INTERNSHIP REPORT

A report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Award of

Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

in

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

By

SHREE GANESH
19EEE030

Under Supervision of
Er. Khanu Charan Bisoi, Odisha Power Transmission Ltd,
Power Training Centre, Chandaka, Bhubaneswar.
(Duration: 21-06-2021 to 27-7-2021)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING

GIET UNIVERSITY,GUNUPUR
ODISHA
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 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that I have completed my One Month summer training at

Odisha Power Transmission Limited from 21-06-2021 to 27-7-2021under the

guidance of Er. Khanu Charan Bisoi. I have declared that I have worked with full
dedication during these four weeks of training and my learning outcomes fulfill the
requirements of training for the award of degree of Electronics and communication
engineering, from GIET UNIVERSITY, GUNUPUR. The above declaration is true for
my knowledge. I submit this to our project coordinator Asst.Prof Srikant Mishra.

Name of Student: SHREE GANESH

Date: 11-NOV-2021
Roll No.: 19EEE030
Place: ____GUNUPUR____
Registration no: 190111007

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my gratitude to OPTCL for providing me an opportunity to

do my internship work in “POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION”.
Under his guidance I have completed my project and tried my best to implement what I
had learnt till now.

I sincerely thank TAPASH SIR, for his guidance and encouragement to do my

internship. He also helps me by updating me about the information of what to do and not
to do during our internship and help us with all. I also thank my friend for helping me
with my problem that I face in my project.

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Overview Of “Odisha Power Transmission Ltd.”
ODISHA POWER TRANSMISSION CORPORATION LIMITED (OPTCL), one
of the largest Transmission Utility in the country was incorporated in March 2004 under the
Companies Act, 1956 as a company wholly owned by the Government of Odisha to undertake
the business of transmission and wheeling of electricity in the State. The registered office of the
Company is situated at Bhubaneswar, the capital of the State of Odisha. Its projects and field
units are spread all over the State.

OPTCL became fully operational with effect from 9th June 2005 consequent upon
issue of Odisha Electricity Reform (Transfer of Transmission and Related Activities) Scheme,
2005 under the provisions of Electricity Act, 2003 and the Odisha Reforms Act, 1995 by the
State Government for transfer and vesting of transmission related activities of GRIDCO with
OPTCL. The Company has been designated as the State Transmission Utility in terms of Section
39 of the Electricity Act, 2003.

Presently the Company is carrying on intra state transmission and wheeling of

electricity under a license issued by the Odisha Electricity Regulatory Commission. The
Company is also discharging the functions of State Load Despatch Centre. The Company owns
Extra High Voltage Transmission system and operates about 14,500.00 ckt kms of transmission
lines at 400 kV, 220 kV, 132 kV levels and 163 nos. of substations with transformation capacity
of 22,150.00 MVA having 366 nos of transformers.

VISION
OPTCL ranks as one among the leading Transmission Utilities in India,
transmitting quality, reliable and SECURED power with minimum transmission loss at a
competitive price.
MISSION

1. Transmission of power in large quantity with affordable price as per the expectation of
customers, Government of Odisha and OERC.
2. Increase transmission network need based, to meet the demand of the state in 2025.
3. Develop a portfolio of intra-state and some inter-state transmission assets in national market
including business expansion for evacuation of power outside the state in collaboration with
PGCIL and others.
4. Adoption of best construction and OLM practices supported by system driven processes
enabled by cutting edge IT solutions.
5. Diversification of business by providing consultancy in the areas of construction and
maintenance services and also in Telecommunication and other emerging areas so as to
achieve optimum utilization of assets for generation of additional revenue.
6. Building Research and Development wing for adoption of new technology.
7. Achieve excellence in project implementation.
8. Practice higher standard of corporate governance and be a financially sound company.
 Table of Contents
1. SUBSTATION LAYOUT ................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 1.2Function of Substation .................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Types of sub-station ............................................................................................................ 5
1.4 Components of a Substation :- ............................................................................................ 6
1.4.1 Surge Arrestor:- ........................................................................................................... 6
1.4.2 Wave Trap:- ................................................................................................................. 7
1.4.3 Potential Transformer:- ................................................................................................ 7
1.4.4 Current Transformer:- .................................................................................................. 7
1.4.5 Isolator :- ...................................................................................................................... 8
1.4.6 Circuit Breaker :- ......................................................................................................... 8
1.4.7 Transformer:- ............................................................................................................... 8
1.4.8 Bus Bar:- ...................................................................................................................... 9
1.4.9 Relays;- ........................................................................................................................ 9
1.4.10 Insulations (Insulator) ................................................................................................ 9
1.4.11 Earthing .................................................................................................................... 10
1.5 GAS INSULATED SUBSTATION (GIS) ....................................................................... 10
2 SURGE ARRESTER ............................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Fundamentals of surge Arrester ........................................................................................ 12
2.3 Definition of Surge Arrester :- .......................................................................................... 12
2.4 Definitions of certain Terms used in Power System ......................................................... 13
2.4.1 Overvoltage. ............................................................................................................... 13
2.4.2 Surge:- ........................................................................................................................ 13
2.4.3 Lightning Surge. ........................................................................................................ 13
2.4.4 Lightning Overvoltage. .............................................................................................. 13
Types of Surge Arrester .......................................................................................................... 13
Silicon Carbide Arresters (SIC) .......................................................................................... 13
Metal Oxide Surge Arrester ................................................................................................ 14
3. CURRENT & VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS ..................................................................... 15
3.1 Instrument Transformer: ................................................................................................... 15
3.2 Current Transformer ......................................................................................................... 15
3.3 Voltage Transformer:- ...................................................................................................... 17
4. CIRCUIT BREAKERS ........................................................................................................... 18
4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 18
4.2 THE PROCESS OF CURRENT INTERUPTION ........................................................... 18

