Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125851

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Hazardous Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhazmat

Emerging challenges of air pollution and particulate matter in China, India,

and Pakistan and mitigating solutions
Muhammad Naveed Anwar a, *, Muneeba Shabbir a, Eza Tahir a, Mahnoor Iftikhar a, Hira Saif a,
Ajwa Tahir a, Malik Ashir Murtaza a, Muhammad Fahim Khokhar b, Mohammad Rehan c,
Mortaza Aghbashlo d, Meisam Tabatabaei e, f, g, h, Abdul-Sattar Nizami a
a
Sustainable Development Study Centre, Government College University, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
b
Institute of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
c
Center of Excellence in Environmental Studies (CEES), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering of Agricultural Machinery, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources,
University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
e
Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries (AKUATROP), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus,
Terengganu, Malaysia
f
Henan Province Forest Resources Sustainable Development and High-value Utilization Engineering Research Center, School of Forestry, Henan Agricultural University,
Zhengzhou 450002, China
g
Biofuel Research Team (BRTeam), Terengganu, Malaysia
h
Microbial Biotechnology Department, Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII), Agricultural Research, Education, and Extension Organization
(AREEO), Karaj, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: Dr. Rinklebe Jörg This study examines point and non-point sources of air pollution and particulate matter and their associated
socioeconomic and health impacts in South Asian countries, primarily India, China, and Pakistan. The legislative
Keywords: frameworks, policy gaps, and targeted solutions are also scrutinized. The major cities in these countries have
Air Pollutants surpassed the permissible limits defined by WHO for sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and
Climate Change
nitrogen dioxide. As a result, they are facing widespread health problems, disabilities, and causalities at extreme
Waste to Energy
events. Populations in these countries are comparatively more prone to air pollution effects because they spend
Public Health
Vehicular Pollution, Desulfurization more time in the open air, increasing their likelihood of exposure to air pollutants. The elevated level of air
pollutants and their long-term exposure increases the susceptibility to several chronic/acute diseases, i.e.,
obstructive pulmonary diseases, acute respiratory distress, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. More in-depth
spatial-temporal air pollution monitoring studies in China, India, and Pakistan are recommended. The study
findings suggest that policymakers at the local, national, and regional levels should devise targeted policies by
considering all the relevant parameters, including the country’s economic status, local meteorological condi­
tions, industrial interests, public lifestyle, and national literacy rate. This approach will also help design and
implement more efficient policies which are less likely to fail when brought into practice.

air pollution exceeded the permissible standard limits during 2016

(WHO, 2018). Air pollution is recognized as the fourth or fifth largest
1. Introduction
global risk factor for mortality (HEI, 2019; World Bank, 2016). In 2016,
around 4.2 million deaths worldwide could be attributable to ambient
Air pollution has become one of the most significant challenges
air pollution (WHO, 2018).
human beings face in recent decades, resulting in detrimental impacts
Air pollutants, including carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide
on human health and ecosystems (Dastoorpoor et al., 2019). It is char­
(SO2), particulate matters (PM10, PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and
acterized as the contamination of the indoor or outdoor air by various
ozone (O3), could lead to various chronic diseases such as lung cancer,
gaseous emissions and solid particles. According to the World Health
cardiovascular diseases, and other respiratory diseases (WHO, 2019).
Organization (WHO), 91% of the global population lived in places where

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: naveedanwarenv@gmail.com (M.N. Anwar), asnizami@gcu.edu.pk (A.-S. Nizami).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125851
Received 4 August 2020; Received in revised form 11 March 2021; Accepted 6 April 2021
Available online 9 April 2021
0304-3894/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M.N. Anwar et al.
Nomenclature
AQI Air Quality Index
AQHI Air Quality Health Index
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CAAQMS Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Sensors
CMAQ Community-Multi Scale Air Quality
DALYs Disability-Adjusted Life Years
DPM Diesel Particulate Matter
E-drones Environnemental drones
FTA Fault Tree Analysis
NEQS National Environment Quality Standards
Hence, even individuals living healthy lifestyles are still prone to chronic
and life-threatening diseases caused by polluted air. As estimated,
12.7% of the worldwide deaths could be prevented by improving air
quality and by reductions in the yearly mean ambient concentration of
air pollutants, specifically PM2.5 from 35 µg/m3 to 10 µg/m3, and PM10
from 70 µg/m3 to 20 µg/m3 (WHO, 2018).
The magnitude of the impacts related to air pollution and resultant
health challenges are more extensive in the developing world (Smith,
2002). More specifically, low and middle-income countries experience a
premature death toll of about 3.8 million annually because of indoor air
pollution (WHO, 2018). Out of the total deaths associated with indoor
air pollution, 2/3rd occur in Asia and Africa alone due to biomass-based
fuels’ combustion (Yamamoto et al., 2014).
The world’s worst air pollution levels have been reported in the
South Asian region. In India alone, about six hundred thousand people
succumb to premature deaths annually because of outdoor air pollution
(Kanawade et al., 2020). Nearly all children less than five years of age in
the developing world are exposed to high particulate matter levels ≤ 2.5
micrometers (PM2.5) (Wang et al., 2019a, 2019b). China alone wit­
nessed 25 million disability-adjusted life years (DALY) and an approxi­
mated financial cost of $1.4 trillion due to air pollution (Yang et al.,
2013). Henceforth, it could be concluded that air pollution is a deadly
cause of major health-related, social, and economic issues in developing
nations (Huang et al., 2019).
In addition to public health issues, air pollutants are also the major
contributors to winter smog, haze formation, and visibility impairment
in South Asia (Cohen et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019a, 2019b). These
emissions also decrease the glaciers’ albedo and accelerate glacier
meltdown in this region (Li et al., 2019). It should be noted that the
South Asian countries rely heavily on the river systems, fed by glacial
water, for agriculture and electricity production (Hadley and Kirch­
stetter, 2012).
In light of the above, the present work looks into air pollution and
PM, their sources, and the associated health impacts in South Asian
countries, mainly India, China, and Pakistan. The policy and legislative
gaps for mitigating air pollution and PM are also highlighted. Potential
solutions to overcome the challenges faced in this region are also pre­
sented in different categories, i.e., air-quality reporting system, legisla­
tions, tree-planting, waste-to-energy (WtE), fuel quality, and
alternatives to stubble burning.
2. Sources of air pollution in China, India, and Pakistan
Rapid urbanization and industrialization have inevitably resulted in
higher air pollution magnitudes in developing countries than their
developed counterparts (Wang et al., 2019a, 2019b). It is worth high­
lighting that the challenge is even more severe in urban environments
where economic and industrial activities and, consequently, high energy
consumption occur. It is needless to stress that the urban regions’
2
Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125851
NH3 Ammonia
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
NOx Nitrogen Oxides
O3 Ozone
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PCAP Prevention and Control of Air Pollution
PM Particulate Matter
SO2 Sulphur dioxide
VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds
WHO World Health Organization
WtE Waste to Energy
WRF Weather Research and Forecasting
population has also been increasing exponentially. This has been re­
flected in the UN estimation that by 2050 the urban population will rise
to 9.3 billion (Poot and Pawar, 2013). Hence, further development of
civil facilities and infrastructure, and as a result, additional pressure on
human health and the environment should be expected (Gurjar et al.,
2016).
Different air pollutants such as gaseous and particulate matter are
released into the environment by various sources. Among these, carbon
dioxide (CO2) is a major greenhouse gas (GHG) associated with adverse
environmental challenges, i.e., global warming and climate change. As
shown in Fig. 1, the CO2eq emissions for Pakistan, India, and China
stand at 304.85, 2432, and 9679 m3, respectively.
Fig. 2 highlights the mean annual exposure to fine particulate matter
(PM2.5) over an 8 year period (2010–2017) in Pakistan, India, and China
(The World Bank, 2019). Based on these statistics, it could be inferred
that among these three neighboring countries, the highest exposure
levels were recorded in India in the entire time span. Moreover, unlike
India, China, followed by Pakistan, experienced a decreasing trend in
exposure to PM2.5.
The relative SO2 and NO2 concentrations in µg/m3 are given in Fig. 3.
It is quite clear that unlike other gaseous emissions, Pakistan has higher
concentrations of both these air pollutants than India. The country-
specific insight shows that NO2 concentrations in both countries are
higher than SO2 concentrations. It is important to note that both gaseous
pollutants are key determinants of the air pollution level in any region.
2.1. Vehicular air pollution
Vehicular emissions are the primary human-driven sources of air
pollution in cities worldwide (Fenger, 1999). Among the continents and
over the past decade, Asia experienced the most rapid increase in
vehicular intensity, primarily because of the saturation in the Organi­
zation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) markets and
income growth (Ilyas, 2007). The two frequently used fuels, petrol and
diesel fuels, are responsible for releasing multiple air pollutants. Petrol
combustion in vehicle engines emits volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), CO, heavy metals, and ammonia (NH3). At the same time, diesel
combustion leads to the emission of PM2.5 and nitrogen oxide (NOx)
(Khalife et al., 2017)). Diesel particulate matter (DPM) composition
could be complex, comprising elemental carbon surrounded by organic
compounds such as nitro polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (nitro-­
PAHs) with small amounts of metals and nitrate sulfate (Forehead and
Huynh, 2018). The composition of emitted gases and particles de­
termines the emissions’ toxicity level (Rückerl et al., 2011). It should
also be noted that the post-emission from the exhaust pipe, the mixture
of gases and particles could undergo various compositional changes.
Local conditions such as temperature, sunlight, pollutants concentra­
tion, turbulence, and humidity are among the major factors affecting the
final composition and properties of the pollutant mixture (Ryu et al.,
M.N. Anwar et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125851

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Pakistan India China
Mt CO-eq Emissions 304.85 2432 9679

Fig. 1. Comparison of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions of Pakistan, India, and China (Abas et al., 2017).

