MECHANISMS

Mechanism is a combination of rigid or restraining bodies that are so shaped and

connected that they move upon each other with definite relative motion.

The figure above is a type of mechanism known as slider-crank mechanism. It is

a combination of rigid or restraining bodies namely crank, connecting rod, and slider.

These bodies are so shaped and connected that they move upon each other with definite

relative motion. The slider crank mechanism converts the reciprocating motion of the

slider into a rotary motion of the crank or vice-versa.

Machine is a mechanism or combination of mechanisms which do not only

imparts definite motions to the parts but also transmits and modifies the available

mechanical energy into some kind of useful energy. It is a device which receives energy

and transforms it into some useful work.

The slider-crank mechanism will become a machine when it is used in

automobile engine by adding value mechanism etc. in that case it will convert the

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi

Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
available energy (force on the piston) into the desired energy (i.e torque on the

crankshaft).

Kinematic Link or Element

Kinematic link or element is defined as a member or a combination of members

connecting other members and having motion relative to them. A slider-crank

mechanism consists of the following links:

i. Frame

ii. Crank

iii. Connecting rod and

iv Slider

In figure 2.1, the slider (i.e link 4) reciprocates in guide which is connected to

frame. Hence guide also becomes link 1 (i.e frame).

Type of Links

In order to transmit motion, the driver and the follower may be connected by the

following types of links

i. Rigid link: A rigid link is one which does not undergo any deformation while

transmitting motion. Strictly speaking, rigid links do not exist. However, as the

deformation of a connecting rod, crank etc of a reciprocally engine is not

appreciable, they can be considered as rigid links.

ii. Flexible link: A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to

affect the transmission of motion. For example, belts, ropes, chains and wires are

flexible links and transmit tensile forces only.

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
iii. Fluid Link: A fluid link is one which is formed by having a fluid in a receptacle

and the motion is transmitted through the fluid by pressure or compression only,

as in the case of hydraulic pressers, jacks and brakes.

Kinematic Pair

A joint of two links having relative motion between them is known as a

kinematic pair. The links or elements of a mechanism, when in contact with each other,

are said to form a pair. If the relative motion between them is completely or successfully

constrained (i.e. in a definite direction), the pair is known as kinematic pair.

In a slider crank mechanism shown in figure 2.1, link 2 rotates relative to link 1

and hence link 1 and 2 is a kinematic pair. Similarly link 2 is having motion relative to

link 3 and hence links 2 and 3 is also a kinematic pair. Link 3 is having motion relative

to link 4, and link 4 is having motion relative to link 1.Hence links 3,4 and 4,1 constitute

kinematic pairs.

Types of Constrained Motions

The following are the three types of constrained motions:

i. Completely Constrained Motion- When the motion between a pair is limited

to a definite direction irrespective of the direction of force applied, then the

motion is said to be a completely constrained motion. For example, the piston

and cylinder form a pair and the motion of the piston is limited to a definite

direction relative to the cylinder irrespective of the direction of motion of the

crank. The motion of a square bar in a square hole, as shown in fig. 2.2a and the
Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
 motion of a shaft with collars at each end in a circular hole as shown in fig 2.2b

are all examples of completely constrained motion.

ii. Incompletely Constrained Motion: When the motion between a pair can take

place in more than one direction, then the motion is called an incompletely

constrained motion. The change in the direction of impressed force may alter the

direction of relative motion between the pair. A circular bar or shaft in a circular

hole, as shown in fig 2.26, is an example of an incompletely constrained motion

as it may either rotate or slide in a hole.

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi

Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
iii. Successfully Constrained Motion: When the motion between the elements,

forming a pair, is such that the constrained motion is not completed by itself, but

by some other means, then the motion is said to be successfully constrained

motion. Consider a shaft in a foot-step bearing as shown in fig 2.2d. The shaft

may rotate in a bearing or it may move upwards. This is the case of incompletely

constrained motion. But it a load is placed on the shaft to prevent axial upward

movement of the shaft, then the motion of the pair is said to be successfully

constrained motion. The motion of an internal combustion engine value which is

kept on seat by spring, is an example of successfully constrained motion.

