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Neuromuscular Disorders in The Intensive Care Unit.10
Neuromuscular Disorders in The Intensive Care Unit.10
Neuromuscular Disorders in The Intensive Care Unit.10
Neuromuscular Disorders
C O N T I N UU M A UD I O
I NT E R V I E W A V AI L A B L E
ONLINE
in the Intensive Care Unit
By Torrey Boland Birch, MD
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ABSTRACT
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Thisarticle discusses the pathophysiology, presentation,
diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of common neuromuscular disorders
seen in the intensive care unit, including Guillain-Barré syndrome,
myasthenia gravis, and intensive care unit–acquired weakness.
SUMMARY: Neuromuscular disorders are not rare in the intensive care unit
setting, and precise identification and treatment of these conditions can
greatly impact long-term outcomes.
INTRODUCTION
P
atients with neuromuscular disorders are at high risk for respiratory
failure and other complications, including infection and
CITE AS:
CONTINUUM (MINNEAP MINN)
dysautonomia, that require aggressive treatment in the intensive care
2021;27(5, NEUROCRITICAL CARE): unit (ICU). Myasthenia gravis (MG) and Guillain-Barré syndrome
1344–1364.
(GBS) are two of the most common causes of neuromuscular
respiratory failure seen in the ICU; in one study, MG accounted for up to 32% of
Address correspondence to
Dr Torrey Boland Birch, 1725 W patients presenting with respiratory failure and GBS accounted for just under
Harrison St, Ste 1106, Chicago, 15%.1 Early identification and awareness of potential complications can
IL 60026, Torrey_birch@rush.edu.
significantly mitigate morbidity and mortality,1 and with aggressive treatment,
RELATIONSHIP DISCLOSURE: many patients can experience a significant recovery. Neurologists should be
Dr Birch serves on an advisory familiar with the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of GBS and MG and can
board for Gift of Hope Organ &
Tissue Donor Network and has help the ICU team, the patient, and family members anticipate both
served as a consultant for the complications and the overall course of the disease. In addition, as improvements
legal firm Rhoades McKee PC. in critical care are leading to an increasing number of survivors of prolonged
UNLABELED USE OF hospitalizations, neurologists should be familiar with the complications of critical
PRODUCTS/INVESTIGATIONAL illness, including ICU-acquired weakness.
USE DISCLOSURE:
Dr Birch reports no disclosure.
GUILLAIN-BARRÉ SYNDROME
© 2021 American Academy
GBS is an acute monophasic polyradiculoneuropathy that is immune mediated
of Neurology. and characterized by ascending flaccid paralysis and areflexia accompanied by
polyradiculoneuropathy),
purely axonal (acute motor
Pathophysiology axonal neuropathy), and
The term GBS has come to encompass several variants of an immune-mediated demyelinating with an
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Presentation
The classic presentation of GBS is one of ascending weakness and areflexia, often
following an infection or other immune stimulus. More than two-thirds of
patients with GBS will report respiratory or gastrointestinal symptoms in the
4 weeks before symptom onset (CASE 7-1).6 Pain may precede the development
of weakness and is commonly described in the back, buttocks, and thighs. The
pain is often described as aching or throbbing and may also be described as a
tight, crampy sensation. Patients frequently report paresthesia, particularly in
the fingers and toes, although objectively their sensation is often preserved.
CONTINUUMJOURNAL.COM 1345
unable to rise from a chair and noted mild weakness in her arms.
On arrival, the patient was afebrile, with mild tachycardia and
tachypnea. Blood pressure and oxygen saturation were within normal
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COMMENT This patient presented with the AMAN variant of GBS, with positive GD1a
antibodies. Given her rapid progression, respiratory failure, and axonal
phenotype, early tracheostomy was required. Despite the severity of the
disease, many survivors of GBS can ultimately have a nearly full recovery.
alternative diagnosis.
