educational contexts is crucial. Cybernetic theorists might examine how communication patterns
between teachers and students, as well as among peers, influence learning outcomes and
classroom dynamics.
● Technology Integration: With the increasing use of technology in education, cybernetic theory offers
frameworks for studying how digital tools and online platforms shape learning environments and
instructional practices. This includes exploring issues related to cybernetic control, information
processing, and human-computer interaction.