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi

Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
Classification of Kinematic Pairs

Kinematic pairs can be classified according to the following considerations.

i. According to the type/nature of contact between the links

ii. According to the type of relative motion between the links

iii. According to the nature of mechanical constraint between the links

i. According to type/nature of contact; the kinematic pairs are classified as:

a. Sliding Pair: When two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one

can only slide relative to the other, the pair is known as a sliding pair. in fig 2.1,

the links 4 and 1 are having sliding motion relative to each other and hence they

form a sliding pair.

b. Turning Pair: When two elements of pair are connected in such a way that one

can only turn or revolve about a fixed axis of another link, the pair is known as

a turning pair. a shaft with collars at both ends fitted into a circular hole, the

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi

Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
 crankshaft in a journal bearing in an engine, lathe spindle supported in head

stock, cycle wheels turning over their axis etc are the examples of a turning pair.

c. Rolling Pair: A kinematics pair is known to be rolling pair if one link has a

rolling motion relative to the other. Ball and roller bearings are examples of

rolling pair.

d. Screw Pair: A kinematic pair is known as screw pair if the two links have a

turning as well as sliding motion between them, the lead screw of a lathe with

nut, and a bolt with a nut are examples of screw pairs.

e. Spherical Pair: A kinematic pair is known as spherical pair if one link in the

form of a sphere turns inside a fixed link. The ball and socket joint is a typical

example of a spherical pair.

iii. According to the nature of mechanical constraint between two link, the kinematic

pairs are classified as:

a. Closed Pair: When the two elements of a pair are connected together

mechanically in such a way that only the required kind of relative motion occurs,

it is then human as a closed or self-closed pair.

b. Unclosed Pair/Force-Closed Pair: When two elements are in contact due to

force of gravity or due to some spring action, or due to an external force, the pair

is said to be unclosed or force closed. The can and follower is an example of a

force closed pair, as it is kept in contact by the forces exerted by spring and

gravity.

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi

Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
Kinematic Chain

A kinematic chain is defined as the combination of kinematic pairs, joined in

such a way that each link forms a part of two pairs and the motion of each relative to

other is definite. When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that the last link

is jointed to the first link to transmit definite motion (ie. Completely or successfully

constrained motion), then we have a kinematic chain.

The crankshaft of an engine forms a kinematic pair with the bearings which are

fixed in a pair, the connecting rod with the crank forms a second kinematic pair, the

piston with the connecting rod forms a third pair and the piston with the cylinder forms

a fourth pair. The total combination of these links is a kinematic chain. Example of a

kinematic chain is the slider-crank mechanism as known in fig. 2.1.

If each link is assured to form two pairs with two adjacent links, then the relation

between the number of pairs (P) forming a kinematic chain and the number of links (L)

may be expressed as:

L = 2p – 4 ……………………………….(23)

Since in a kinematic chain each link forms a part of two pairs, therefore there

will be as many links as the number of pairs. Another relation between the number of

links (L) and the number of joints (j) which constitute a kinematic chain is given by the

expression.
3
j = 𝐿𝐿 − 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … . (24)
2

The equations (23) and (24) are applicable only to kinematic chains having lower

pairs. It they are applied to kinematic chains having higher pairs, then each higher pair

must be taken equivalent to two lower pairs and an additional link.

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
 In equations (23) and (24) it.

L.H.S > R, H. S then the chain is locked

L.H.S = R.H.S. then the chain is constrained

L.H.S. < then the chain is unconstrained

Example

A three links chain with pin joints at A, B and C is shown below. Prove that the chain

is locked.

Solution

Given:

Three links 1, 2 and 3

Three joints A, B and C

No of links L = 3

No of joints j = 3

and No of pairs, p = 3
Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
 using equn. (23), we set

L = 2p – 4

3=2x3–4=2

L. H. S > R.H.S

Now using equ (24), we have

3
j= 𝐿𝐿 − 2
2

3
3= 𝑥𝑥 3 − 2 = 2.5
2

L.H.S > R.H.S

Since the arrangement of three links does not satisfy the equation (23) and (24) and the

left-hand side is greater than the right-hand side, therefore it is not a kinematic chain

and hence no relative motion is possible. Such type of chain is called locked chain and

forms a rigid frame or structure which is used in trusses and bridges.

Types of Joints in a Chain

The following types of joints are usually found in a chain:

i. Binary joints,

ii. Ternary joints, and

iii. Quaternary joints

Binary Joint: - A joint is known as binary joint if two links are joined at the same

connection.

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi

Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
The above figure shows a chain having four links 1,2,3,4 and four joints A, B, C, D. at

each joint, two links are connected. Hence these joints are binary joints.

Ternary Joint: A joint is known as ternary joint if three links are joined at the same

connection. It is equivalent to two binary joints as one of the three joined levy the for

the other two links.

The figure above shows a chain having six links and five joints. It has three

binary joints at A, B, and D and two ternary joints at C and E. Since one ternary joint is
Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
equivalent to two binary joints, therefore equivalent binary joints in a chain as shown

in the figure are 3+2 x 2 = 7.