additional progression at that point should raise concern for an alternative
diagnosis, such as chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy ● Autonomic dysfunction
(CIDP). In 20% to 30% of cases, progression of weakness leads to respiratory
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Diagnosis
The diagnosis of GBS is primarily clinical, based on the patient’s history,
clinical presentation, and physical examination. Supportive studies include
CSF analysis, electrophysiologic studies including nerve conduction studies
and EMG, and antibody testing. Standardized diagnostic criteria were
proposed by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
(NINDS) and have been modified since their introduction in 1978; however,
these criteria may miss variants such as Miller Fisher syndrome (TABLE 7-1).11
The two required features for diagnosis include progressive weakness of the
legs and arms (occasionally only in legs initially) and areflexia or decreased
tendon reflexes in the affected limbs. Additional supportive features include a
progressive phase lasting up to 4 weeks, relative symmetry, mild sensory
symptoms, cranial nerve involvement, autonomic dysfunction, and pain. The
Brighton Collaboration criteria are more stringent diagnostic criteria used for
research purposes that include the NINDS criteria as well as albuminocytologic
dissociation in the CSF in addition to electrophysiologic findings consistent with
GBS for diagnostic certainty.7
CONTINUUMJOURNAL.COM 1347
EMG is not required for diagnosis but can be helpful in determining the
phenotype (AIDP or AMAN), which may be helpful for prognosis. Appropriate
workup should be done to exclude alternative causes based on the clinical
examination. Other conditions that may present similarly include MG, botulism,
West Nile virus, organophosphate poisoning, tick paralysis, porphyria,
transverse myelitis and other causes of myelopathy, and vasculitic neuropathies
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(TABLE 7-2). A leukocytosis in the CSF, fever at onset, sensory level, asymmetry,
persistent bowel and bladder dysfunction, respiratory failure in the absence of
limb weakness, and prolonged progression of symptoms should raise concern for
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◆ Leptomeningeal malignancy
Motor neuron
◆ Poliomyelitis
◆ West Nile virus anterior myelitis
◆ Rabies
◆ Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
◆ Progressive spinal muscular atrophy
Peripheral nerve
◆ Guillain-Barré syndrome
◆ Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP)
◆ Critical illness neuropathy
◆ Vasculitis
◆ Diphtheria
◆ Porphyria
◆ Tick paralysis
◆ Heavy metal toxicity
Neuromuscular junction
◆ Myasthenia gravis
◆ Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome
◆ Botulism
◆ Organophosphate intoxication
Muscles
◆ Critical illness myopathy
◆ Mitochondrial disease
◆ Acute rhabdomyolysis
◆ Polymyositis
◆ Dermatomyositis
◆ Medication-induced myopathy
◆ Metabolic/electrolyte disorders
a
Data from Willison HJ, et al, Lancet4 and Leonhard SE, et al, Nat Rev Neurol.11
CONTINUUMJOURNAL.COM 1349
GBS. This results from infection of the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord. This
may or may not be accompanied by an encephalitis. The weakness is typically
asymmetric and may cause weakness of one limb, although in more severe cases,
patients can develop quadriplegia and acute neuromuscular respiratory failure.
As compared to GBS, patients with West Nile poliomyelitis more often have
fever, absent sensory symptoms, and a pleocytosis along with elevated protein in
the CSF.12
Porphyric neuropathy can also mimic GBS by causing both progressive
weakness and autonomic dysfunction. The acute hepatic porphyrias are most
likely to cause neurologic manifestations and are inherited or acquired disorders
of heme synthesis. Acute intermittent porphyria, an autosomal dominant
condition with low penetrance, is the most common of the acute hepatic
porphyrias. Patients are often healthy young women presenting with fatigue,
abdominal pain, nausea, and subtle neurologic signs that could include
weakness.13 Seizures and psychosis are common. During an acute attack, a
combined sensory and motor neuropathy can develop, and the autonomic
nervous system can be affected as well. Weakness often begins in the proximal
muscles, and the severity is highly variable, ranging from mild sensory
symptoms to involvement of the cranial nerves or progression to
quadriparesis and respiratory failure. The diagnosis can be confirmed by
measuring porphobilinogen in the urine. For additional mimics of GBS,
refer to TABLE 7-2.
Treatment
Although supportive treatment of patients with GBS is critical, particularly in the
setting of acute respiratory failure, both plasma exchange and IV
immunoglobulin (IVIg) have been proven to be effective at reducing the length
of time patients require mechanical ventilation and to lead to faster recovery.14,15
The American Academy of Neurology’s quality measurement set on inpatient
and emergency care for patients with neurologic illnesses aims to improve timely
treatment of patients with GBS and states that patients admitted to an inpatient
facility with GBS who are nonambulatory should be treated with
immunosuppressive therapy using plasma exchange or IVIg and not prescribed
corticosteroids.16 Combination therapy, such as plasma exchange followed by
IVIg, is not more effective than monotherapy.17 In addition, no clear evidence
indicates that a second course of IVIg is helpful, although further study may be
needed. An observational study of 237 patients did not show better outcome with
a second course of IVIg in patients with a predicted poor prognosis; however, the
study was limited by small numbers and by the fact that the patients receiving a
second course were more disabled than those receiving only a single course.18 No
role exists for administration of corticosteroids.