2017
2016
China 2015
2014
2013
2012
India 2011
2010

Pakistan

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100105
PM2.5 Air Pollution: Mean Annual Exposure (µg/m3)

Fig. 2. Mean annual exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in China, India, and Pakistan from 2010 to 2017 (Source: World Bank 2019).

On the other hand, the abundance of vehicles is also associated with

NO2 the increased prevalence of traffic congestions resulting in further
SO2
India emissions. It should be noted that the transportation sector is responsible
for about 15–70% of the ambient air pollution in urban regions,
dependent on the city under investigation. For instance, in Jinan prov­
ince, vehicle emissions solely contributed about 32.6% of PM2.5 pollu­
Pakistan tion (Wang et al., 2019a, 2019b). Hence, reducing the number of
vehicles in circulation in large cities by promoting more efficient public
transport systems and zero-carbon transportation approaches such as
0 5 10 15
Relative SO2 and NO2 Conc. (µg/m3)
20 25 cycling could considerably mitigate air pollutants’ emissions.

Fig. 3. Relative concentration of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) in micrograms per cubic meter in neighboring countries, India, and
Pakistan (Abas et al., 2017).
2013).
2.1.1. Vehicular emissions in China
With China becoming the leading market in automobile production
and sales worldwide, the number of vehicles rose from 49 to 220 million
in just fourteen years, from 1999 to 2013 (Wang and Chen, 2013). As a
result, many cities and in particular Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Beijing
have experienced haze and winter smog episodes. Three-quarters of
China’s urban population breathe unhealthy air based on China’s Na­
tional Ambient Air Quality Standards (Shao et al., 2006). In Beijing,
vehicles are responsible for approximately 11%, 35%, 57%, and 64.1%
of precursor organic compounds, black carbon, non-methane VOCs, and
NOx, respectively (Cheng et al., 2013; Song et al., 2007). Using positive
matrix factorization (PMF) in megacities, a study conducted in China
found vehicles a crucial VOCs source (Cai et al., 2010). Wang and Yang
(2018) stressed that the transportation sector is the major contributor to
recurrent haze formation in winters in China by producing secondary
organic aerosols. The increase in vehicle intensity has also resulted in
higher emissions of GHGs (Zheng et al., 2015).
2.1.2. Vehicular emissions in India
Like China, India is also struggling with urban air pollution, with the
transportation sector considered as the main culprit. A decade ago, a
study found only five megacities having acceptable air quality out of the
eighteen Indian metropolitans surveyed (Gurjar et al., 2008). The situ­
ation further deteriorated ever since, and India now witnesses recurrent
winter smog episodes in major cities like Delhi. In addition to Delhi, 32
other Indian cities are among the top 100 world’s worst pollution-a­
ffected cities. Air pollution’s health cost constituted 23% of India’s GDP
value in 2010. A rapid increase in vehicle number from 0.3 to 159.5
million was recorded from 1951 to 2012, respectively (Gurjar et al.,
2016), with metropolitan cities accommodating almost 32%. Ram­
achandra (2009) estimated that trucks and lorries contributed the
highest proportion of vehicular emissions in India. This estimation was
in line with the findings of other studies on the emission inventories for
different Indian cities, suggesting that diesel operated heavy and
light-duty vehicles had the highest contribution to the overall vehicular
emissions (Guttikunda and Kopakka, 2014; Guttikunda and Mohan,
2014).
From 1901–2001, the Indian urban population increased from 10%
to 28%, leading to increased use of vehicles, and consequently, more
traffic congestions. However, these developments were not accompa­
nied by sufficient road infrastructure growth (Mishra and Goyal, 2014).

3
M.N. Anwar et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125851

In Kolkata, for instance, the primary sources of PM10 are road dust (61%)
and vehicles (21%) (Gurjar et al., 2016). Road dust could be attributed
to urban construction activities or dusty weather/climate.
2.1.3. Vehicular emissions in Pakistan
Pakistan is also faced with a growing concern regarding air pollution
attributed to urban vehicular emissions (Ali et al., 2021); the existing
emission inventories need further in-depth investigations (Anjum et al.,
2021). Lower quality of the lubricating oils and fuel used in the trans­
portation sector on one hand and transportation system mismanage­
ment, inadequate traffic control, and road infrastructure, on the other
hand, are regarded as the main causes (Ilyas, 2007; Smit et al., 2008).
2.2. Transboundary air pollution
There are no geographical boundaries for air pollution, making its
control an even more difficult job. Table 1 presents a comparison of the
studies conducted on air pollution in Asia. Air pollutants emitted by one
city or country can be easily moved by the airflow and traced in the
neighboring cities and countries, respectively (Abas et al., 2019). So,
coordinated response at both inter-city and inter-region levels would be
required to curb air pollution, and isolated efforts would not yield any
promising outcomes (Sanchez-Triana et al., 2014). For instance, India’s
and China’s coal-fired power plants have negatively affected air quality
in these countries and the region. Transfer of pollutants from upper
industrialized countries to lower riparian countries occurs through the
natural flow of winds and waters. Transboundary pollutants originating
from industrialized countries put additional pressures on
under-developed nations in terms of health and agricultural productivity
(Abbas et al., 2019).
One such example of transboundary emission migration is winter
smog episodes of Lahore, Pakistan’s metropolitan city. Lahore suffers
from the transboundary air pollutants in winters caused by secondary
aerosol formation. The presence of sulfate particles and the existing
meteorological conditions, such as cool and calm winds and high hu­
midity, give rise to the formation of smog/haze causing respiratory
diseases and reduced visibility (Sanchez-Triana et al., 2014). The smog
of these pollutants are originated from the Indian coal power plants and
are transported to Pakistan from east to west through flowing trade
winds and summer monsoons (Abas et al., 2019; Syed et al., 2013). As a
result, the aerosol concentration increases from March to August,
causing aerosols’ settlement at ground level in winters downwind
(Ramachandran and Kedia, 2013).
2.2.1. Transboundary air pollution from India
In India, fossil fuel combustion in megacities is one of the major
causes of pollutant emission and air quality degradation (Ravindra et al.,
2016). These pollutants, because of their extended lifetime travel
regionally and between continents, triggering political and socioeco­
nomic challenges (Ravindra et al., 2016). India is among the world’s
industrialized nations harboring seventeen different categories of
polluting industries as identified by the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB), India. These industries include oil refineries, alumi­
num/copper/zinc smelters, thermal power plants, fertilizer, cement,
pesticides, and petrochemical units (Gurjar et al., 2016). Through coal
combustion as a fuel source, energy generated from thermal power
plants meets the increasing demands for electricity in India, with a total
contribution of 74% to the country’s energy mix. From 1973–1997,
thermal power plants and the petroleum sector contributed over 25%
and 40% of the total emissions, respectively (TERI, 2001). Given the
enormous magnitude of these emissions, effective policies would be
required to ensure that the transboundary transfer of air pollution will
be mitigated.

Table 1
Comparison of the studies conducted on air pollution in Asia.
Authors Title Methodology Results

Sarigiannis et al., Monitoring of air pollution levels related to
2017 Charilaos Trikoupis Bridge
Wang et al., Fault Tree Analysis of the Causes of Urban Smog
2019a, 2019b Events Associated With Vehicle Smog Emissions:
A Case Study in Jinan China
Serbula et al., Extreme Air Pollution with Contaminants
2017 Originating from the Mine-Metallurgical
Operations
Pimonsree and Impact of Biomass Burning and its Control on
Vongruang, Particulate Matter over a City in Mainland
2018 Southeast Asia during a Smog Episode
Gurjar et al., Air Pollution Trends Over Indian Mega-cities
2016 and their Local to Global Implications
Phosri et al., Effects of Ambient Air Pollution on Daily
2019 Hospital Admissions for Respiratory and
Cardiovascular Diseases in Bangkok, Thailand
Ali and Rahut, Forest-based livelihoods, Income, and Poverty:
2018 Empirical Evidence from the Himalayan Region
Cuaresma and Deforestation and Economic Development:
Heger, 2019 Evidence from National Borders
Shi et al., 2020 Characteristics and Meteorological Mechanisms
of Transboundary Air Pollution in a Persistent
Heavy PM2.5 Pollution Episode in Central-East-
China
Ashraf et al., Smog analysis and its effect on reported ocular
2019 surface diseases: a case study of 2016 smog
event of Lahore
Sampling campaigns were carried out over a
period of 3 years using Low flow air samplers
Fault tree analysis (FTA) was used to study the
contribution of vehicles in the formation of
smog
Monitoring of SO2 levels was performed for the
time period 2010–2015
Control of biomass burning emissions was
assessed using Weather Research and
Forecasting (WRF) and Community-Multi Scale
Air Quality (CMAQ)
Emissions and concentration trends were
examined and analyzed in three cities of India
Daily data of hospital admissions and air
pollution concentration was analyzed using a
linear model
A dataset from 500 farmers assessed their
dependence on forest resources
Subnational Dataset of 14 countries was
acquired and employed quasi-experimental
method
Daily PM2.5 levels were obtained along with
atmospheric modeling
Monitoring of air pollutants (CO, SO2 NOx, O3,
VOCs, PM10, PM2.5) was carried out, and data of
ocular surface disease was obtained
In the warm season, sulfates, traffic emissions, mineral
dust increased, while biomass burning was prevalent in
the cold season
Vehicles abundance, congestion, and use of low-quality
oil was directly associated with higher emissions and,
consequently, the formation of smog
Annual levels of SO2 were higher than the proposed
Limit value (LV), with an incidence of SO2 187 times
higher than the proposed limit value by WHO
The average value of daily PM2.5 decreased by 1.05% in
response to each percent decrease in biomass burning
A decreasing trend was observed in the emissions of SO2
because of less coal consumption, and an increasing
trend was recorded in the emissions of NOx due to the
higher number of vehicles
An increase of 10 µg/m3 in PM10, SO2, NO2, O3 was
attributed to 1.04%, 8.42%, 1.28%, and 0.14% increase
in respiratory and cardiovascular diseases
Results revealed that families with lower poverty levels
and higher income levels heavily depend on forest
resources and consume forest-based products
Low-income countries and Sub-Saharan Africa have a
higher rate of deforestation
Levels of PM2.5 increased due to the change in wind
direction and several other factors, including
temperature inversion, large scale subsidence, warm/
cold advection, and radiative cooling
In 2015 and 2016, 200 and 500 patients were reported
with eye diseases, and a 60% higher number of ocular
disease patients were observed in the period of smog in
contrast to normal conditions