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 4.3 Arc Extinction ................................................................................................................... 18
4.3.2 Low resistance or current zero interruption (used for all high power A.c. C.Bs.) .... 19
4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS ............................................................. 19
4.4.1 The medium in which Current interruption takes place............................................. 19
................................................................................................................................................ 19
5. Transformer and its Accessories ............................................................................................. 20
5.1 Introduction :- ................................................................................................................... 20
5.2 Different Accessories of the transformer .......................................................................... 20
5.2.1 Tank of the transformer:- ........................................................................................... 20
5. Winding of Transformer ............................................................................................ 21
5.2.3 Core of the Transformer:- .......................................................................................... 21
5.3.4 Bushing:- .................................................................................................................... 22
5.3.5 Insulating Oil:- ........................................................................................................... 22
5.3.6 Conservator ................................................................................................................ 22
5.3.7 Breather ...................................................................................................................... 23
5.3.8 Radiator:- ................................................................................................................... 24
5.3.9 Buchholz Relay .......................................................................................................... 24
5.3.10 OLTC (On Load Tap Changer)................................................................................ 25
5.3.11 PRV (Pressure Release Valve):- .............................................................................. 25
5.3.12 Oil Temperature Indicator or OTI & Winding Temp. Indicator (WTI) .................. 26
6. BUS BAR ARRANGEMENT IN SUBSTATION ................................................................. 27
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 27
6.2 Types of Bus Bar Scheme ................................................................................................. 27
6.2.1 Single/ Radial Bus system ......................................................................................... 27
6.2.2 Single Bus System with Sectionalizer:- ..................................................................... 28
6.2.3 Ring/ Mesh Bus :- ...................................................................................................... 28
6.2.4 One Main One Transfer Bus ...................................................................................... 29
6.2.5 Two Main or Double Bus .......................................................................................... 30
6.2.6 Two Main one Transfer Bus ...................................................................................... 30
6.2.7 One and Half Breaker ................................................................................................ 31
7. SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF SUBSTATION .................................................................... 32
8. STATE LOAD DISPATCH CENTRE (SLDC) ..................................................................... 33
8.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 33
8.2 Constitution of State Load Despatch Centre ................................................................ 33
8.3 Statutory Function of State Load Despatch Centre........................................................... 34
8.4 Activities of the State Load Despatch Center (SLDC): .................................................... 34
8.5 CURRENT ACTIVITIES OF SLDC: .............................................................................. 35

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9. POWER TRADING OPEN & ACCESS ................................................................................ 36
10. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF OPTCL NETWORK .......................................................... 37
11. FORMATION OF NATIONAL GRID ................................................................................ 38
11.1 INTER CONNECTION BETWEEN NATIONAL GRID OF INDIA .......................... 39
11.2 COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NATIONAL GRID ................................................. 39
11.3 Power System Operation................................................................................................. 39
11.4 INSTALLED CAPACITY OF STATE OWNED GENERATING STATIONS ........... 40

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 1. SUBSTATION LAYOUT
1.1 Introduction
A Substation is a part of an electrical Generation, Transmission & Distribution system, where power is
transforming from high voltage to low voltage or vice versa and also many other functions. Electrical
power may flow through several substations between generating plant & consumer, and may be changed
in voltage in several steps. Mainly Substation is defined as “the assembly of apparatus used to same
characteristics (e.g. Voltage, AC to DC, Power Frequency, Frequency, etc…) of electric supply is called
sub-station” Or “The electrical substation is the part of a power system in which the voltage is
transformed from high to low or low to high for transmission, distribution, transformations and
switching. The power transformer, circuit breaker, bus-bar, insulator, lightning arrester are the main
components of an electrical substation.”

1.2

1.2Function of Substation
• Transform
• Dispatching
• Control
• Measurement
• Protection
• Communication
• Security
Transform
➢ A substation is able to transform power from one voltage level to other voltage level.

➢ Reliable supply by feeding the network at various points.

Dispatching
➢ Load shedding and prevention of loss of synchronism. Maintaining the system frequency
within targeted limits.
➢ Determining the energy transfer through transmission lines.
➢ Establishment of economic load distribution and several associated functions.
➢ Control
➢ Controlling the exchange of energy.

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 ➢ Voltage Control: reducing the reactive power flow by compensation of reactive power, tap-
changing.
Measurement
➢ Measuring the voltage, current and other parameters by the help of CT & PT/ CVT for metering
purpose.
Protection
➢ Protection of transmission system.
➢ Fault analysis and pin-pointing the cause and subsequent improvement in that area of field.
Communication
➢ Speech as well as Data transmission via Power Line Carrier/ OPGW for the purpose of
network monitoring, control and protection.
Security
➢ Securing the supply by proving adequate line capacity.
1.3 Types of sub-station
a. According to the constructional feature
b. According to application
c. According to the service requirement
a. According to constructional features:-
• Outdoor Sub-station
• Indoor Sub-station
• Underground Sub-station
• Pole-mounted Sub-station
b. Depending upon the application features:-
• Step Up Substation
• Step Down Substation
• Primary Step-Down Substation
• Secondary Step-Down Substation
• Distribution Substation
• Bulk Supply or Industrial Substation
• Mining Substation
• Mobile Substation
c. According to the Service Requirement.
• Transformer Substation
o Transmission Substation
o Distribution Substation
• Switching Sub-station
• Converting Sub-station
• Power Factor Correction Sub-station
• Frequency Changing Sub-station

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1.4 Components of a Substation :-
❖ Surge Arrestor
❖ Wave Trap
❖ Potential Transformer
❖ Capacitive Voltage Transformer (CVT)/CCVT
❖ Current Transformer (CT)
❖ Isolator
❖ Earth Switch
❖ Circuit breaker
❖ Transformer
❖ Bus bar
❖ Relays
❖ Conductors
❖ Earth wire/ spike
❖ Insulations (Insulator)
❖ Communication
❖ Overhead line Terminations
❖ Earthing
❖ AC Auxiliary
❖ DC Auxiliary (Battery set)
❖ Power cables
1.4.1 Surge Arrestor:-
• A surge arrester is a device to protect electrical equipment
from over-voltage transients caused by external (lightning) or
internal (switching) events.
• It is connected in parallel.
• It is made of semiconductor . i.e. non-linear characteristics of
Metal oxide Semiconductor.