Quaternary Joint: A joint is known as quaternary joint if four links are connected at

the same connection. A quaternary joint is equal to three binary joints. In general, when

L number of links are joined at the same connected, the joint is equivalent to (L-1)

binary joints.

Degrees of Freedom

Degrees of freedom is defined as the number of independent motion (both

translational and rotational) a body can have.

Fig. 23 shows a rigid body in space. If there is no constraint on the body, then it

can describe the following independent motions:

i. transitional motions along x, y and 2 axes, and

ii. rotational motion about these axes

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi

Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
 Thus, the above body is having six independent motions. This body is said to

have six degrees of freedom. Mathematically degrees of freedom of a body in space is

given by, D = 6-N

Degrees of freedom = 6 – Number of constraints ……………………………. (25)

For example, if number of constraints are fair then degrees of freedom will be 2.

Degrees of Freedom for Plane Mechanism

Degrees of freedom of a plane mechanism is defined as the number of inputs

parameters needed to determine the configuration or position of all the links of the

mechanism with respect to fixed link. In the design of analysis of mechanism, one the

most important concern is the number of degrees of freedom which is also known as

movability of the mechanism.

The plane mechanism means the mechanism in a plane (i.e. x-y plane). In order

to find the degree of freedom (or movability) for any plane mechanism let us first

consider two links 1 and 2 in x-y plane as shown in fig. 2.4.

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi

Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
 Link 1 is fixed along x – axis whereas link 2 is moving in a plane at any time the

position of link 2 is shown in fig 2.4. The location of point A of link 2 can be completely

specified by three variables i.e., Coordinates x and y of the point A and inclination θ of

the link 2 with x-axis 3. Thus, three independent variables i.e. two translations (x,y co-

ordinates) and one rotation (θ) are necessary to completely locate link 2 in xy plane.

Hence the link 2 has three degrees of freedom.

But if point A is joined by a pin to point B on a fixed link 1, then the two

independent variables (x and y for point A) are fixed. The position of link 2 now is

determined by a single variable θ only. Hence now the link 2 will have only one degree

of freedom. This shows that two degrees of freedom (translational) are lost at every pin

(or hinge) joint of any link with fixed link.

Expressing the number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism in terms of number

of links and number of joints.

Let

L= Number of links in a mechanism out of which one link is fixed

j= Number of binary joints or lower pairs

(L-1) = Number of movable links

h = number of higher pairs (i.e two degree of freedom pairs)

then the number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is given by

F = 3(L-1) -2 2j – h ………………………………. (26)

Equation 26 is called kntzbach criterion for the movability of a mechanism

having plane motion. If there are no two degree of freedom pairs (i.e., higher pairs),

then h=O, and substituting h =O in equation 26, we have

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
 F = 3(L-1) – 2j ……………………………. (27)

If F = 0, it means there is no movability of mechanism and hence mechanism is

known as a structure and there is no relative motion between the links. The assemblage

of a number of resistant links or bodies having no relative motion between then is known

as a structure. This assemblage carries loads and has straining action but there is no

relative motion between the members of the assemblage. While a machine transforms

the available energy into some useful work, a structure does not transform any energy

into useful work. Also, the members of a structure transmit both power and motion.

If F = 1, the mechanism is having only one degree of freedom. Hence only one

coordinate is required to specify the positions of all links of the mechanism. This leads

us to the Garbler’s criterion which applies to mechanism with only single degree of

freedom joints where the overall movability of the mechanism is unity. Substituting F=1

and h = O in kutzbach equation we have

1 =3(L-1)-2j

= 3L-3-2j = 1

3L – 4 -2j = 0

=> 3L-2j-4 = 0 ……………………………………. (28)

Equation 28 is known as the Grubler’s criterion for plane mechanisms with constrained

motion.

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi

Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.
Example

Determine the number of degrees of freedom for the following mechanisms

D
C
E C
1. 2.

D A B
A

Solution

1. The mechanism has three links and three binary points,

= L = 3 and j = 3, h = 0

Using kntzbach equation,

F = 3(L-1) – 2j – h

= F = 3(3-1) – 2(3)

= 6-6

=0

∴ The three-bar mechanism has zero degree of freedom

2. The five-bar mechanism has 5 links and 5 binary joints

=L=5 j=5

Using F = 3(L-1) – 2j

F = 3(5-1) – 2(5)

= 12-10

F=2

The mechanism has 2 degrees of freedom

Lecture note prepared by Dr. H. A. Owolabi

Dept of Mechanical Engineering
OAU, Ile-Ife.