1.
INVERT SUGAR- Sucrose is dextrorotatory
(+66.5°) but after hydrolysis it gives an
equimolar mixture of D-(+)-glucose and D-(–)-
fructose, which is laevorotatory. This change of
specific rotation from dextrorotation to
laevorotation is called inversion of sugar and
the mixture obtained is called invert sugar.
2. NUCLEOSIDE is a unit formed by the
combination of nitrogen containing heterocyclic
base and pentose sugar.
3. ENZYMES- Enzymes are termed as biocatalysts
as they catalyse numerous reactions that occur
in the bodies of animals and plants to maintain
life process e.g., invertase, pepsin, urease
4. AMINO ACIDS- Amino acids are the
compounds, whose molecule contains both the
carboxylic acid (–COOH) group and the amino
(–NH2) group of the various amino acids, the a-
amino acids are most important because they
are the building blocks of proteins.
5. CARBOHYDRATES- Carbohydrates that yield a
large number of monosaccharide units on
hydrolysis are called polysaccharides e.g.,
starch, cellulose, gums etc.
6. SEMICARBAZIDE has two NH2 group But only
one is involved in Nucleophilic addition
reaction- Semicarbazide has two –NH2 groups
but one of them (i.e., directly attached to C = O)
is involved in resonance. Thus, electron density
on this NH2 group decreases hence it does not
act as a nucleophile
7. The binary mixtures of liquids having same
composition in liquid and vapour phase and
boil at a constant temperature are called
AZEOTROPES.
8. The excess of pressure which must be applied
to the solution side to prevent the passage of
solvent into it through a semipermeable
membrane is called OSMOTIC PRESSURE
9. The properties of solutions which depend only
on the number of solute particles in the solution
but independent of their nature are called
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES.
10.RAOULTS LAW- It states that for a solution of
volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of
each component in the solution is directly
proportional to its mole fraction. Thus, for a
solution of volatile liquidsA and B, PA µ xA and
PB µ xB or PA = PA x Ao and PB = P x B B o
where PA and PB are partialvapour pressures,
xA and xB are mole fractions, PAo and PBo are
vapour pressure of purecomponents A and B
respectively.
11.DENATURATION OF PROTEINS: When a
protein in its native form is subjected to a
change, such as change in temperature or
change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are
disturbed. Due to this, globules unfold and helix
get uncoiled and protein loses its biological
activity. This is called denaturation of protein
12.The important characteristics of the
TRANSITION ELEMENTS are: (i) All transition
elements are metallic in nature. (ii) Transition
elements exhibit variable oxidation states. (iii)
Most of the transition elements form coloured
compounds. (iv) A number of transition
elements and their compounds show catalytic
properties.
13.NUCLEOTIDE- A nucleotide contains all the
three basic components of nucleic acid i.e., a
pentose sugar, nitrogeneous base and a
phosphoric acid. When nucleoside is linked to
phosphoric acid at 5’ position of sugar moiety,
we get a nucleotide
14.TRANSITION METALS FORM A LARGE
NUMBER OF COMPLEXES due to following
reasons:= Small size and high charge of the ions
of transition metals.= Presence of vacant
orbitals of appropriate energy which can accept
lone pairs of electrons donated by ligand
15. THE E° VALUE FOR THE MN3+/MN2+
couple is much more positive than that for
Cr3+/Cr2+ couple. ANS-:Mn2+has the
electronic configuration [Ar]3d5 which is half
filled and hence very stable.Due to this the third
ionisation energy of Mn is very high. Thus the
much large thirdionisation energy of Mn (where
the required change is d5 to d4) is mainly
responsible for this.
16.PEPTIDE LINKAGE- A peptide linkage is an
amide (—C|| O— NH —) linkage formed
between —COOH group of onea-amino acid and
—NH2 group of other a-amino acid by loss of a
water molecule
17.ANILINE DOES NOT UNDERGO FRIEDAL
CRAFT reaction - Aniline being a Lewis base
reacts with AlCl3 a Lewis acid and catalyst used
in Friedel craftsreaction to form salt C6H5N
+H2AlCl-3. Due to presence of a +ve charge on
N-atom in the salt, thegroup N+H2AlCl3 acts as
a strong deactivating group. It reduces the
electron density in the benzene ring as a result
of this aniline does not undergo Friedel-crafts
reaction
18. WHY PRIMARY AMINES HAVE MORE
BOILING POINT THAN TERTIARY AMINES-
In primary amines, two hydrogen atoms are
present on N-atom and they undergo extensive
intermolecular hydrogen bonding which results
in association of molecules while in tertiary
amines, no hydrogen atom is present on N-
atom. Hence there is no hydrogen bonding in
tertiary amines. As a result of this primary
amines have higher boiling point than tertiary
amines.
19.KOHLRAUSCH LAW states that the limiting
molar conductivity of an electrolyte can be
represented as the sum of the individual
contributions of cation and anion of the
electrolyte.
20.A reaction which is not truely of first order but
under certain conditions becomes a reaction of
first order is called PSEUDO FIRST ORDER
REACTION e.g. acid hydrolysis of ethyl acetate.
21.HENRY`S LAW – It states that “the partial
pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is
directly proportional to the mole fraction of gas
(x) in the solution”. Mathematically, p = KHx
where KH is the Henry's law constant. The
solubility of a gas in liquid decreases with rise
in temperature as dissolution of a gas in a liquid
is an exothermic process.
22.WHY CARBOXYLIC ACID ARE MORE
STRONGER ACIDS THAN PHENOLS- Because
the release of proton from carboxylic acid is
much easier than from phenol as the conjugate
base carboxylate ion is much more resonance
stabilised than conjugate base phenoxide ion
23.
24.WHY ALDEHYDES ARE REACTIVE THAN
KETONES. This is due to steric and electronic
reasons. Sterically, the presence of two
relatively large substituents in ketones hinders
the approach of nucleophile to carbonyl carbon
than in aldehydes having only one such
substituent. Electronically two alkyl groups
reduce the positivity of the carbonyl carbon
more effectively in ketones than in aldehydes.
25. Why are ethers insoluble in water?
Ethers are insoluble in water because due to
the bigger size of the alkyl groups, the oxygen
atom in ethers fails to form intermolecular H-
bonds with water.
26.Phenol is more acidic than methanol.
In phenol, the phenoxide ion obtained after the
removal of a proton is stabilised by resonance
whereas there is no resonance in the alkoxide
ion of methanol.
27.Zn2+ salts are white while Cu2+ salts are
coloured. Why?
Ans. Cu2+ (3d 9 4s 0) has one unpaired electron in
d-subshell which absorbs radiation in visible
region resulting in d-d transition and hence Cu2+
salts are coloured. Zn2+ (3d 10 4s 0) has
completely filled d-orbitals. No radiation is
absorbed for d-d transition and hence Zn2+ salts
are colourless.
28.What is Tollens’ reagent? Write one
usefulness of this reagent.
Ans. Ammonical silver nitrate (AgNO3 + NH4OH)
solution is known as Tollens’ reagent. It is used to
detect the presence of —CHO group in an organic
compound.