4
M.N. Anwar et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125851

2.2.2. Transboundary air pollution from China 10% in the forest cover (Yao et al., 2019). It is worth quoting that from
In recent decades, China has experienced rapid growth in population 1950 to 2010, plantation forests sequestered 1.7 Pg of carbon and are
and urbanization. The industrial expansion resulted in industries mov­ expected to increase carbon sequestration by 10.4 Pg by the year 2050
ing from core areas of the cities to the neighboring regions. For 2002 and (Yao et al., 2019).
2010, SO2 and NOx emissions exhibited dramatic increases of 5.30 and
16.14 million tons (Mt), respectively. The economic growth contributed 2.3.2. Deforestation in India
to the rise of 11.49, 26.24, and 33.12 Mt of PM2.5, NOx, and SO2. China’s In India, about 14,000 km2 of the forest areas have been cleared over
Environmental Statistical Yearbook stated that out of the 18.587 Mt of the past three decades because of economic activities such as hydro­
SO2 emissions, 15.566 Mt were emitted by the industrial sector. The electricity production, defense, and mining. The mining sector is
North China Plain is the most industrialized area in China, and air responsible for the deforestation of 5000 km2 area alone (Ranjan, 2019).
pollution goes to the extreme in winter (Yan et al., 2018). However, the A study conducted from 2001 to 2014 reported about 2000, 40, and
regional transport of air pollutants by southerly winds could also be 145 km2 loss of forest areas in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Madhya
regarded as a reason for the higher level of pollution in the North China Pradesh states, respectively, while some states recorded no change in
Plain (Jin et al., 2020). their forest areas and some states registered improvements (Ranjan,
2019). Overall, India stands at the 8th position among the top ten
countries with the highest annual forest area retrieval rates. The in­
2.3. Air Pollution caused by deforestation crease in forest area is achieved through afforestation activities, man­
agement practices, and local people’s participation.
The uncontrolled population growth has increased the demands for
wood and other forest products, accelerating deforestation (Kumari 2.3.3. Deforestation in Pakistan
et al., 2019). Deforestation through changing the mass balance and In Pakistan, the total forest cover is 3.59 million ha, corresponding to
increasing the concentration of CO2 results in climatic change both 4.1% of the total land area (Owais and Siddiqui, 2019). Khyber Pak­
locally and globally (Longobardi et al., 2012). Moreover, the consequent htunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan provinces constitute about 40% and 15%
land-use change could affect the hydro-meteorological cycle adversely of the country’s forests, respectively. Pakistan has a high deforestation
(Pinker, 1980) and result in alteration of regional radiation flux as bare rate of 4.6% annually (Ahmad et al., 2012). It is noteworthy that forests
soil reflects more solar radiation, increasing albedo. The synergistic ef­ in the Himalayas, including Pakistan, play a crucial role in local people’s
fect of increased albedo and CO2 concentration and reduced evapo­ livelihood (Kala, 2005). A variety of forest products such as fruits,
transpiration leads to warmer and drier weather globally (Kumari et al., vegetables, fodder, fuelwood, timber for construction, and medicinal
2019). The variations in forest cover (%) in Pakistan, India, and China plants are regarded as income sources (Poffenberger, 2012). Rapid ur­
(2001–2016) are presented in Table 2. China and India have increased banization in many Pakistan cities is considered as the leading cause of
their forest cover through plantations, while Pakistan has the lowest deforestation. In this context, between 1992 and 2000, Islamabad lost
forest cover and experiences a declining trend as well. 22% of its vegetation cover because of urbanization (Waseem and
Khayyam, 2019). Ahmad and co-workers studied deforestation in the
2.3.1. Deforestation in China temperate region of Pakistan. From 1994–2016, an estimated 626 ha of
From 1949–1979, Northeast China experienced a sharp decline in its forests were lost, which resulted in 4948 ha of degraded dense forest
forest cover for timber production. The over-exploitation of resources area. The total removal was 680.88 km3, with an annual rate of
resulted in a subsequent decrease in timber production from 4 to 1.4 30.94 km3 for fuelwood, construction, and agricultural purposes
billion m3 after this period. A study revealed that forests in the Hei­ (Ahmad et al., 2018).
longjiang Province witnessed increased deforestation from the period
1896–2000, resulting in the degradation of forests (Gao and Liu, 2012).
Recent efforts put into combating forest loss and climate change in China 2.4. Air pollution from coal-based power plants in South Asia
through afforestation campaigns across various states, such as China’s
Returning Farmland to Forest Program (REFP), have led to positive In Asia, thermal energy is the primary energy source. As the two
outcomes in terms of development indicators and forest cover largest Asian countries China and India produced 941,531 MW of en­
enhancement (Chen et al., 2020). Afforestation campaigns have been ergy from coal-based power plants combined. Reports indicate that the
implemented in urban environments, with Beijing having 50 million southeastern part of Asia, particularly India, China, and Pakistan, show
trees planted between 2012 and 2015, resulting in an overall increase of increased reliance on coal-fired power plants for energy production.
Coal-based energy production is primarily associated with air pollution
Table 2 (such as SO2, NOx, O3, PM2.5, PM10, and VOCs) and several health
Variations in forest cover in Pakistan, China, and India (2001–2016). problems (Maamoun et al., 2020), undermining action plans devised to
Year Pakistan (%) China (%) India (%) achieve the United Nations’ sustainable development goals (SDGs) with
2001 2.745 19.195 22.149
respect to energy and the environment (Rafaj et al., 2018). Different
2002 2.689 19.537 22.305 organic compounds, such as PAHs, n-alkanes, aromatic acid, and
2003 2.634 19.879 22.461 aliphatic acids, have also been identified in coal combustion emissions
2004 2.523 20.221 22.617 (Shon et al., 2020) A study on 88 internationally-financed coal power
2005 2.467 20.562 22.773
plants concluded that these operations were linked to 6000–10,700
2006 2.412 20.724 22.913
2007 2.356 20.885 23.053 deaths annually, mainly due to respiratory diseases, ischemic heart
2008 2.3 21.046 23.193 disease, upper pulmonary infection, and lung cancer. Around 30% of
2009 2.244 21.027 23.33 these 88 coal power plants belonged to lower-middle-income countries
2010 2.188 21.368 23.473 (Penney et al., 2009). According to a study carried out in India,
2011 2.133 21.533 23.53
2012 2.077 21.697 23.593
coal-fired power plants consume 503 Mt of coal, resulting in the emis­
2013 2.021 21.861 23.653 sion of around 580 Kt of PM2.5, 2100 Kt of SO2, 1100 Kt of CO, 665 Mt of
2014 1.965 22.025 23.713 CO2, and 100 Kt of VOCs annually. The authors estimated that such large
2015 1.91 22.19 23.773 quantities of pollutants emission could be attributed to 80,000 to 115,
2016 1.854 22.354 23.833
000 premature deaths and about 20 million asthma cases during
(Source: World Bank data, 2016). 2010–11 (Guttikunda and Jawahar, 2014).