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 1.4.2 Wave Trap:-
• A wave trap (high-frequency stopper) is a parallel resonant
circuit.
• It prevents the transmission of high frequency (40 KHz to 1000
KHz) carrier signals of PLCC.
• It is connected in series with the power line.
• The inductive reactance of the wave trap offers a high reactance
to high-frequency signals and low reactance to power frequency.
• It is used only when PLCC network is establish.
\

1.4.3 Potential Transformer:-

• Potential transformer is used to step down the voltage of power system to a
lower level to make it feasible to be measured by small rating voltmeter i.e. 110
– 120 V.
• Whatever may be the input voltage the output voltage of PT is always 110V.
• Ex. 33KV/110V, 132KV/110V, 220KV/110V, 400KV/110V.

1.4.4 Current Transformer:-

• current transformer is used to step down the current of power system to a
lower level to make it feasible to be measured by small rating Ammeter (i.e.
1A/5A Ammeter).
• Whatever may be the input current, the output current of CT is allways 1A for
transmission substation use and 5A for distribution substation use.
• Ex. 100-200-400/1:1:1:1, 300-600-1200/1:1:1:1, or 5001000-2000/1:1:1:1.

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 1.4.5 Isolator :-
• Isolator is a mechanical switch which isolates a
part of circuit from system as when required.
Isolators are used to open a circuit under NO
LOAD condition.
• It is also known as OFF Load Switch. Isolators
are generally used on both ends of the breaker for
safe repair or replacement of circuit breaker.
• With the help of Isolator, the maintenance work
is done safely.

1.4.6 Circuit Breaker :-

• It is a protective switching device or circuit
interrupting device. Switching ON and OFF
during normal operation for maintenance work
or switching during abnormal conditions too.
• It is an automatic switch which can interrupt the
fault current. Also known as ON Load Switch.

1.4.7 Transformer:-
• Transformer is a static electric device which transfers A.C Electrical power from one circuit to other at
the same frequency through magnetic flux linking both the circuits by electromagnetic induction.

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1.4.8 Bus Bar:-
• It is a junction or node of the power system where all the feeders are connected to each
other.
• It follows Kirchhoff’s Current Law.

1.4.9 Relays;-
• Relay is a device which sense the abnormality in electrical power system and convey the protection
system to operate the protective devices so as to protect the equipment, system, line or living being
in order to isolate any abnormal condition either instantaneously or a predetermined time period.

1.4.10 Insulations (Insulator):-

• Insulators are used in electrical system to
prevent unwanted flow of current to the earth
from its supporting points.
• Insulator is a very high resistive path through
which practically no current can flow.
• In Transmission and Distribution system, the
overhead conductors are generally supported by
supporting towers or poles. The towers and
poles both are properly grounded. Insulators
are provided between tower/pole body and
current carrying conductors.
• The main cause of failure of overhead line
insulator, is flash over, which occurs in between
:
line and earth during abnormal over voltage in
the system.

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 1.4.11 Earthing:-

• The process of transferring immediate discharge of the

electrical energy directly to the earth by the help of the low
resistance wire is known as the electrical Earthing.
• The electrical Earthing is done by connecting the non-
current carrying part of the equipment or neutral of supply
system to the ground.
• Mostly, galvanised iron is used for the Earthing. Earthing
provides a simple path to the leakage current.
• The short-circuit current of the equipment passes to the earth
which has zero potential.
• Thus, protects the system and equipment from damage.

1.5 GAS INSULATED SUBSTATION (GIS)

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 2 SURGE ARRESTER
2.1 Introduction
• A surge arrester is a device to protect electrical equipment from over-voltage transients caused by
external (lightning) or internal (switching) events. It is called a Surge Protection Device (SPD) or
Transient Voltage Surge Suppressor (TVSS).
• This class of device is used to protect equipment in power transmission and distribution systems.
For consumer equipment protection, different products called surge protectors are used.
• To protect a unit of equipment from transients occurring on an attached conductor, a surge arrester
is connected to the conductor just before it enters the equipment.
• The surge arrester is also connected to ground and functions by routing energy from an over-voltage
transient to ground if one occurs, while isolating the conductor from ground at normal operating
voltages. This is usually achieved through use of a varistor, which has substantially different
resistances at different voltages.

• Surge arresters are not generally designed to protect against a direct lightning strike to a conductor,
but rather against electrical transients resulting from lightning strikes occurring in the vicinity of the
conductor.

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• When a powerful surge or a lightning strikes a particular electrical system, it damages the whole
system and any electrical devices connected to the system.
• Electrical devices work at a certain voltage range. When these devices receive a voltage way higher
than the specified voltage sufficient for their operation, they blow up or get damaged.
• However, electrical systems that are protected by a surge arrester do not get damaged, because the
arrester ensures that the high voltage does not get into the electrical system.
• The purpose of using a surge arrester is to always limit the voltage across the terminals of the
equipment to be protected below its insulation withstand voltage.
• This is achieved by connecting elements with an extremely nonlinear voltage current characteristic
(varistor) in parallel to the terminals of the equipment.
• So, called metal oxide (MO) surge arresters containing ceramic MO elements mainly made from
zinc oxide (ZnO) and bismuth oxide are used nowadays.
• Due to the high non linearity of the material there is no need for series spark gaps any more as they
were used in silicon carbide (SiC) surge arresters.

2.2 Fundamentals of surge Arrester

➢ Surge causes travelling voltage wave
➢ Voltage would be enough to flashover
insulation
➢ Surge arrester high resistance at L-G
voltage (system voltage)
➢ Surge arrester low resistance at surge
voltage
➢ Surge is diverted to ground
➢ Surge arrester high resistance regain
after surge
➢ Conduction time is too short for
breakers to react

2.3 Definition of Surge Arrester :-

‘‘A protective device for limiting surge

voltages on equipment by diverting surge current and returning the device to its original
status. It is capable of repeating these
functions as specified.’’
[IEEE Standard C.62.11-2005]

Non-linear resistor type gapped surge arresters for A. C.

systems

Part 4: Metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps for A. C.

systems

Part 5: Selection and application recommendations

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2.4 Definitions of certain Terms used in Power System
2.4.1 Overvoltage.
Abnormal voltage between two points of a system that is greater than the highest value appearing
between the same two points under normal service conditions. Overvoltages may be low-frequency,
temporary and transient (surge).