CONTINUUMJOURNAL.COM 1351
FIGURE 7-1
Graphic illustration of paradoxical breathing pattern. A, Diaphragm at rest. B, Normal
diaphragm movement during inspiration resulting in expansion of the chest and abdomen. C,
Paradoxical breathing pattern (inward abdominal movement during inspiration) because of
diaphragmatic weakness.
Reprinted with permission from Wijdicks EFM, Oxford University Press.20 © 2012 Mayo Foundation for
Medical Education and Research.
Prognosis
More than 80% of patients with GBS will recover to the point of regaining the
ability to ambulate at 6 months.7 Patients with axonal involvement,
dysautonomia, and respiratory failure requiring mechanical ventilation are
more likely to have a poor outcome. The rate of mortality in GBS has been
described in the range of 2% to 12%, most often from pulmonary
complications or autonomic dysfunction in the acute phase of the illness4;
however, as ICU care has improved, mortality has decreased. Recent studies
have described a mortality rate of 6% in patients with dysautonomia
compared to a 2% mortality overall,8 although an older study found a
mortality rate as high as 20% in patients requiring mechanical ventilation.26
Of the survivors, nearly 80% of patients requiring mechanical ventilation
went on to walk independently at 1 year. Recovery may be lengthy, with
progress continuing 12 months after the disease onset. Patients requiring
mechanical ventilation are more likely to have a prolonged recovery course.
Because of the significant recovery most patients see, clinicians should
treat GBS aggressively and ensure that all patients receive high-level ICU
care to avoid preventable complications that may increase morbidity
and mortality.
Future Trends
The International Guillain-Barré Syndrome Outcome Study, which was started
in 2012, should provide a valuable data set to help to further characterize
epidemiology, antecedent events, and long-term outcomes in GBS.27 As new
infections emerge across the globe, additional triggers of GBS may be identified
that require further investigation. Recent descriptions of GBS occurring after
infection with SARS-CoV-2 and the Zika virus indicate that the incidence of cases
could vary as new infection patterns emerge.28
MYASTHENIA GRAVIS
MG is an autoimmune disorder affecting the postsynaptic membrane of the
neuromuscular junction. Patients may present with fluctuating weakness of the
ocular, bulbar, limb, and respiratory muscles. In more severe cases, respiratory
CONTINUUMJOURNAL.COM 1353
Pathophysiology
In MG, autoantibodies bind to the acetylcholine receptor (AChR) or related
proteins, which leads to weakness of skeletal muscles. Antibodies most
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Diagnosis
For patients without a prior diagnosis of MG, a careful history may increase
suspicion for the disease. Significant delays often occur in the diagnosis of MG.
One study reported that although 57% of patients were diagnosed within 1 year of
onset of symptoms, 13% of patients had a delay of greater than 5 years.30 A detailed
neurologic examination often reveals some degree of ocular or facial weakness.
In this setting, confirmation of the diagnosis with additional testing should be
pursued. Immunologic testing for AChR, MuSK, and LRP4 should be obtained.
Of patients with MG, 10% to 15% will be antibody negative. The ice pack test can
be performed at the bedside in patients with ptosis. In this test, after ptosis is
observed, an ice pack is laid on the closed lid for 2 minutes. The patient is
reexamined immediately after removal to assess for improvement in the ptosis.
Improvement suggests a disorder of neuromuscular transmission, as the activity
of acetylcholinesterases is decreased at lower temperatures. Electrodiagnostic
testing can also aid in diagnosis. The presence of decremental responses on
repetitive nerve stimulation can provide physiologic support for the diagnosis
when moderate or greater generalized weakness is present (FIGURE 7-2). Single-
fiber EMG is more sensitive than repetitive nerve stimulation but is less specific
(can be abnormal in disorders such as botulism, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,
and rapidly progressive polyneuropathies). It is a technically challenging
procedure and is rarely achievable in the critical care setting.