5
M.N. Anwar et al.
2.5. Coal-based brick kilns contribution to air pollution
The brick manufacturing industries have also grown in number to
fulfil the increasing demands of the construction industry. Various Asian
countries, such as India, Pakistan, and China, are among the world’s
biggest brick manufacturers. Brick Kilns in India form the second-largest
brick manufacturing industry in the world and consume 35 Mt of coal
annually (ICIMOD, 2019). Incomplete combustion of coal, using
low-quality fuels such as rubber tires and wood during bricks manu­
facture causes environmental pollutions (Skinder et al., 2014). It should
be noted that brick manufacturing could also lead to soil and water
pollution and, thus, negatively impact human and environmental health
(Achakzai et al., 2017). In addition to the above, the particulate matter
released from brick kilns contains heavy metals, which could cause
different types of cancer, e.g., lung and bladder, and other health dis­
orders (Martin et al., 2014). A study conducted in rural districts near
brick kilns in Pakistan recorded a higher frequency of respiratory dis­
eases, including chronic phlegm, chronic bronchitis, chronic cough, and
asthma, in the exposed individuals (Shaikh et al., 2012).
3. Impacts of air pollution in Pakistan, India, and China
Air pollution and its impacts are growing worse all over the world. It
is comparatively more feasible for the developed countries to reduce the
health risks associated with air pollution owing to substantially higher
economic growth and access to more advanced health care facilities
(Kanawade et al., 2020). But the impact of air pollution is more severe
and destructive in developing countries, leading to a wide range of
health problems, causalities, and disabilities for millions of people
(Cohen et al., 2017).
Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is a leading cause of
mortalities worldwide, and the trend shown in Fig. 4 draws a clear
picture of the fact. PM2.5 inflicted about 4.2 million deaths annually in
2015 worldwide, with most of these occurring in Asian countries,
especially in Pakistan, India, and China. Statistics reveal that besides a
global increase of 764,400 deaths over 25 years due to particulate
matter, there has been a continuous increase in the number of deaths in
Pakistan and India from 1990 to 2015. Pakistan reported 135,100 deaths
Pakistan India
12,00,000
11,00,000
10,00,000
9,00,000
Number of deaths
8,00,000
7,00,000
6,00,000
5,00,000
4,00,000
3,00,000
2,00,000
1,00,000
0 0
1990 1995
Fig. 4. Number of deaths due to PM2.5 exposure globally and in the investigated Asian countries; Pakistan, India, and China over the past 25 years (Source: State of
Global Air Report 2019).
Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125851
in 2015 compared to 82,300 deaths in 1995, an overall increase of 64%.
India reported 48% more deaths (1090,400) in 2015 than 1995
(737,400). China also reported an increase in deaths from 945,300 in
1990 up to 1140,100 in 2005, but then experienced a downfall in
mortality rate in 2010. However, this favorable trend did not remain
consistent and ascended again to a total death toll of 1108,100 in 2015.
3.1. Air pollution and health impacts
Air quality is consistently degrading in the major cities of Pakistan. In
October 2019, Lahore was ranked as the second most polluted city in
Pakistan, with an Air Quality Index (AQI) of 188. Karachi, Faisalabad,
Gujranwala, Rawalpindi, and Quetta are also densely polluted cities of
Pakistan. The middle-class population has more intensely suffered from
respiratory disorders in Quetta. India is ranked as the second most
polluted country in the region, and ambient air pollutants are higher in
Punjab, Utter Pradesh, Bihar, and the National Territory of Delhi. Par­
ticulate matter emission level in China is higher than in developed na­
tions (Zeng et al., 2019). Air quality is very poor in Northern China, and
studies show that life expectancy is 5.5 years lower because of the high
probability of cardiorespiratory-caused mortality (Chen et al., 2013).
Women and children living in poor and intensely urbanized areas are
more vulnerable to short and long-term health impacts of air pollution
(Chuwah et al., 2017).
Emissions of metals like lead from coal and fossil fuel burning could
adversely affect brain development in children leading to mild mental
retardation, which could, in turn, impair their quality of life and lessen
their productivity (Lopes, 2017; Snow et al., 2018). It should also be
highlighted that indoor air pollution caused by burning solid biofuels
could also affect fetus development negatively through maternal expo­
sure. Stillbirths, growth restrictions, and low birth weight incidents
could be attributed to such exposures. The risk rate of stillbirth and low
birth weight in the developing nations in 2013, owing to indoor air
pollution, was estimated at 21% and 25%, respectively (Bruce et al.,
2013).
China Global Deaths
45,00,000
42,00,000
39,00,000
36,00,000
33,00,000
30,00,000
27,00,000
24,00,000
21,00,000
18,00,000
15,00,000
12,00,000
9,00,000
6,00,000
3,00,000
2000 2005 2010 2015
Years
6
M.N. Anwar et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125851

3.2. Socioeconomic impacts of air pollution Table 3

Legislations on air pollution in China, India, and Pakistan.
Over the last few years, many Asian countries, particularly Pakistan, Law, Rule, or Date Briefing References
India, and, China have witnessed recurrent winter haze and smog epi­ Regulation (Effective/
sodes, leading to socioeconomic effects (Jahan et al., 2019). Given Revised)
China
children’s higher vulnerability to air pollution, outdoor activities are
Air Pollution 29/04/2000 General provisions, Feng and Liao
restricted during prolonged smog episodes. Other effects include halting Prevention and (Revised) prevention and control (2016)
construction-related works, implementing new traffic control plans, and Control Law of air pollution from
suspension and delay of flight operations. Coal power plants and other soot, emissions from
polluting industries are generally shut down during these smog episodes vessels and motor
vehicles, prevention
leading to considerable economic losses (Saleem et al., 2019). Smogs
and pollution control
and the resultant health burdens imposed on the health care systems from dust, odorous
would ultimately translate into financial burdens at the national level substances, and waste
(Sarfraz, 2020). It is needless to highlight that the premature deaths gases, supplementary
provisions
associated with these recurrent winter haze and smog episodes are also
Cleaner 01/01/2003 General provisions,
of substantial economic consequences. Production (Effective) promoting cleaner
Promotion Law production, clean
3.3. Albedo and glacier melting incentives,
supplementary
provisions
The pollutant emissions originating from excessive anthropogenic 01/09/2003
activities could alter the atmospheric composition (Zeb et al., 2019), (Revised)
resulting in global warming (Hinds, 1999) and the consequent melt­ Environment 01/09/2003 Evaluation of effects of
down of glaciers (Hadley and Kirchstetter, 2012). The Tibetan Plateau, Impact (Effective) construction projects,
Assessment environmental effects
the Himalayans, the Tianshan Mountains, and the Pamirs lie in Asia’s
(EIA) Law of plans, supplementary
interior. It is known as High Asia, with a vast mountainous region. High provisions
Asia is also home to Western China’s glaciers, and it is a primary source Energy 28/10/2007 General provisions,
of water resources. After the GHGs, black carbon is the factor behind Conservation Revised administering energy
glacier shrinkage in this region (Richardson and Reynolds, 2000). Law conservation, rational
use of energy, energy
Studies have revealed that the black carbon released in South Asia and
conservation,
Eastern China is rising (Bond et al., 2007, 2013). Black carbon deposi­ incentives,
tion on glaciers could give rise to further heating and eventually accel­ supplementary
erate the process of glacier retreat (Zhang et al., 2015). This provisions
Levy and 01/07/2003 Administrative
phenomenon has also led to significant concerns over freshwater supply
Pollutant (Effective) regulations issued by
in South Asia (Hu et al., 2020). Emission Fees the state council
Regulation
4. Potential solutions and the way forward Managing Ozone 01/06/2010 Administrative
Depleting (Effective) regulations issued by
Substances the state council
The effective way to control air pollution, regardless of spatiotem­
Regulation
poral boundaries, is probably by cutting down emissions. Air pollution Compulsory 01/05/2013 Departmental rules
control’s effectiveness depends on the country’s economic status, Motor Vehicle (Effective) issued by the National
governmental concerns, and political circumstances. A transparent Retirement Development and
Rules Reform Commission,
focused, and achievable policy structure should be flexible enough to
Ministry of Commerce,
address the local problems in this context. In the following section, and Ministry of Public
potential solutions to address the air pollution challenge in China, India, Security
and Pakistan are discussed. Ambient Air 01/01/2016 Departmental rules
Quality (Effective) issued by Ministry of
Standards Environmental
4.1. Improving legislations
Protection (MEP)
India
Policy measures based on economic incentives and market-based Air Pollution 1981 The state government The Air
instruments for pollution control are always advantageous over con­ Control Areas can declare any areas as (Prevention and
air pollution control Control of
ventional command and control procedures. Such measures could also
areas in which burning Pollution) Act
promote technological innovation and improvement, resulting in any materials that can
pollution reduction at a comparatively lower cost. However, punitive cause air pollution
measures should also be implemented alongside incentives to ensure the would be prohibited,
highest levels of environmental protection and pollution mitigation. and only prescribed
fuels can be used.
When explicitly taking air pollution into context, climate policies,
Restriction on 1981 The operation of
complemented with air pollution control policies and energy policies, certain industrial plants within
can reduce air pollution and its pertinent health impacts (van Vliet., industrial the air pollution control
2012). Table 3 tabulates laws, rules, regulations, and acts that specif­ plants areas is prohibited
unless permissions are
ically address air pollution in the major Asian hotspots, i.e., China, India,
granted.
and Pakistan. Standards for air 1981 No industrial plant is
pollutants permitted to discharge
4.2. Increasing tree canopies air pollutants above
standards.
2019
Trees canopies could also be used as a complementary solution for
(continued on next page)
reducing air pollutants. By lowering air temperature in the surroundings

7
M.N. Anwar et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125851

Table 3 (continued ) Table 3 (continued )