2.4.2 Surge:-
A transient wave of current, potential, or power in an electric circuit; see IEEE Std C62.1-1989.
2.4.3 Lightning Surge.
➢ A transient electric disturbance in an
electric circuit caused by lightning; see IEEE
Std C62.11989.
➢ Lightning is a sudde electrostatic
discharge that occurs during a thunder storm.
This discharge occurs: Between electrically
charged regions of a cloud (called intra-cloud
lightning or IC)
➢ Between two clouds (CC lightning),
➢ Between a cloud and the ground (CG lightning).
➢ On an average, A lightning carries an electric
current of 30,000 amperes (30 kA), and transfers
15 coulombs of electric charge and 500 mega
joules of energy.

2.4.4 Lightning Overvoltage.

The crest voltage appearing across an arrester or
insulation caused by a lightning surge.
Lightning surge voltages that arrive at the line entrance of a station are caused either by:

I. A lightning flash terminating on the overhead shield wire or structure with a subsequent flashover
to the phase conductor (denoted as a back flash).
Types of Surge Arrester
✓ Silicon Carbide Arrester
✓ Metal Oxide Surge Arrester
Silicon Carbide Arresters (SIC)
• The Nonlinear lightning arrester basically consists of set of spark gaps in series with the silicon
carbide nonlinear resistor elements.
• Lightning arresters are connected between the phase conductors and ground.
• During normal system operating voltage conditions, the spark gaps are non-conducting and isolate
the high tension (HT) conductors from the ground.
• However, whenever an over voltage of magnitude dangerous to the insulation of the apparatus
protected occurs ( these over voltages or over surges may be caused due to lightning strikes on the

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 conductors or due to Extra High Voltage (EHV) switching) the spark gap breaks down and allows
the high voltage surge current to flow through the ground.

Metal Oxide Surge Arrester

• The surge arrester does not absorb all of the high voltage that passes through it.
• It simply diverts it to the ground or clamps it to minimize the voltage that passes through it.
• The secret to the arrester’s success in diverting lightning or high electrical surges is the MOV or the
Metal Oxide Varistor. MOV is a semiconductor that is highly sensitive to voltage.
• At normal voltages, the MOV works as an insulator and does not allow current to pass through. But
at high voltages, the MOV acts as a conductor.
• It works as a switch that is open when there is a standard AC voltage, and a switch that is closed
when lightning or high voltage is present.

Figure 94: Surge Counter or Monitor

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 3. CURRENT & VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
3.1 Instrument Transformer:
The transformers which supplying power to measuring instruments, meters & relays are known as
Instrument Transformers.
Instrument transformer

Current Voltage
Transformer
Transformer

3.2 Current Transformer

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16 | P a g e
3.3 Voltage Transformer:-

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 4. CIRCUIT BREAKERS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Circuit breakers are the sentinels of a power system. They are required to switch circuits ‘ON’, both
under normal and abnormal conditions. The character of their duty demands that they normally will be
in closed position carrying load, or in the open condition providing electrical isolation. They are called
upon to change from one condition to the other only occasionally and to perform their special function
of closing on to a faulty circuit or interrupting short circuit currents on very rare occasions. Hence, they
remain inoperative for long periods and are called upon to become active within a very short time of the
order of tens of milliseconds. On the other hand, the circuit breaker can be defined as a mechanical
device, capable of making, carrying current for a specific duration and breaking currents wider specific
abnormal conditions such as those of short circuits.
The interruption process starts at the very instant when a pair of electric contacts separate and continues
to as the contacts gap grows longer and the gap is bridged by the plasma. The interruption process is
completed when the conducting plasma is deprived of its conductivity. The conducting plasma is nothing
but the hot core of an electric ARC.
4.2 THE PROCESS OF CURRENT INTERUPTION
The figure below shows the wave shape of arc voltage. The voltage drop across the arc is called arc
voltage. As the arc path is purely resistive, the arc voltage is in phase with the arc current. The magnitude
of the arc voltage is very low, amounting to only a few per cent of the rated voltage (typically 3% of the
rated voltage).

4.3 Arc Extinction

There are mainly two methods

4.3.1 High resistance interruption (low & medium A.C. and all D.C. C.Bs)
In this method the arc is so controlled that its effective resistance increase with time so that the
current is reduced to a value insufficient to maintain it. This can be achieved by

a) Lengthening of the gap (rapid opening)

b) Cooling the arc (conduction, absorption)
c) Splitting the arc (in series)
d) Constraining the arc (constrained in to a narrow channel.

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4.3.2 Low resistance or current zero interruption (used for all high power A.c. C.Bs.)
In this method the arc resistance is kept low until the current zero where the arc extinguishes
naturally and is prevented from re-striking in spite of high re-striking voltage.

a) Recovery Rate Theory (Slepain’s theory)

b) Energy balance theory (Classic’s theory)

4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

4.4.1 The medium in which Current interruption takes place
The circuit breakers have been classified depending on the medium in which the arc
burns and the mechanism of arc control uses. They are the

a. Air Circuit Breakers (ACB)

b. Oil Circuit Breakers,
c. Air Blast Circuit Breakers,
d. Vacuum Circuit Breakers
e. SF6 Circuit Breakers.

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 5. Transformer and its Accessories
5.1 Introduction :-
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers as electrical energy between two
or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one coil of the
transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces a varying electromotive
force (emf) or "voltage" in a second coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils through
the magnetic field, without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of
induction discovered in 1831. Described this effect. Transformers are used to increase or
decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications. In other words Transformer is
that static electric device which interconnected two or more system voltages For an example, you
will find 220KV, 132KV and 33KV system voltages near a 220/132/33/ KV transformer.

5.2 Different Accessories of the transformer

5.2.1 Tank of the transformer:-
• Transformers are housed in metallic tanks, which are
structurally robust enough to withstand the loadings
such as full vacuum during processing of
transformers, oil pressure and concentrated point
loads of lifting, hauling, jacking, etc.
• The tank sizes reach the transportable limits and call
for a lot of ingenuity in the design to meet such
stringent conditions as minimum electrical
clearances from high voltage points of windings and
leads, and proper shaping to reduce oil quantity,
transportable profile suitable for loading on rail
wagons, transportable weight, etc.
• Structural steel mainly in sheet and plate form is
used in the fabrication of transformer tank. It is
economical to use high tensile strength (HTS) steel
plate, since by reducing the thickness of clamp plates, magnetic core area can be increased, resulting
in improvement in the utilization factor, which is standardised in IS: 2062.