All patients with newly diagnosed MG should undergo CT examination of the
chest. MG has a strong association with thymoma, and this should be treated with
thymectomy. Guidelines for the indications for elective thymectomy in MG have
been published.31,32
The biggest threat to patients with MG is the development of a life-threatening
crisis that compromises respiratory function because of weakness of the muscles
of respiration or the bulbar muscles. A 2016 consensus statement defined the
terms impending myasthenic crisis and manifest myasthenic crisis.33 Impending
● Myasthenia gravis is an
autoimmune disorder with
antibodies targeting the
postsynaptic membrane of
the neuromuscular junction,
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related protein 4.
● Twenty percent of
patients present in
FIGURE 7-2
myasthenic crisis as the first
Repetitive nerve stimulation of the spinal accessory nerve in a patient with myasthenia gravis.
manifestation of their
This nerve conduction study shows a decremental compound muscle action potential
disease.
(CMAP) response of greater than 10% of the trapezius muscle while stimulating the spinal
accessory nerve on repetitive stimulation at 3 Hz, consistent with a disorder of
neuromuscular transmission such as myasthenia gravis. ● Myasthenic crisis can be
Figure courtesy of Ryan Jacobson, MD. triggered by infection;
medications such
aminoglycosides,
fluoroquinolones, and
beta-blockers; and surgery.
myasthenic crisis is defined as “rapid clinical worsening that, in the opinion of
the treating physician, could lead to crisis in the short term (days to weeks).”33 ● Immune checkpoint
Manifest myasthenic crisis is defined as “worsening of myasthenic weakness inhibitors may induce an
requiring intubation or noninvasive ventilation to avoid intubation, except when immune-related myasthenia
gravis in patients without a
these measures are employed during routine postoperative management.”33 Both history of myasthenia gravis.
conditions should be treated in the inpatient setting, typically in the ICU.
Presentation
Most patients who present with myasthenic crisis have a known diagnosis of MG,
although up to 20% of patients will present to medical attention for the first time
in crisis (CASE 7-2).34,35 Patients with a known diagnosis of MG may give a history
of worsening systemic and/or bulbar weakness, although, rarely, respiratory
failure can be the only symptom. Because of generalized weakness, patients may
not manifest typical signs of respiratory distress, including use of accessory
muscles. Of concern, the clinical picture can also be muddled by the escalation of
dosing of anticholinesterase medications, which may precipitate a cholinergic
crisis, with increased salivation, gastrointestinal symptoms, and, ultimately,
worsening muscle weakness.
Myasthenic crises can be triggered by several factors, including infection,
medications, and surgery. The most common cause is a simultaneous infection,
and a workup should be initiated to exclude an underlying infection in patients
presenting in crisis.36 Numerous medications can worsen weakness in patients
with MG (TABLE 7-3), and a comprehensive list can be found on the website of
the Myasthenia Gravis Foundation of America (myasthenia.org/what-is-mg/
MG-management/cautionary-drugs).37 Aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, and
beta-blockers are common offenders. The US Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) has issued boxed warnings against the use of fluoroquinolones and for the
antibiotic telithromycin (no longer available in the United States) in MG. In
addition, reports exist of immune checkpoint inhibitors triggering an
immune-related MG.38 These drugs are used in the treatment of melanoma,
CONTINUUMJOURNAL.COM 1355
non–small cell lung carcinoma, and other malignancies. They can worsen
symptoms of individuals with existing MG as well as lead to a new diagnosis of
MG in patients who did not previously have the disorder. As soon as a crisis is
identified, medication lists should be reviewed and offending agents should be
discontinued. In addition, patients with a known history of MG who are
receiving cautionary drugs should be monitored closely or switched to an
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vital capacity, MIP, and MEP should be monitored closely, and it is reasonable to
use the same cutoffs as described earlier to guide intubation, although evidence
for these cutoffs is limited. However, given the fluctuating nature of the
weakness, clinicians should use caution in relying solely on those parameters to
CASE 7-2 A 54-year-old man presented to the emergency department with fever,
shortness of breath, and poor appetite. A chest x-ray showed an infiltrate
in the left lower lobe consistent with pneumonia, and the patient was
started on levofloxacin. He developed worsening respiratory failure and
was intubated and admitted to the medical intensive care unit. Despite
treatment of the pneumonia, the patient was unable to pass his
spontaneous breathing trials because of low lung volumes. The internal
medicine resident noted a left ptosis that seemed to vary in severity
throughout the day and consulted the neurology team.