Forty-two action Central Pollution National Clean Air Municipal crop residue safe
point Control Board (CPCB) Program waste disposal.
issued 42 measures for Insurance of 75%
mitigating air pollution efficiency of solid waste
sources (including collection.
vehicular emissions, No approval of housing
fugitive emissions, solid societies unless a solid
waste burning waste management
emissions, industrial system is provided.
emissions) in major Greening 21/10/2017 Introduction of efficient
cities of India. Industrial technologies in
Increasing air 2019 Past data should be Processes industries, specifically
quality analyzed to make city in thermal power
monitoring super networks, and the plants, steel mills, and
networks networks should be cement industry.
monitored. Planned 21/10/2017 Developing a master
Reassessment should be development of plan for land use for
done so that the Industrial and cities and adjacent
monitoring network Urban units countrysides.
could be augmented. Prohibition of 1997 Subsection (1): no Pakistan
Bharat Stage IV 04/07/2014 This regulation Bharat Stage IV certain person shall emit air Environmental
Emission establishes new Emission emissions or pollutants in Protection Act
Standards evaporative emission Standards discharge concentrations
standards for two- (Section 11) exceeding the National
wheelers. Environment Quality
Emission limits of gases Standards (NEQS).
CO, NOX, HC+NOX Subsection (2): the
were enlisted in federal government is
regulating different responsible for levying
types of two-wheelers. pollution charges on
Pakistan parties who fail to
Pakistan Clean February Short-term measures: Pakistan Clean Air comply with the
Air Program 2001 establishing Program provisions mentioned
environmental squads above.
in all major cities,
restrictions on
converting vehicles and reducing buildings’ energy use, trees could contribute to mitigating
from gasoline to air pollutants. The removal rate of air pollutants by trees varies
second-hand diesel
engines, traffic
depending upon several factors like leaf area index, local weather con­
management, and token ditions, percentage of evergreen trees, pollution concentration, and
tax for diesel vehicles. growing season length (Selmi et al., 2016). Trees could also moderate
Long-term measures: the heat-island effect caused by pavement materials and glass buildings.
public education and
Moreover, regions with dense tree covers could recycle water through
awareness, review of
regulations, laws and the evapotranspiration process more effectively than areas where
policies, and vegetation cover is sparse (Hassan et al., 2016).
afforestation.
National Climate September Consideration of new National Climate
4.3. Improving air quality reporting systems
Change Policy 2012 fuel-efficient air crafts Change Policy
to curb carbon
emission, improving air Major cities in India, China, and Pakistan have hazardous AQI values
traffic management, (Nguyen et al., 2019). Despite the alarming situation, air quality
free flight routes monitoring is still done only in urban areas where hazardous/visible air
instead of specified
flight routes, and
pollution can be clearly seen. This is ascribed to the lack of a skilled
improved weather workforce and advanced analytical laboratories (Gulia et al., 2020). In
services. Pakistan, pollutants’ concentration data are sporadic, and hence, the
Promoting CNG in the conclusions drawn cannot be considered authentic (Punjab Clean Air
transportation sector
Action Plan, 2017). India houses as many as ~836 air monitoring sta­
and adopting
environmentally tions, including 703 manual and 133 continuous ambient air quality
friendly technologies. monitoring sensors (CAAQMS). This is a comparatively large number
Adopting Euro II 21/10/2017 Adoption of Euro II Smog Control compared to other low middle-income countries (Gulia et al., 2020).
standards for standards followed by Policy Environmental drones (E-Drones) could be a way forward and a solution
vehicular strict inspection of
emissions vehicular emissions.
to this problem. E-Drones are autonomously programmed drones used
Extending low-sulfur for pollution detection and monitoring at specified altitudes in any
fuel to petrol vehicles. geographic range. E-Drones can create air quality health index (AQHI)
Restricting the import maps of the regions within their monitoring range and could assist with
of second-hand vehicles
long-term data analysis (Rohi et al., 2020).
which do not comply
with the Euro II
standard. 4.4. Waste-to-energy (WtE)
Controlling 21/10/2017 Preparation and
burning of crop execution of plans for
A practical solution to the air pollution challenge could be the
residues and
development and implementation of WtE technologies (Nizami et al.,
2017). For instance, municipal solid wastes incineration can reduce its