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 5. Winding of Transformer
• As transformers operate on the principle of mutual
induction, each individual winding of a multiple
winding transformer supports the same number of
volts per turn, therefore the voltampere product in
each winding is the same i.e. NP/NS = VP/VS with
any turns ratio between the individual coil
windings being relative to the primary supply.
• Large power transformers use multiple-stranded
conductors as well, since even at low power
frequencies non-uniform distribution of current
would otherwise exist in high-current windings.
Each strand is individually insulated, and the
strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each
portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes
the current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding
itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding
manufacture.
5.2.3 Core of the Transformer:-
• A magnetic core is a piece of magnetic material
with a high magnetic permeability used to confine
and guide magnetic fields in the Transformer Core
of the transformer also provides the mechanical
strength to hold the winding of the transformer as
the winding tends to vibrate whenever AC supply
is being given to the winding.
• CRGO electrical steel with an approximate silicon
content of 3% is used for magnetic circuits of a
transformer. The following features influence selection of the type of steel sheet.

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 5.3.4 Bushing:-
• A bushing serves to insulate
conductors that are carrying
highvoltage current through a
grounded enclosure. To safely
accomplish such a task without a
flashover is a challenge, as the
dimensions of the bushing are very
small compared to the dimensions
of the equipment it is connecting.
Controlling the stress (ie, electrical
voltage, thermal current and
mechanical stress) to get the
dimensions right is of utmost
importance in terms of bushing
performance in the field during its
lifetime. Oil impregnated paper
(OIP) and resin-impregnated paper
(RIP) are the two main technologies
in high-voltage condenser
bushings. RIP technology is making
a valuable contribution to better
overall performance figures. The
somewhat differently designed
condenser core is vacuum
impregnated by a curable epoxy
resin to form a solid unit, free from
oil.
5.3.5 Insulating Oil:-
Insulating oil forms a very significant part of the
transformer insulation system and has the important
functions of acting as an electrical insulation as well
as a coolant to dissipate heat losses. The basic raw
material for the production of transformer oil is a
low-viscosity lube termed as transformer oil base
stock (TOBS), which is normally obtained by
fractional distillation and subsequent
treatment of crude petroleum. Important
characteristics of TOBS given in Table below must
be kept within permissible limits in order to produce
good insulating oils. TOBS is further refined by acid
treatment process to yield transformer oil.

5.3.6 Conservator
• Conservator tank is a cylindrical oil container used in high power transformers and is closed at both
the ends. On either side of the container, there is a large inspection cover to facilitate examination,
maintenance and cleaning of the conservator from within. The pipe from the main tank is projected
into the conservator from below, and its head is capped to avoid any kind of scum or residue from
entering the main tank.

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• The main function of conservator is to make sure that the
transformer main tank is filled up with insulating oil. The
level of transformer oil in the conservator tank is not a
matter of concern; what is important is that there must be
some oil in the tank for safe operation. The tank must
neither overflow nor be empty at any time in the process.
Empty tank should be avoided in low load and cold
environment, while overflowing should be avoided in full
load and heated environment. Instead of staying constant
or in a fixed amount, the oil level in the conservator tank
depends on the oil temperature, ambient temperature,
transformer loading and solar radiation. Considering the
change of oil level, the conservator tank is designed. As per the IEC, its design should be made
considering the temperature to range between -25°C and +110°C.
5.3.7 Breather
Whenever electrical power transformer is loaded, the temperature of the transformer insulating oil
increases, consequently the volume of the oil is increased. As the volume of the oil is increased, the
air above the oil level in conservator will come out. Again at low oil temperature; the volume of the
oil is decreased, which causes the volume of the oil to be decreased which again causes air to enter
into conservator tank. The natural air always consists of more or less moisture in it and this moisture
can be mixed up with oil if it is allowed to enter into the transformer. The air moisture should be
resisted during entering of the air into the transformer, because moisture is very harmful for
transformer insulation. A silica gel breather is the most commonly used way of filtering air from
moisture. Silica gel breather for transformer is connected with conservator tank by means of
breathing pipe.

The silica gel breather of transformer is very simple in the aspect of

design. It is nothing but a pot of silica gel through which, air passes
during breathing of transformer. The silica gel is a very good absorber
of moisture. Freshly regenerated gel is very efficient; it may dry down
air to a dew point of below -400C. A well maintained silica gel breather
will generally operate with a dew point of -350 C as long as a large
enough quantity of gel has been used. The picture shows a silica gel
breather of transformer

Working Principle of Silica Gel Breather

Silica gel crystal has tremendous capacity of absorbing moisture.
When air passes through these crystals in the breather; the moisture of
the air is absorbed by them. Therefore, the air velocity to the
conservator is quite dry, the dust particles in the air get trapped by the
oil in the oil seal cup. The oil in the oil sealing cup acts as barrier
between silica gel crystal and air when there is no flow of air through silica gel breather. The color of
silica gel crystal is dark blue but, when it absorbs moisture; it becomes pink.

When there is sufficient difference between the air inside the conservator and the outside air, the oil
level in two components of the oil seal changes until the lower oil level just reaches the rim of the
inverted cup, the air then moves from high pressure compartment to the low pressure compartment of
the oil seal. Both of these happen when the oil acts as core filter and removes the dust from the outside
air.