A detailed history from the family revealed that the patient had been
intubated 4 times in the past 2 years in the setting of minor infections,
each time with difficulty weaning from the ventilator. The family reported
that over the past 2 years, the patient appeared fatigued throughout the
day, worse in the evening. They reported that they occasionally noted
ptosis, but it typically resolved within a day. At the bedside, the
neurology resident placed a cold ice pack on the left eye and waited for
2 minutes. After lifting the pack, the patient’s ptosis had resolved.
Repetitive nerve stimulation was performed, showing a decremental
response of greater than 10%, consistent with myasthenia gravis (MG).
Serum antibodies were sent, and the patient was positive for antibodies
against the acetylcholine receptor. He was started on plasma exchange
and steroids, and his antibiotic was changed to ceftriaxone. Ultimately,
he did well and was extubated 10 days later.
COMMENT This case demonstrates the difficulty in making a diagnosis of MG. This
patient had been intubated 4 times in the recent past, but each time the
diagnosis was missed as his symptoms improved with treatment of the
underlying infection. Only when a detailed history and examination was
performed was MG considered in the differential diagnosis. In this case,
the patient’s pulmonary infection in combination with the administration of
a fluoroquinolone triggered a myasthenic crisis.
Treatment
In an exacerbation of myasthenic symptoms, early initiation of rapid short-acting
immunotherapy should occur with either IVIg or plasma exchange. No clear
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evidence supports one treatment over the other40; however, several studies have
suggested that plasma exchange may have a more rapid effect, leading to fewer
intubations35 and earlier extubation.41 In a consensus statement, the Myasthenia
Gravis Foundation of America suggests that although the two treatments are
likely equally effective based on available evidence and should be chosen based
on clinical patient characteristics, plasma exchange may be more effective and
has a faster effect.33 This statement is based on consensus expert opinion. Patients
with high risk of a hypercoagulable state or renal failure should avoid IVIg, as
Drugs with US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) boxed warnings for use in myasthenia
gravis
◆ Telithromycin (no longer available in the United States)
◆ Fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin, levofloxacin)
Drugs to use with caution, if at all, in myasthenia gravis
◆ Botulinum toxin
◆ D-penicillamine
◆ Chloroquine
◆ Hydroxychloroquine
◆ Quinine
◆ Magnesium
◆ Macrolide antibiotics (erythromycin, azithromycin, clarithromycin)
◆ Aminoglycoside antibiotics (gentamicin, neomycin, tobramycin)
◆ Corticosteroidsb
◆ Procainamide
◆ Desferrioxamine
◆ Beta-blockers
◆ Statins
◆ Immune checkpoint inhibitors (pembrolizumab, nivolumab, atezolizumab, avelumab,
durvalumab, ipilimumab)
a
Data from Myasthenia Gravis Foundation of America.37
b
Corticosteroids may cause transient worsening of symptoms in the first 2 weeks but are part of the
standard treatment for myasthenia gravis. Close monitoring should be in place when initiating steroids.
CONTINUUMJOURNAL.COM 1357
IVIg may precipitate thromboembolic events and can lead to acute kidney injury.
Patients with a history of multiple cardiovascular risk factors have an increased
risk for thromboembolic events, as do those with malignancy, hyperviscosity,
hereditary hypercoagulable states, and prior thromboembolic events. Acute
kidney injury following IVIg is more common in patients with preexisting
chronic kidney disease. Those with high risk for hemodynamic instability, such
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Prognosis
The mortality among patients with myasthenic crisis is estimated at 5% to 19%.35,43
In one large study of patients requiring mechanical ventilation for a myasthenic
crisis, the primary cause of death was multiorgan failure secondary to sepsis.35 In
this study, an estimated 20% of patients requiring mechanical ventilation still
required ventilatory support at the time of discharge. Risk factors for prolonged
mechanical ventilation include age, comorbidities such as pneumonia, high
disease burden, and late-onset MG.35,41 Higher preintubation CO2 was associated
with disability and death in another study.43 Extubation success can be difficult
to predict because of fluctuating symptoms, and failure can be as high as 40%.39
However, cough strength and MEP greater than 40 cm H2O may help to predict a
good outcome.39 Noninvasive ventilation may be helpful in supporting patients
● Noninvasive ventilation
Future Trends may be helpful in preventing
As the use of immunomodulatory drugs such as immune checkpoint inhibitors
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Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of ICU-acquired weakness is multifactorial. Sepsis,
prolonged mechanical ventilation, multiorgan failure, systemic inflammatory
response syndrome, hyperglycemia, hyperosmolarity, parenteral nutrition, use
of norepinephrine, elevated lactate, and female sex are all associated with
ICU-acquired weakness.50 The role of steroids in the pathophysiology of
ICU-acquired weakness is uncertain, as data are conflicting.47 Proposed
mechanisms include microcirculatory failure, inactivation of sodium channels, a
catabolic state, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and disuse atrophy.