8
M.N. Anwar et al.
mass by up to 70%, reduce GHGs emissions, and reduce landfilling. It
should be noted that landfills, especially open landfill sites, are sources
of air, soil, and water pollution (Ouda et al., 2016). On the other hand,
during the incineration process, the municipal waste’s organic content is
combusted under controlled conditions, producing renewable energy
that could be substitute fossil fuels. However, inevitable byproducts are
also formed during the process, such as hazardous gases, pollutant
particles, and fly ash (Johnson, 2016). Therefore, it is essential to ensure
that state-of-the-art technologies will be utilized to minimize in­
cineration’s negative impacts on the environment.
Anaerobic digestion of organic waste for biogas production (Taba­
tabaei et al., 2020a, 2020b) is another major WtE approach that could
lead to the generation of biomethane as a replacement for natural gas.
Conversion of waste oils of plant and animal origin into biodiesel to
partially replace diesel consumption would be another WtE solution to
be implemented (Aghbashlo et al., 2017, 2018a, 2018b, 2019a, 2019b).
The application of waste-derived fuel additives is also regarded as an
effective strategy to reduce air pollution caused by the widespread
combustion of fossil-oriented energy carriers in the transportation sector
(Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha et al., 2018, 2019; Amid et al., 2020). Efforts
should also be put into maximizing the integration of various WtE
technologies in various industries (Aghbashlo et al., 2018a, 2018b;
Rajaeifar et al., 2019). Despite the advantageous features of WtE sys­
tems, it is still critical to look into their sustainability features using
advanced sustainability assessment tools (Aghbashlo et al., 2018a,
2018b, 2019a, 2019b; Tabatabaei et al., 2020).
4.5. Promoting low-sulfur fuel
The effect that SO2 itself has on lung function at a standard con­
centration usually recorded in the ambient air is not very harmful to
health. However, a mixture of SO2 and other particles present in the
ambient air could have a more significant toxic effect. Toxicity varies
with particles’ size and nature, SO2 concentration, relative humidity,
and resultant products formed after combination. These transformed
particles have an irritating effect on the lining membrane of the respi­
ratory canal. This irritant effect reduces mucus flow speed and narrows
down airways because of inflammation of membranes (Rall, 1974).
These health impacts and other environmental constraints have led to
limitations on the sulfur level present in crude oil-derived products
globally, necessitating desulfurization. During the recent three decades,
numerous desulfurization techniques have been introduced, including
oxidation-extraction desulfurization, bio-desulfurization, adsorptive
desulfurization, oxidative desulfurization, and hydrodesulfurization.
(Saleh, 2020). Hydrodesulfurization is the most common method
employed in refineries (Babich and Moulijn, 2003).
4.6. Providing alternatives for stubble burning
Stubble burning is a global issue that varies from region to region,
depending upon the time of crop harvesting. Farmers burn wheat
stubble to clear the field after harvesting crops. Every year burning of
stubble is carried out from mid-April to mid-May after harvesting the
wheat crop and from October to November after harvesting rice crop in
different regions in Pakistan and India. Uttar Pradesh (53–60 Mt) is a
leading state of India in terms of residue generation, followed by Punjab
(44–51 Mt) and Maharashtra (46–56 Mt). Open burning releases various
pollutants such as hydrocarbons and aerosols into the air (Mittal et al.,
2009).
It should be noted that over 90% of the world’s total rice crop is
produced in Asia (FAO, 2009; USDA, 2007). This further highlights the
adverse consequences of stubble burning in the region. Hence, any al­
ternatives to open field burning of crop residues can substantially
contribute to air pollution mitigation. It is predicted that black carbon
emissions in China could be reduced from 75 Gt in 1995–56 Gt by 2020
by enforcing laws against residue burning (Chen et al., 2019).
9
Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125851
The conversion of rice straw into bioethanol could be regarded as
alternatives to burning (Zahed et al., 2016); this rice straw management
technique could be costly, though. Soil fertility can be increased through
in situ utilization of stubble. It is a good source of sulfur and potassium
and contains nitrogen and phosphorus as well. The stubble
co-composting with the poultry manure has also been reported in recent
years (Borah et al., 2016).
5. Conclusions
Air pollution is undoubtedly a significant risk to human health and a
primary culprit behind the deterioration of the environment and the
degradation of the natural ecosystems in the surveyed countries, i.e.,
Pakistan, India, and China. Hence, reducing overwhelming anthropo­
genic activities is imperative to lessen air pollution and the associated
adverse consequences. The detailed review presented herein also
showed that ambient air pollution contributed significantly to the
burden of diseases in South Asia over the past few decades. The number
of deaths correlated with air pollutants in Pakistan, India, and China has
also continuously increased over the past 25 years. Any multidisci­
plinary approaches aimed at reducing air pollution in these countries
have to include the limitation on coal-burning. Other solutions,
including a smooth transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy
carriers to power the transportation sector and, particularly, renewable
energies generated from waste, should also be considered. Moreover,
emission policies that assist with air pollution reduction systematically
should also be put in place effectively to offer incentives and, where
needed, penalize polluting systems. It should be highlighted that given
the transboundary nature of the air pollution challenge, coordination by
the surveyed countries at sub-national, national, and regional levels is
vital should the objectives mentioned above are to be achieved.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
MNA: Writing - original draft preparation. MS: Writing - reviewing &
editing. ET: Methodology. MI: Conceptualization. HS: Investigation. AT:
Formal analysis. MAM: Methodology, Investigation. MFK: Visualization.
MR: Data curation. MA: Formal analysis. MT Ali: Resources. ASN:
Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
References
Abas, N., Kalair, A., Khan, N., Kalair, A.R., 2017. Review of GHG emissions in Pakistan
compared to SAARC countries. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 80, 990–1016. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.022.
Abas, N., Saleem, M.S., Kalair, E., Khan, N., 2019. Cooperative control of regional
transboundary air pollutants. Environ. Syst. Res. 8, 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/
s40068-019-0138-0.
Achakzai, K., Khalid, S., Adrees, M., Bibi, A., Ali, S., Nawaz, R., Rizwan, M., 2017. Air
pollution tolerance index of plants around brick kilns in Rawalpindi, Pakistan.
J. Environ. Manag. 190, 252–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.12.072.
Aghbashlo, M., Hosseinpour, S., Tabatabaei, M., Dadak, A., 2017. Fuzzy modeling and
optimization of the synthesis of biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO) by a low
power, high frequency piezo-ultrasonic reactor. Energy 132, 65–78 (Airborne
Particles, second ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY).
Aghbashlo, M., Tabatabaei, M., Hosseinpour, S., 2018a. On the exergoeconomic and
exergoenvironmental evaluation and optimization of biodiesel synthesis from waste
cooking oil (WCO) using a low power, high frequency ultrasonic reactor. Energy
Convers. Manag. 164, 385–398.
Aghbashlo, M., Mandegari, M., Tabatabaei, M., Farzad, S., Soufiyan, M.M., Görgens, J.F.,
2018b. Exergy analysis of a lignocellulosic-based biorefinery annexed to a sugarcane
mill for simultaneous lactic acid and electricity production. Energy 149, 623–638.
Aghbashlo, M., Hosseinpour, S., Tabatabaei, M., Soufiyan, M.M., 2019a. Multi-objective
exergetic and technical optimization of a piezoelectric ultrasonic reactor applied to
M.N. Anwar et al.
synthesize biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO) using soft computing techniques.
Fuel 235, 100–112.
Aghbashlo, M., Tabatabaei, M., Soltanian, S., Ghanavati, H., Dadak, A., 2019b.
Comprehensive exergoeconomic analysis of a municipal solid waste digestion plant
equipped with a biogas genset. Waste Manag. 87, 485–498.
Ahmad, A., Liu, Q.J., Nizami, S.M., Mannan, A., Saeed, S., 2018. Carbon emission from
deforestation, forest degradation and wood harvest in the temperate region of
Hindukush Himalaya, Pakistan between 1994 and 2016. Land Use Policy 78,
781–790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.07.009.
Ahmad, S.S., Abbasi, Q.U.A., Jabeen, R., Shah, M.T., 2012. Decline of Conifer forest
cover in Pakistan: a GIS approach. Pak. J. Bot.
Ali, A., Rahut, D.B., 2018. Forest-based livelihoods, income, and poverty: Empirical
evidence from the Himalayan region of rural Pakistan. J. Rural Stud. 57, 44–54.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.10.001.
Ali, S.M., Malik, F., Anjum, M.S., Siddiqui, G.F., Anwar, M.N., Lam, S.S., Nizami, A.S.,
Khokhar, M.F., 2021. Exploring the linkage between PM2.5 levels and COVID-19
spread and its implications for socioeconomic circles. Environ. Res. 193, 110421
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110421.
Amid, S., Aghbashlo, M., Tabatabaei, M., Hajiahmad, A., Najafi, B., Ghaziaskar, H.S.,
Rastegari, H., Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H., Mohammadi, P., 2020. Effects of waste-
derived ethylene glycol diacetate as a novel oxygenated additive on performance
and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with diesel/biodiesel blends.
Energy Convers. Manag. 203, 112245.
Anjum, M.S., Ali, S.M., Imad-ud-din, M., Subhani, M.A., Anwar, M.N., Nizami, A.S.,
Ashraf, U., Khokhar, M.F., 2021. An emerged challenge of air pollution and ever-
increasing particulate matter in pakistan; a critical review. J. Hazard. Mater. 402,
123943 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123943.
Ashraf, A., Butt, A., Khalid, I., Alam, R.U., Ahmad, S.R., 2019. Smog analysis and its
effect on reported ocular surface diseases: a case study of 2016 smog event of Lahore.
Atmos. Environ. 198, 257–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.10.029.
Babich, I.V., Moulijn, J.A., 2003. Science and technology of novel processes for deep
desulfurization of oil refinery streams: a review. Fuel 82, 607–631. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0016-2361(02)00324-1.
Bond, T.C., Bhardwaj, E., Dong, R., Jogani, R., Jung, S., Roden, C., Streets, D.G.,
Trautmann, N.M., 2007. Historical emissions of black and organic carbon aerosol
from energy-related combustion, 1850–2000. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 21, n/a.
https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GB002840.
Bond, T.C., Doherty, S.J., Fahey, D.W., Forster, P.M., Berntsen, T., Deangelo, B.J.,
Flanner, M.G., Ghan, S., Kärcher, B., Koch, D., Kinne, S., Kondo, Y., Quinn, P.K.,
Sarofim, M.C., Schultz, M.G., Schulz, M., Venkataraman, C., Zhang, H., Zhang, S.,
Bellouin, N., Guttikunda, S.K., Hopke, P.K., Jacobson, M.Z., Kaiser, J.W., Klimont, Z.,
Lohmann, U., Schwarz, J.P., Shindell, D., Storelvmo, T., Warren, S.G., Zender, C.S.,
2013. Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: a scientific
assessment. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118, 5380–5552. https://doi.org/10.1002/
jgrd.50171.
Borah, N., Barua, R., Nath, D., Hazarika, K., Phukon, A., Goswami, K., Barua, D.C., 2016.
Low energy rice stubble management through in situ decomposition. Procedia
Environ. Sci. 35, 771–780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2016.07.092.
Cai, C., Geng, F., Tie, X., Yu, Q., An, J., 2010. Characteristics and source apportionment
of VOCs measured in Shanghai, China. Atmos. Environ. 44, 5005–5014. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.07.059.
Chen, J., Gong, Y., Wang, S., Guan, B., Balkovic, J., Kraxner, F., 2019. To burn or retain
crop residues on croplands? An integrated analysis of crop residue management in
China. Sci. Total Environ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.150.
Chen, Y., Ebenstein, A., Greenstone, M., Li, H., 2013. Evidence on the impact of sustained