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 5.3.8 Radiator:-
• Radiator is a bank of hollow pipe line which is used to transfer the thermal energy from one medium
to another for the purpose of cooling. Some banks are used at the power transformer for cooling the
transformer oil as well as reduces the winding temperature under loading condition. The radiators
are connected to the transformer through pipe line at upper and lower side of the transformer which
is shown in the figure.
• Oil immersed power transformer is generally
provided with detachable pressed sheet
radiator with isolating valves. But in case of
small size distributing transformer, the
radiators are generally integrated parts of
transformer body and projected from the main
tank. The working principle of radiator is very
simple.
• It just increases the surface area for
dissipating heat of the oil. In case of electrical
power transformer, due to the transport
limitation, these units are sent
separately and assembled at site with
transformer main body.
• At the time of dispatching, the flings of
radiator are blanketed by gasket and
blanketing plates.
• The radiator valves on the main tank are also
blanketed by gasket and blanketing plates.
5.3.9 Buchholz Relay
• The Buchholz relay protects the
transformer from internal faults. It is the gas
actuated relay.
• The Buchholz relay is placed between the main
tank and the conservator.
• Such type of relay is used in the transformer
having rating higher than 500KVA. It is not used
in small transformer because of economic
consideration.
• Buchholz relay in transformer is an oil container
housed the connecting pipe from main tank to
conservator tank.
• It has mainly two elements. The upper element
consists of a float. The float is attached to a hinge
in such a way that it can move up and down
depending upon the oil level in the Buchholz Relay
Container.
• One mercury switch is fixed on the float. The alignment of mercury switch hence depends upon
the position of the float.
• The lower element consists of a baffle plate and mercury switch. This plate is fitted on a hinge
just in front of the inlet (main tank side) of Buchholz Relay in transformer in such a way that
when oil enters in the relay from that inlet in high pressure the alignment of the baffle plate along
with the mercury switch attached to it will change.

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 5.3.10 OLTC (On Load Tap Changer)
A tap changer is a device fitted to a transformer to regulate the output voltage to the required level.
This is done by changing the turn ratios of the transformers by connecting to a number of access points
known as ‘taps’ along either the primary or secondary winding. These tap changers are generally placed
on low-current high-voltage transformers to minimize the current load during operation. Tap changers
exist as two types – no load tap changers, and on load tap changers.

5.3.11 PRV (Pressure Release Valve):-

• The working principle of transformer pressure relief device is very simple. If pressure arises inside a
transformer and exceeds a pre-set pressure limit, the pressure safety valve opens its valve clap, which
is held by a spring and releases the internal pressure until it declines. After decrease of the pressure,
the pressure valve clap moves back to its original position and closes completely. Normally, the
pressure relief device will be mounted on top of the transformer. Due to internal faults, it is suggested
to have such pressure relief valves to protect the transformer and release arising pressure quite
suddenly.
• Pressure Relief Valve (PRV) trips when there is too much of gas pressure within the transformer oil
conservator. Gas pressure inside increases in transformer for two reasons.

1. Transformer is overloaded and

2. There is some fault in the transformer.

When transformer is overloaded the winding heats up and the oil expands in that heat. Oil
travels upward into the oil conservator. This makes room for gas in the conservator lesser and thus the
pressure increases.

When there is earth fault or phase to phase fault within the transformer, there will be enormous
heat. As a result methane, ethane, acetylene etc gases will be formed out of paper insulation and oil in
quick succession. Subsequently the PRV will trip.

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 5.3.12 Oil Temperature Indicator or OTI & Winding Temp. Indicator (WTI)
• This device is used to measure the top oil temperature. An oil temperature indicator or OTI is also
used for protection of transformer.
• This device measures the LV and HV winding temperature. A winding temperature indicator or
WTI is also used as protection of the transformer. The basic operating principle of WTI is same as
OTI.

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 6. BUS BAR ARRANGEMENT IN SUBSTATION
6.1 Introduction
There are different electrical bus system schemes available. But selection of a particular scheme
depends upon the system voltage, position of substation in electrical power system, flexibility needed
in system and cost to be expensed. The main criteria are to be considered during selection of one
particular bus bar arrangement scheme among others:

1. Simplicity of system.
2. Easy maintenance of different equipments.
3. Minimizing the outage during maintenance.
4. Future provision of extension with growth of demand
5. Optimizing the selection of bus bar arrangement scheme so that it gives maximum return from
the system.

6.2 Types of Bus Bar Scheme

a. Single/ Radial Bus
b. Single Bus system with Sectionalizer
c. Ring Bus
d. One Main One Transfer Bus
e. Two Main or Double Bus
f. Double Bus with Bypass arrangement
g. Double Bus Double Breaker
h. Two Main one Transfer Bus
i. One and Half Breaker

6.2.1 Single/ Radial Bus system

Single Bus System is simplest and cheapest one. In this scheme all the feeders and transformer bay
are connected to only one single bus as show.

Advantages of Single Bus System

a. This is very simple in design.
b. This is very cost effective scheme.
c. This is very convenient to operate.

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Disadvantages of Single Bus System
a. One major difficulty of this type of arrangement is that, without interrupting the feeder or
transformer connected to that bay, maintenance of equipment of any type is not possible.
b. The indoor 11 KV switch boards have quite often single bus bar arrangement.

6.2.2 Single Bus System with Sectionalizer:-

With this design, there is an ease of operation of the substation. This design also places minimum
reliance on signalling for satisfactory operation of protection. Additionally, there is the facility to
support the economical operation of future feeder bays.

Some advantages are realized if a single bus bar is sectionalized with circuit breaker. If there are more
than one incoming and the incoming sources and outgoing feeders are evenly distributed on the sections
as shown in the figure 14, interruption of system can be reduced to a good extent.

Advantages of Single Bus System with Bus Sectionalizer

a. If any of the sources is out of system, still all loads can be fed by switching on the sectional
circuit breaker or bus coupler breaker.
b. If one section of the bus bar system is under maintenance, part load of the substation can be
fed by energizing the other section of bus bar.

6.2.3 Ring/ Mesh Bus :-

• Operation of two circuit breakers is required to connect or disconnect a circuit, and disconnection
involves opening of a mesh.
• Circuit breakers may be maintained without loss of supply or protection, and no additional bypass
facilities are required.
• Bus bar faults will only cause the loss of one circuit breaker. Breaker faults will involve the loss
of a maximum of two circuits.
• Generally, not more than twice as many outgoing circuits as in feeders are used in order to
rationalise circuit equipment load capabilities and ratings.