Critical illness polyneuropathy is an axonal polyneuropathy without
demyelination, possibly secondary to microcirculatory failure of the axon,
although the exact mechanism is unknown.47 Critical illness myopathy is
associated with loss of thick filaments in the muscle along with muscle necrosis.47
The two conditions may coexist, as they share risk factors and likely a common
mechanism.
Presentation
Clinically, ICU-acquired weakness may be difficult to detect and diagnose.
Patients who are critically ill are often heavily sedated, although ICU practices in
recent years have shifted toward a reduction in sedation. ICU-acquired weakness
is often first considered when patients are unable to wean from the ventilator.
Both critical illness myopathy and critical illness polyneuropathy lead to a
symmetric proximal weakness. Tone is decreased, and reflexes are frequently
CONTINUUMJOURNAL.COM 1359
Diagnosis
When making the diagnosis of ICU-acquired weakness, the clinician must
exclude alternative causes of weakness based on clinical suspicion, including a
central process such as a cervical myelopathy or other neuromuscular disorders
such as MG, GBS, botulism, and vasculitic neuropathy. Electrodiagnostic studies
are helpful in making the diagnosis, but performing them in the inpatient ICU
setting may present logistic challenges. Electrical interference may create
artifacts, and patient conditions such as anasarca, peripheral edema, and
hypothermia can create challenges. In addition, patients with poor mentation
will not be able to participate in the examination, which may limit the
ability to perform a complete evaluation. To limit technical factors, limbs
should be kept warm during the study and unnecessary machines should be
powered off.51
In critical illness polyneuropathy, CMAP and sensory nerve action potential
(SNAP) amplitudes are reduced or absent. In critical illness myopathy, CMAP
waveforms may show reduced amplitude and increased duration. Muscle
biopsy can be performed if uncertainty exists about the diagnosis or if an
alternative myopathy is being considered, with selective loss of thick
filaments and muscle necrosis being consistent with the diagnosis of critical
illness myopathy. The primary benefit of differentiating between critical
illness polyneuropathy and critical illness myopathy is to better prognosticate
the recovery of patients, as discussed below. Patients with critical illness
myopathy have a greater chance of recovery than do patients with critical
illness polyneuropathy.
Treatment
Treatment of ICU-acquired weakness is currently focused on prevention. A
large randomized controlled trial showed that aggressive control of blood
sugar decreased the rate of ICU-acquired weakness,52 although other trials
have shown similar intensive control of blood glucose to result in an increase
in mortality.53 Based on these trials, moderate, rather than intensive, glucose
control is recommended in the ICU. Avoiding early parenteral nutrition,
minimizing sedation, and promoting early mobilization are also strategies
used to prevent the development of ICU-acquired weakness. Early physical
and occupational therapy starting at the time of respiratory failure has been
shown to be beneficial in improving outcomes from decreasing time on
mechanical ventilation to increasing the percentage of patients discharged
directly to home.46 Animal studies suggest that circulating ketones may have a
muscles, extraocular
in the ICU receiving more than 7 days of mechanical ventilation reported a
muscles are spared.
doubling of inpatient mortality in patients with ICU-acquired weakness as Involvement of the cranial
compared with patients who were mechanically ventilated for similar amounts of nerves should prompt
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time and did not develop weakness.56 In a review of survivors of critical illness assessment for an
alternative cause of
with ICU-acquired weakness, nearly 30% had long-term disability.57 However,
weakness.
all ICU-acquired weakness types are not equal. Several studies have shown a
significantly better prognosis in critical illness myopathy than in critical illness ● Primary treatment
polyneuropathy and critical illness neuromyopathy. More than 80% of patients strategies for intensive care
with critical illness myopathy may experience a complete recovery within 6 to unit–acquired weakness
focus on prevention, with
12 months following their ICU stay.58,59 Although the treatments of critical illness minimization of sedation,
myopathy and critical illness polyneuropathy/critical illness neuromyopathy do avoidance of
not differ, differentiating between the two pathologies may have important hyperglycemia, and use of
prognostic value. early mobilization
strategies.
CONTINUUMJOURNAL.COM 1361
CONCLUSION
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