exposure to air pollution on life expectancy from China’s Huai River policy. Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1300018110.
Chen, Y., Chen, L., Cheng, Y., Ju, W., Chen, H.Y.H., Ruan, H., 2020. Afforestation
promotes the enhancement of forest LAI and NPP in China. For. Ecol. Manag. 462,
117990 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.117990.
Cheng, S., Lang, J., Zhou, Y., Han, L., Wang, G., Chen, D., 2013. A new monitoring-
simulation-source apportionment approach for investigating the vehicular emission
contribution to the PM2.5 pollution in Beijing, China. Atmos. Environ. 79, 308–316.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.06.043.
Chuwah, C., Myllyvirta, L., Pillai, P. and Santillo, D., 2017. The impacts of air pollution
on women and children health. Greenpeace Research Laboratories Technical Report
(Review).
Cohen, A.J., Brauer, M., Burnett, R., Anderson, H.R., Frostad, J., Estep, K.,
Balakrishnan, K., Brunekreef, B., Dandona, L., Dandona, R., Feigin, V., Freedman, G.,
Hubbell, B., Jobling, A., Kan, H., Knibbs, L., Liu, Y., Martin, R., Morawska, L.,
Pope, C.A., Shin, H., Straif, K., Shaddick, G., Thomas, M., van Dingenen, R., van
Donkelaar, A., Vos, T., Murray, C.J.L., Forouzanfar, M.H., 2017. Estimates and 25-
year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an
analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. Lancet. https://doi.
org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30505-6.
Cuaresma, J.C., Heger, M., 2019. Deforestation and economic development: evidence
from national borders. Land Use Policy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
landusepol.2018.12.039.
Dastoorpoor, M., Sekhavatpour, Z., Masoumi, K., Mohammadi, M.J., Aghababaeian, H.,
Khanjani, N., Hashemzadeh, B., Vahedian, M., 2019. Air pollution and hospital
admissions for cardiovascular diseases in Ahvaz, Iran. Sci. Total Environ. 652,
1318–1330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.285.
FAO, 2009. Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study II (Pakistan Forestry Outlook
Study). Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations: Regional Office
for Asia and The Pacific, Bangkok.
10
Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125851
Feng, L., Liao, W., 2016. Legislation, plans, and policies for prevention and control of air
pollution in China: achievements, challenges, and improvements. J. Clean. Prod.
112, 1549–1558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.013.
Fenger, J., 1999. Urban air quality. Atmos. Environ. 33, 4877–4900. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00290-3.
Forehead, H., Huynh, N., 2018. Review of modelling air pollution from traffic at street-
level - The state of the science. Environ. Pollut. 241, 775–786. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.envpol.2018.06.019.
Gao, J., Liu, Y., 2012. Deforestation in Heilongjiang Province of China, 1896-2000:
Severity, spatiotemporal patterns and causes. Appl. Geogr. 35, 345–352. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2012.08.001.
Gulia, S., Khanna, I., Shukla, K., Khare, M., 2020. Ambient air pollutant monitoring and
analysis protocol for low and middle income countries: an element of comprehensive
urban air quality management framework. Atmos. Environ. 222, 117120 https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.117120.
Gurjar, B.R., Butler, T.M., Lawrence, M.G., Lelieveld, J., 2008. Evaluation of emissions
and air quality in megacities. Atmos. Environ. 42, 1593–1606. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.10.048.
Gurjar, B.R., Ravindra, K., Nagpure, A.S., 2016. Air pollution trends over Indian
megacities and their local-to-global implications. Atmos. Environ. 142, 475–495.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.06.030.
Guttikunda, S.K., Jawahar, P., 2014. Atmospheric emissions and pollution from the coal-
fired thermal power plants in India. Atmos. Environ. 92, 449–460. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.04.057.
Guttikunda, S.K., Kopakka, R.V., 2014. Source emissions and health impacts of urban air
pollution in Hyderabad, India. Air Qual. Atmos. Health 7, 195–207. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11869-013-0221-z.
Guttikunda, S.K., Mohan, D., 2014. Re-fueling road transport for better air quality in
India. Energy Policy 68, 556–561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.12.067.
Hadley, O.L., Kirchstetter, T.W., 2012. Black-carbon reduction of snow albedo. Nat. Clim.
Change 2, 437–440. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1433.
HEI: Health Effects Institute, 2019. State of Global Air 2019. A special report on global
exposure to air Pollution and its Disease Burden. Health Effects Institute. 〈https:
//www.stateofglobalair.org/sites/default/files/soga_2019_report.pdf〉. accessed on
30 April 2020.
Hinds, W.C., 1999. Aerosol Technology: Properties, Behavior, and Measurement Of
Airborne Particles. John Wiley & Sons.
Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H., Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., Khanali, M., Demirbas, A.,
2018. A comprehensive review on the environmental impacts of diesel/biodiesel
additives. Energy Convers. Manag. 174, 579–614.
Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H., Khalife, E., Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., Khanali, M.,
Mohammadi, P., Shojaei, T.R., Soltanian, S., 2019. Effects of aqueous carbon
nanoparticles as a novel nanoadditive in water-emulsified diesel/biodiesel blends on
performance and emissions parameters of a diesel engine. Energy Convers. Manag.
196, 1153–1166.
Hu, Z., Kang, S., Li, X., Li, C., Sillanpää, M., 2020. Relative contribution of mineral dust
versus black carbon to Third Pole glacier melting. Atmos. Environ. 223, 117288
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117288.
Huang, G., Zhou, W., Qian, Y., Fisher, B., 2019. Breathing the same air? Socioeconomic
disparities in PM2.5 exposure and the potential benefits from air filtration. Sci. Total
Environ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.428.
ICIMOD: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, 2019. Fact Sheet
Burnt clay brick sector in India. 〈https://www.ccacoalition.org/sites/default/file
s/resources/Fact%20sheet%20brick%20sector%20India.pdf〉 (accessed 30 July
2020).
Ilyas, S., 2007. A review of transport and urban air pollution in Pakistan. J. Appl. Sci.
Environ. Manag. https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v11i2.55004.
Jahan, Z., Sarwar, F., Younes, I., Sadaf, R., Ahmad, A., 2019. Assessment of smog pattern
and its effects on visibility in lahore using remote sensing and GIS. IJEEG 10, 55–59.
https://doi.org/10.46660/ojs.v10i2.263.
Jin, X., Cai, X., Yu, M., Song, Y., Wang, X., Kang, L., Zhang, H., 2020. Diagnostic analysis
of wintertime PM2.5 pollution in the North China Plain: the impacts of regional
transport and atmospheric boundary layer variation. Atmos. Environ. 224, 117346
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117346.
Johnson, D.R., 2016. Nanometer-sized emissions from municipal waste incinerators: a
qualitative risk assessment. J. Hazard. Mater. 320, 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jhazmat.2016.08.016.
Kala, C.P., 2005. Ethnomedicinal botany of the Apatani in the Eastern Himalayan region
of India. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 1, 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-11.
Kanawade, V.P., Srivastava, A.K., Ram, K., Asmi, E., Vakkari, V., Soni, V.K.,
Varaprasad, V., Sarangi, C., 2020. What caused severe air pollution episode of
November 2016 in New Delhi? Atmos. Environ. 222, 117125 https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.117125.
Khalife, E., Tabatabaei, M., Najafi, B., Mirsalim, S.M., Gharehghani, A., Mohammadi, P.,
Salleh, M.A.M., 2017. A novel emulsion fuel containing aqueous nano cerium oxide
additive in diesel–biodiesel blends to improve diesel engines performance and
reduce exhaust emissions: Part I–Experimental analysis. Fuel 207, 741–750.
Kumari, R., Banerjee, A., Kumar, R., Kumar, A., Saikia, P., Khan, M.L., 2019.
Deforestation in India: consequences and sustainable solutions. Deforestation
Around the World. IntechOpen.
Li, R., Wang, Z., Cui, L., Fu, H., Zhang, L., Kong, L., Chen, W., Chen, J., 2019. Air
pollution characteristics in China during 2015–2016: spatiotemporal variations and
key meteorological factors. Sci. Total Environ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2018.08.181.
M.N. Anwar et al.
Longobardi, P., Montenegro, A., Beltrami, H., Eby, M., 2012. Spatial scale dependency of
the modelled climatic response to deforestation. Biogeosci. Discuss. https://doi.org/
10.5194/bgd-9-14639-2012.
Lopes, M.B.S., 2017. The 2017 World Health Organization classification of tumors of the
pituitary gland: a summary. Acta Neuropathol. 134, 521–535. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s00401-017-1769-8.
Maamoun, N., Kennedy, R., Jin, X., Urpelainen, J., 2020. Identifying coal-fired power
plants for early retirement. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 126, 109833 https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109833.
Martin, R., Dowling, K., Pearce, D., Sillitoe, J., Florentine, S., 2014. Health effects
associated with inhalation of airborne arsenic arising from mining operations.
Geosciences 4, 128–175. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences4030128.
Mishra, D., Goyal, P., 2014. Estimation of vehicular emissions using dynamic emission
factors: a case study of Delhi, India. Atmos. Environ. 98, 1–7. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.08.047.
Mittal, S.K., Singh, N., Agarwal, R., Awasthi, A., Gupta, P.K., 2009. Ambient air quality
during wheat and rice crop stubble burning episodes in Patiala. Atmos. Environ. 43,
238–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.09.068.
Nguyen, T.T.N., Pham, H.V., Lasko, K., Bui, M.T., Laffly, D., Jourdan, A., Bui, H.Q., 2019.
Spatiotemporal analysis of ground and satellite-based aerosol for air quality
assessment in the Southeast Asia region. Environ. Pollut. 255, 113106 https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113106.
Nizami, A.S., Shahzad, K., Rehan, M., Ouda, O.K.M., Khan, M.Z., Ismail, I.M.I.,
Almeelbi, T., Basahi, J.M., Demirbas, A., 2017. Developing waste biorefinery in
Makkah: a way forward to convert urban waste into renewable energy. Appl. Energy
186, 189–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.04.116.
Ouda, O.K.M., Raza, S.A., Nizami, A.S., Rehan, M., Al-Waked, R., Korres, N.E., 2016.
Waste to energy potential: a case study of Saudi Arabia. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
61, 328–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.04.005.
Owais, S.M., Siddiqui, S., 2019. Appraisal of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in
District Swat, Pakistan. Int. J. Econ. Environ. Geol. https://doi.org/10.46660/ojs.
v10i3.301.
Penney, S., Bell, J., Balbus, J., 2009. Estimating the health impacts of coal-fired power
plants receiving international financing. Environ. Def. Fund.
Phosri, A., Ueda, K., Phung, V.L.H., Tawatsupa, B., Honda, A., Takano, H., 2019. Effects
of ambient air pollution on daily hospital admissions for respiratory and
cardiovascular diseases in Bangkok, Thailand. Sci. Total Environ. 651, 1144–1153.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.183.
Pimonsree, S., Vongruang, P., 2018. Impact of biomass burning and its control on
particulate matter over a city in mainland Southeast Asia during a smog episode.
Atmos. Environ. 195, 196–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.09.053.
Pinker, R., 1980. The microclimate of a dry tropical forest. Agric. Meteorol. 22, 249–265.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-1571(80)90005-9.
Poffenberger, M., 2012. Communities and Forest Management in Southeast Asia. IUCN.
Poot, J., Pawar, S., 2013. Is demography destiny? Urban population change and
economic vitality of future cities. J. Urban Manag 2, 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S2226-5856(18)30062-1.
Rafaj, P., Kiesewetter, G., Gül, T., Schöpp, W., Cofala, J., Klimont, Z., Purohit, P.,
Heyes, C., Amann, M., Borken-Kleefeld, J., Cozzi, L., 2018. Outlook for clean air in
the context of sustainable development goals. Glob. Environ. Change 53, 1–11.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.08.008.
Rajaeifar, M.A., Hemayati, S.S., Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., Mahmoudi, S.B., 2019.
A review on beet sugar industry with a focus on implementation of waste-to-energy
strategy for power supply. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 103, 423–442.