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 The schematic diagram of the system is given in the figure. It provides a double feed to each feeder
circuit, opening one breaker under maintenance or otherwise does not affect supply to any feeder.
6.2.4 One Main One Transfer Bus
This is an alternative of double bus system. The main concept of Main and Transfer Bus System is,
here every feeder line is directly connected through an isolator to a second bus called Transfer Bus.
The said isolator in between transfer bus and feeder line is generally called bypass isolator. The Main
Bus is as usual connected to each feeder through a bay consisting of circuit breaker and associated
isolators at both side of the breaker. There is one bus coupler bay which couples transfer bus and main
bus through a circuit breaker and associated isolators at both sides of the breaker. If necessary, the
transfer bus can be energized by main bus power by closing the transfer bus coupler isolators and then
breaker.

So, it can be concluded that in Main and Transfer Bus System the maintenance of circuit breaker is
possible without any interruption of power. Because of this advantage, the scheme is very popular
for 33 KV and 132 KV system.

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6.2.5 Two Main or Double Bus
In double bus bar system two identical bus bars are used in such a way that any outgoing or incoming
feeder can be taken from any of the bus. Actually every feeder is connected to both of the buses in
parallel through individual isolator as shown in the figure.

By closing any of the isolators one can put the feeder to associated bus. Both the buses are
energized and all feeders are divided into two groups, one group is fed from one bus and the other
group from another bus. But any feeder at any time can be transferred from one bus to other. There
is one bus coupler breaker which should be kept closed during bus transfer operation. For transfer
operation, one should first close the bus coupler circuit breaker, then close the isolator associated
with the bus to where the feeder would be transferred and then open the isolator associated with the
bus from where feeder is transferred. Lastly after this transfer operation, he/she should open the bus
coupler breaker.
6.2.6 Two Main one Transfer Bus
a. In this two main buses are available.
b. They are called Bus-I & Bus-II.
c. One more bus is available. This is not Main Bus. We call as the Transfer Bus or Auxiliary Bus
or Temporary Bus.

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6.2.7 One and Half Breaker
This is an improvement on the double breaker scheme to effect saving in the number of circuit breakers.
For every two circuits only one spare breaker is provided. The protection is however complicated since
it must associate the central breaker with the feeder whose own breaker is taken out for maintenance.
For the reasons given under double breaker scheme and because of the prohibitory costs of equipment
even this scheme is not much popular. As shown in the figure, it is a simple design. Two feeders are
fed from two different buses through their associated breakers and these two feeders are coupled by a
third breaker which is called tie breaker. Normally all the three breakers are closed and power is fed
to both the circuits from two buses which are operated in parallel. The tie breaker acts as coupler for
the two feeder circuits.

During failure of any feeder breaker, power is fed through the breaker of the second feeder and tie
breaker. Therefore, each feeder breaker has to be rated to feed both the feeders, coupled by tie breaker.

Advantages of One and A Half Breaker Bus System

During any fault on any one of the buses, that faulty bus will be cleared instantly without
interrupting any feeder in the system since all feeders will continue to feed from the other healthy
bus.

Disadvantages of One and A Half Breaker Bus System

This scheme is much more expensive due to investment for third breaker.

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 7. SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF SUBSTATION

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 8. STATE LOAD DISPATCH CENTRE (SLDC)
8.1 INTRODUCTION
➢ The present power system network comprises hundreds of Generating units interconnected by
transmission links at different voltage levels and distribution network spread over vast
geographical stretches.
➢ The power system is dynamic in nature by virtue of inherent characteristics and continuous
exposure to human, environmental and other physical influences.
➢ Ensuring a reliable supply of electricity is enormously complex technical challenge.

➢ To achieve a reliable & quality supply, the power system must be operated within the
prescribed standards,
➢ This can be achieved through extensive co-ordination between various Users of the electricity
supply chain such as Generators, Transmission & Distribution Licensees.
The System Operators at various control centres provide the co-ordination services those are vital for
operating the system within the operating limits to ensure grid security.

8.2 Constitution of State Load Despatch Centre

(1) The State Government shall establish a Centre for each region to be known as the State Load
Despatch Centre for the purposes of exercising the powers and discharging the functions under
this part.
(2) The State Load Despatch Centre shall be operated by a Government Company or any authority
or corporation established or constituted by or under any State Act, as may be notified by the
State Government

Provided that until a Government company or any authority or corporation is notified by the State
Government, the State Transmission Utility shall operate the State Load Despatch Centre;

Provided further that, no State Load Despatch Centre shall engage in the business of trading in
electricity.
CSG/ISGS BSA
ABT

DISTCOS
OHPC PPA OPTCL
[TRANSMISSION LICENSEE ]

PPA GRIDCO
OPGC [POWER PURCHASE & BULK SUPPLY ]

PPA
OTHER STATES
IPP

LoI
CGP

33 | P a g e
8.3 Statutory Function of State Load Despatch Centre
SLDC is responsible for carrying out real time operations of grid control and despatch of electricity
within the state through secure and economic operation of the state grid in accordance with the Grid
Standards and Grid Code.

Exercises supervision and control over the intra-state transmission system.

Responsible for optimum scheduling and despatch of electricity within the state, in accordance with
the contracts entered into with the licensees or the generating companies operating in the state
control area.

Keeps accounts of quantity of electricity transmitted through the state grid.

To accomplish the statutory functions the following responsibilities are being under taken by SLDC.

a) Real time operation of State Grid:

i. Round the clock system operation for real time monitoring.

ii. Scrutinizing & approval of clearances for various shutdowns & daily scheduling.
iii. Operation of various system operational / management information reports including
grid disturbances reports.

b) Operational Analysis:

i. System studies
ii. Coordination of various meetings within SLDC
iii. Analysis of system protection aspects
iv. Development of Restoration / Islanding / Black start procedures
v. System Data Compilation & Updating

8.4 Activities of the State Load Despatch Center (SLDC):

Facilitates: Integrated Grid operation for Quality, Security & Reliability of power supply in the
State of Odisha in coordination with ERLDC.

Coordinates: Drawal schedule from State Sector Generators, CGPs, Bilateral trading and Open
Access.

Issues : Clearance for outage of elements for maintenance work including State Sector Generators

Supplies: Management information about performance of system operation

Supports: Users in power system studies

Monitors: Generation of State power stations, power flow in major lines & tie lines frequency and
voltage, open access transactions, ISGS drawal schedule.

Endeavours: To maintain network security and grid discipline.

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8.5 CURRENT ACTIVITIES OF SLDC:
Demand Forecasting

➢ Day ahead demand estimation

➢ Week / Month ahead demand estimation Monthly / Yearly Load-Generation Balance Report

Scheduling

➢ Generation scheduling (SGS/ IPP/ CGP support)

➢ DISCOM entitlement
➢ DISCOM drawal
➢ ISGS (Central Sector) drawal scheduling

Real time Grid Operation

➢ Real time Generation/ Drawal/ System Parameter Monitoring

➢ Generation Despatch
➢ Demand Management
➢ Coordination with ERLDC & all Users
➢ Consent for Open Access transactions
➢ Computation of Plant Availability Factor for Hydro Generators
➢ Issue of outage permission for transmission element & Generators
➢ Restoration, Black Start, Event Logging & disturbance analysis

Reporting

➢ Daily / Weekly/ Monthly/ Quarterly/ Annual Report

➢ Energy Accounting
➢ State Energy Accounting
➢ UI charge Billing
➢ CAPEX plan, SLDC ARR
➢ Billing & Collection of SLDC charges

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 9. POWER TRADING OPEN & ACCESS
➢ The Electricity Act, 2003 mandated Open Access to the Transmission System. This Act provides
for non-discriminatory Open Access in the Transmission System.
➢ Open Access (OA) in Inter State Transmission System (ISTS) has been implemented in all the
Regions since 6thMay 2004 as per provision in the Electricity Act 2003. CERC

has notified open access Regulations. The Regulations aim for non-discriminatory usage of the
transmission system by customers after payment of appropriate charges.
➢ The State Commission has also notified Intra State Open Access Regulation for use of State
Transmission System (STS) and Distribution System inside the State.
➢ Access can be granted under three categories: Long –term, Medium-term and Shortterm.
➢ Long-term access is granted for usage of ISTS for a period exceeding 12 years but not exceeding
25 years,
➢ Medium term access is granted for usage of ISTS for a period exceeding 3 months up to three years
while the Short-term access is for a maximum period of three months with separate applications for
one calendar month or part.
➢ The grid operator declares the anticipated power transfer capability available in the transmission
system for the succeeding month after conducting system study.
➢ Open access in transmission system introduces trading of electricity in the country and created
power market. Exchange of power between Regions / States took place, which attracted investors
for installation of power plants.
➢ It has a multiplier effect on the entire power sector by promoting competition, efficiency and
economy.
➢ The RLDCs and SLDCs are playing a key role in facilitating and scheduling these transactions
without compromising on the security and reliability of the grid.
➢ The regional transmission system and the inter-regional links are being utilized to transport surplus
hydro generation in north eastern region and pithead generation in the Eastern region to the energy
deficit load centres in the northern, western and southern regions.
➢ The inter-regional exchanges have increased manifold after introduction of open access. Almost all
utilities in the grid have taken advantage of the open access provisions and transactions have taken
place in all possible directions in the country say from North-east to North (e.g. Tripura to Haryana),
North to South (e.g. Punjab to Andhra Pradesh), South to North (e.g. Kerala to Punjab), West to
North (e.g. Gujarat to Uttar Pradesh), North to West (e.g. Punjab to Maharashtra) and East to all
other corners of the country.
➢ The electricity trade in the country has been increased substantially after coming up of new
generating stations and establishment of organized platform for trading in the form of Power
Exchange (PX).

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 10. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF OPTCL NETWORK

37 | P a g e
 11. FORMATION OF NATIONAL GRID
CAPACITY- 3,30,860.58 MW

States under-
NR – J&K, H.P, Punjab,
Hariyana, Rajstan, Delhi,
U.P, Uttaranchal
WR – Gujrat, Maharastra,
Goa, M.P, Chatisgarh
SR – Karnataka, A.P,
Tamilnadu, Kerala,
Puduchery
ER – Orissa, Bihar,
Jharkhanda, W.B, Sikkim.
NER - Meghalaya,
Arunanchal Prades, Assam,
Nagaland, Manipur,
Mizoram, Tripura

The National Grid was formed as a result of Synchronisation of ER-NER-WR-NR-SR. At present a 3,

30,860.58 (approx.) capacity Grid is operating in a single integrated network, Thousands of rotors are
rotating in the same speed (Frequency) connected by thousand Kms of transmission network.

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11.1 INTER CONNECTION BETWEEN NATIONAL GRID OF INDIA

91 ,593.38 MW 32 ,741.08 MW NE
N

Power Supplier
1 ,08,080.89 MW

W ISLANDS - 52.15 MW

S
94 ,473.61 MW
CAPTIVE - 40 ,726 MW
11.2 COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NATIONAL GRID

11.3 Power System Operation

To ensure integrated operation of the power system in a concerned region, the following apex bodies
have been formed:

1. National Load Despatch Centre, New Delhi with a backup Centre at Kolkata – at Central level
2. Regional Load despatch Centre such as ERLDC, NERLDC, NRLDC, SRLDC & WRLDC –
at regional level
3. State Load Despatch Centre situated at different State Capitals - at State level

39 | P a g e
11.4 INSTALLED CAPACITY OF STATE OWNED GENERATING STATIONS
All figure in MV
SL. No. Name of The Power Installed Capacity (MW)
Station
State Sector (HYDRO) - OHPC
1 Burla Power House 2x49.5 275.5
2x32
3x37.5
2 Chiplima Power House 3x24 72
3 Balimela Power House 6x60 + 2x75 510
4 Rengali Power House 5x50 250
5 Upper Kolab Power House 4x80 320
6 Indravati Power House 4x150 600
7 Machhkund Power House ( 50% of (3x17 + 3x21.25) 57.375
Odisha Share 30%, Purchase
upto 20% extra)

Sub-Total 2084.875
State Sector (THERMAL)
1 TTPS Stage - I (NTPC) 4x60 240
2 TTPS Satge - II (NTPC) 2x110 220
3 IB TPS (OPGC) 2x210 420
Sub-Total 880

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