Rall, D.P., 1974. Review of the health effects of sulfur oxides. Environ. Health Perspect.
8, 97–121. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.74897.
Ramachandra, T.V., 2009. Emissions from India’s transport sector: statewise synthesis.
Atmos. Environ. 43, 5510–5517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.07.015.
Ramachandran, S., Kedia, S., 2013. Aerosol optical properties over South Asia from
ground-based observations and remote sensing: a review. Climate 1, 84–119.
https://doi.org/10.3390/cli1030084.
Ranjan, R., 2019. Assessing the impact of mining on deforestation in India. Resour.
Policy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2018.11.022.
Ravindra, K., Sidhu, M.K., Mor, S., John, S., Pyne, S., 2016. Air pollution in India:
bridging the gap between science and policy. J. Hazard. Toxic. Radioact. Waste 20.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)hz.2153-5515.0000303.
Richardson, S.D., Reynolds, J.M., 2000. An overview of glacial hazards in the Himalayas.
Quat. Int. 65–66, 31–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-6182(99)00035-X.
Rohi, G., Ejofodomi, O., Ofualagba, G., 2020. Autonomous monitoring, analysis, and
countering of air pollution using environmental drones. Heliyon 6, e03252. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03252.
Rückerl, R., Schneider, A., Breitner, S., Cyrys, J., Peters, A., 2011. Health effects of
particulate air pollution: a review of epidemiological evidence. Inhal. Toxicol. 23,
555–592. https://doi.org/10.3109/08958378.2011.593587.
Ryu, Y.H., Baik, J.J., Kwak, K.H., Kim, S., Moon, N., 2013. Impacts of urban land-surface
forcing on ozone air quality in the Seoul metropolitan area. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13,
2177–2194. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-2177-2013.
Saleem, Z., Saeed, H., Yousaf, M., Asif, U., Hashmi, F.K., Salman, M., Hassali, M.A., 2019.
Evaluating smog awareness and preventive practices among Pakistani general
population: a cross-sectional survey. Int. J. Health Promot. Educ. 57, 161–173.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14635240.2019.1576535.
Saleh, T.A., 2020. Characterization, determination and elimination technologies for
sulfur from petroleum: toward cleaner fuel and a safe environment. Trends Environ.
Anal. Chem. 25, e00080 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teac.2020.e00080.
Sánchez-Triana, E., Enriquez, S., Afzal, J., Nakagawa, A., Khan, A.S., 2014. Cleaning
Pakistan’s Air: Policy Options to Address the Cost of Outdoor Air Pollution. In:
11
Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125851
Cleaning Pakistan’s Air: Policy Options to Address the Cost of Outdoor Air Pollution.
https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0235-5.
Sarfraz, Z., 2020. The social and economic burden of smog in Pakistan. Pak. J. Surg. Med.
1, 5–7. https://doi.org/10.37978/pjsm.v1i1.92.
Sarigiannis, D.A., Handakas, E.J., Kermenidou, M., Zarkadas, I., Gotti, A., Charisiadis, P.,
Makris, K., Manousakas, M., Eleftheriadis, K., Karakitsios, S.P., 2017. Monitoring of
air pollution levels related to Charilaos Trikoupis Bridge. Sci. Total Environ. 609,
1451–1463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.230.
Selmi, W., Weber, C., Rivière, E., Blond, N., Mehdi, L., Nowak, D., 2016. Air pollution
removal by trees in public green spaces in Strasbourg city, France. Urban For. Urban
Green. 17, 192–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.04.010.
Serbula, S.M., Milosavljevic, J.S., Radojevic, A.A., Kalinovic, J.V., Kalinovic, T.S., 2017.
Extreme air pollution with contaminants originating from the mining–metallurgical
processes. Sci. Total Environ. 586, 1066–1075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2017.02.091.
Shaikh, S., Nafees, A.A., Khetpal, V., Jamali, A.A., Arain, A.M., Yousuf, A., 2012.
Respiratory symptoms and illnesses among brick kiln workers: a cross sectional
study from rural districts of Pakistan. BMC Public Health 12, 999. https://doi.org/
10.1186/1471-2458-12-999.
Shao, M., Tang, X., Zhang, Y., Li, W., 2006. City clusters in China: air and surface water
pollution. Front. Ecol. Environ. 4, 353–361. https://doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295
(2006)004[0353:CCICAA]2.0.CO;2.
Shi, C., Nduka, I.C., Yang, Y., Huang, Y., Yao, R., Zhang, H., He, B., Xie, C., Wang, Z.,
Yim, S.H.L., 2020. Characteristics and meteorological mechanisms of transboundary
air pollution in a persistent heavy PM2.5 pollution episode in Central-East China.
Atmos. Environ. 223, 117239 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.117239.
Shon, Z.H., Kang, M., Park, G., Bae, M., 2020. Impact of temporary emission reduction
from a large-scale coal-fired power plant on air quality. Atmos. Environ. X. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.aeaoa.2019.100056.
Skinder, B.M., Sheikh, A.Q., Pandit, A.K., Ganai, B.A., 2014. Brick kiln emissions and its
environmental impact: a review. J. Ecol. Nat. Environ. https://doi.org/10.5897/
jene2013.0423.
Smit, R., Brown, A.L., Chan, Y.C., 2008. Do air pollution emissions and fuel consumption
models for roadways include the effects of congestion in the roadway traffic flow?
Environ. Model. Softw. 23, 1262–1270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envsoft.2008.03.001.
Smith, K.R., 2002. Indoor air pollution in developing countries: recommendations for
research. Indoor Air 12, 198–207. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-
0668.2002.01137.x.
Snow, S.J., Henriquez, A.R., Costa, D.L., Kodavanti, U.P., 2018. Neuroendocrine
regulation of air pollution health effects: emerging insights. Toxicol. Sci. 164, 9–20.
https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfy129.
Song, Y., Shao, M., Liu, Y., Lu, S., Kuster, W., Goldan, P., Xie, S., 2007. Source
apportionment of ambient volatile organic compounds in Beijing. Environ. Sci.
Technol. 41, 4348–4353. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0625982.
State of Global Air 2019, Health Effects Institute A Special Report on Global Exposure to
air Pollution and its Disease Burden 2019 Health Effects Institute.〈https://www.
stateofglobalair.org/sites/default/files/soga_2019_report.pdf〉.
Syed, J.H., Malik, R.N., Liu, D., Xu, Y., Wang, Y., Li, J., Zhang, G., Jones, K.C., 2013.
Organochlorine pesticides in air and soil and estimated air-soil exchange in Punjab,
Pakistan. Sci. Total Environ. 444, 491–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2012.12.018.
Tabatabaei, M., Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H., Aghbashlo, M., Nizami, A.S., 2020.
Integrated sustainability analysis of combustion engines (ISACE) as an alternative to
classical combustion analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 131, 109981.
Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., Valijanian, E., Panahi, H.K.S., Nizami, A.S.,
Ghanavati, H., Sulaiman, A., Mirmohamadsadeghi, S., Karimi, K., 2020a.
A comprehensive review on recent biological innovations to improve biogas
production, part 1: upstream strategies. Renew. Energy 146, 1204–1220.
Tabatabaei, M., Aghbashlo, M., Valijanian, E., Panahi, H.K.S., Nizami, A.S.,
Ghanavati, H., Sulaiman, A., Mirmohamadsadeghi, S., Karimi, K., 2020b.
A comprehensive review on recent biological innovations to improve biogas
production, part 2: mainstream and downstream strategies. Renew. Energy 146,
1392–1407.
TERI. India state of the environment (The Energy and Resources Institute)Spons.: U.
Nations Environ. Program., 2001. 〈http://www.teriin.org/projects/ES/ES1999EE45.
pdf〉.
The World Bank, 2019. The global distribution of air pollution. 〈http://datatopics.
worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/stories/the-global-distribution-of-ai
r-pollution.html〉 (accesed 30 April 2020).
USDA, 2007. ‘‘Production, Supply and Distribution Online’’. United States Department of
Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service. 〈https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/a
pp/index.html#/app/advQuery〉. accessed 12 February 2021.
van Vliet, O., Krey, V., McCollum, D., Pachauri, S., Nagai, Y., Rao, S., Riahi, K., 2012.
Synergies in the Asian energy system: climate change, energy security, energy access
and air pollution. Energy Econ. 34, S470–S480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
eneco.2012.02.001.
Wang, F., Zheng, P., Dai, J., Wang, H., Wang, R., 2019a. Fault tree analysis of the causes
of urban smog events associated with vehicle exhaust emissions: a case study in
Jinan, China. Sci. Total Environ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.348.
Wang, J., Yang, P., 2018. Potential flue gas desulfurization gypsum utilization in
agriculture: a comprehensive review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.029.
Wang, L., Chen, M., 2013. Policies and perspective on end-of-life vehicles in China.
J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.11.036.
M.N. Anwar et al.
Wang, X.C., Klemeš, J.J., Dong, X., Fan, W., Xu, Z., Wang, Y., Varbanov, P.S., 2019b. Air
pollution terrain nexus: a review considering energy generation and consumption.
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.049.
Waseem, S., Khayyam, U., 2019. Loss of vegetative cover and increased land surface
temperature: a case study of Islamabad, Pakistan. J. Clean. Prod. 234, 972–983.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.06.228.
WHO, 2018. Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. 〈https://www.who.int/n
ews-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health〉. (accessed
30 April 2020).
WHO, 2019. Ambient air pollution - a major threat to health and climate. 〈https://www.
who.int/airpollution/ambient/en/〉 (accessed 30 April 2020).
World Bank, Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 2016. The Cost of Air Pollution:
Strengthening the Economic Case for Action. 〈https://openknowledge.worldbank.
org/bitstream/handle/10986/25013/108141.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y〉
(accessed 30 April 2020).
Yamamoto, S.S., Phalkey, R., Malik, A.A., 2014. A systematic review of air pollution as a
risk factor for cardiovascular disease in South Asia: limited evidence from India and
Pakistan. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 217, 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijheh.2013.08.003.
Yan, D., Lei, Y., Shi, Y., Zhu, Q., Li, L., Zhang, Z., 2018. Evolution of the spatiotemporal
pattern of PM2.5 concentrations in China - A case study from the Beijing-Tianjin-
Hebei region. Atmos. Environ. 183, 225–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
atmosenv.2018.03.041.
Yang, G., Wang, Y., Zeng, Y., Gao, G.F., Liang, X., Zhou, M., Wan, X., Yu, S., Jiang, Y.,
Naghavi, M., Vos, T., Wang, H., Lopez, A.D., Murray, C.J.L., 2013. Rapid health
12
Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125851
transition in China, 1990-2010: findings from the Global Burden of disease study
2010. Lancet 381, 1987–2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61097-1.
Yao, N., Konijnendijk van den Bosch, C.C., Yang, J., Devisscher, T., Wirtz, Z., Jia, L.,
Duan, J., Ma, L., 2019. Beijing’s 50 million new urban trees: strategic governance for
large-scale urban afforestation. Urban For. Urban Green. 44, 126392 https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126392.
Zahed, O., Jouzani, G.S., Abbasalizadeh, S., Khodaiyan, F., Tabatabaei, M., 2016.
Continuous co-production of ethanol and xylitol from rice straw hydrolysate in a
membrane bioreactor. Folia Microbiol. 61 (3), 179–189.
Zeb, B., Alam, K., Sorooshian, A., Chishtie, F., Ahmad, I., Bibi, H., 2019. Temporal
characteristics of aerosol optical properties over the glacier region of northern
Pakistan. J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys. 186, 35–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jastp.2019.02.004.
Zeng, Y., Cao, Y., Qiao, X., Seyler, B.C., Tang, Y., 2019. Air pollution reduction in China:
recent success but great challenge for the future. Sci. Total Environ. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.262.
Zhang, Y., Yao, Z., Shen, X., Liu, H., He, K., 2015. Chemical characterization of PM2.5
emitted from on-road heavy-duty diesel trucks in China. Atmos. Environ. 122,
885–891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.07.014.
Zheng, B., Zhang, Q., Borken-Kleefeld, J., Huo, H., Guan, D., Klimont, Z., Peters, G.P.,
He, K., 2015. How will greenhouse gas emissions from motor vehicles be constrained
in China around 2030? Appl. Energy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2015.07.018.