KALAGAN FEMALE CHARACTERS IN THE SELECTED MYTHOLOGICAL

STORIES FROM “OMAN-OMAN NG MGA KALAGAN”

A Thesis
Presented to
The Thesis Committee
Department of Teacher Education
UM Tagum College, Tagum City

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Bachelor of Secondary Education
Major in English

PHOEBE M. ARIMAO
MAYBELYN B. INAGAKI
MAE MARIE A. MAEBANO

JUNE 2024
 INTRODUCTION

The Kalagans, also called Kagan, Kaagan, or Caragan in Spanish, are one of

the native people of Mindanao, mostly occupying the Davao Gulf. As a result

of Islamic influence during the 1500’s, the Kalagans were divided into two: (1)

Tagakaulu Kalagans, and; (2) Tagakaolo Kalagans. Almost all Tagakaolo

Kalagans became Muslims, while Tagakaulu Kalagans remained animists,

passing on the spiritual practices of their forefathers from one generation to

the other (Joshua Project). In the present times, the distinction between

Tagakaulu and Tagakaolo are not as pronounced, but collectively, they are

still considered Kalagan. They are known as farmers, and some who live

along the coastlines are skilled in fishing. Due to their settlement along the

coastline, Kalagan men are the ones to warn their communities of possible

attacks that may endanger the tribe; Hence, the word Kaag, which means

fellow, to inform, or to keep secret (Academic Accelerator). While the tribe is

considered as Lumad, or natives, collectively, they also identify as Moro, one

of the prominent tribes of Mindanao. Despite modernization and globalization,

Kalagan culture is still present, in the form of food, clothing, music, and, of

course, literature. This study dives deep into the role of female characters in

the selected stories from Moslima Pacio’s Oman-oman ng mga Kalagan

(1984), a reflection of Kalagan society from old times.

Like most cultures, there are assigned roles to the men and women of

Kalagan. Men tended to engage in activities which involved hunting and

community decision making, while women concentrated on agricultural tasks

and household responsibilities. Like other natives, or Lumad, the tribe’s way

of living was simple, primitive, and nature-oriented during the pre-Spanish

colonial era. The system of worship was that of the Diwata system, while their

governance followed the Bagani system. The Lumads are paternalistic in

governance, with titles given to men within the royal bloodline. These men are

called various names like Bagani, Datu, Rajah, and Sultan (Province of Davao

del Norte). Male rulers have the privilege to marry more than one wife to

maintain power or show prestige. Usually, the marriage is kept closely tied

between related families, specifically, second cousins. Division of labor is also

present within the tribe, as it is ingrained in the culture that men provide and

women take charge in domestic deeds.

Kalagan’s literary pieces are mainly short stories from the olden days.

These stories have a common denominator: women are either beautiful yet

sickly, or a reward given to a man in the form of marriage. Thus, a

discrepancy in the space taken by men in said stories as a handsome young

man or a prominent ruler of the banwa, or community. Gender inequality

thrives within the culture, as implied in the literary works of the tribe.

Feministic approach to these literary works is not yet present; Thus, the need

to conduct this study.

The issue of gender inequality is universally talked about by the world.

More often than usual, female characters in literary works are portrayed as

complimentary characters, oftentimes the receiving end of a man’s helping

hand for the sake of boosting the man’s prestige as a savior, or the other half

of a marriage offered to as reward according to the ruler’s decree. A term

coined by Gail Simone, “Fridging Women” is used to describe the

marginalization or assaulting of female characters. In other words, the other

sex, as opposed to the men that are often portrayed as the subject. There
becomes no room for women to achieve self-actualization in a story

(Beauvoir, 317).

One study entails Nigerian universities making extensive efforts to

solve the problem of gender culture by making gender centers and adapting

gender equity policies. Using purposive sampling and collecting data from

various Nigerian universities that have adapted gender equity policies, the

study was conducted. However, there is a failure of boosting women into

academic leadership positions because of the content and enactment of

institutional gender policies that are gendered and reinforce systems of

inequality (Igeibor, 1).

In line with that, African culture is also strict when it comes to

distribution of roles based on one’s biological make-up. Gender differentiation

was what resulted in the early childhood beliefs that women are weak and

inferior to men. The study consisted of analysis in African folklore in hopes to

answer the following: (1) the impact of folklore in socialization between young

boys and girls; (2) the extent of folklore’s impact on gender relations, and; (3)

the role of stories and storytelling in maintaining the transformation of

stereotypic gender role behavior. The results show that women in African

folklore were portrayed through the lens of the patriarchy (Masoga et al, 1).

One study in Indonesia is made to uncover gender stereotypes within

the works of female Indonesian authors through linguistic expressions. Using

ideological and gynocritical feminism, figures, stereotypes, history, style,

theme, genre, profession, structure, customs, traditions, and culture were

discovered to have influenced the mindset of said female authors. For

instance, women are marked at birth, as pink for girls and blue for boys, a

stereotype that transcends from one culture to another. According to

Javanese scriptures, women are merak ati (releasing sweetness and showing

beauty), gemati (nourishing family), and luluh (her heart and feelings are

intertwined with her husband and family). The three traits stated are direct

opposites of the male qualities. Further examined, these adaptations are not

biological, but cultural, which can be swapped by place and time (Junaidi, 5-

6).

Additionally, there is an existing study about the ‘Women in

Refrigerators’ trope, tackling the roles of female characters from Greek

mythology. This trope refers to the disempowerment or maiming of female

characters to propel the character development of a male protagonist

(Irankunda). Several female characters such as: Medea, Medusa, Arethusa,

Andromeda, Danae, Daphne, Eurydice, Antigone, Helen, and Cassandra

were analyzed, in hopes of suggesting to authors about avoiding the said

trope be repeated in literary works (Bangasin, 8).

Currently, the only present analysis of Kalagan literature including

stories from Oman-oman ng mga Kalagan is archetypal. By using this

approach, the results indicate that the most frequently occurring symbols are:

sweetheart, heart, marriage, work, lover, past days, physical strength, life,

world, feast, days and nights, trouble, death, healing, snake, secret,

handkerchief, ring, and more (Sultio and Gomez, 1).

This study follows a cultural feministic approach to literary criticism.

Cultural Feminism is a theory established to emphasize essential differences

between men and women. Essential differences are divided into two: (1)

biological, and; (2) cultural. Those who accept that differences are biological

believe that they are a part of human nature. On the other hand, those who

believe that essential differences are cultural conclude that these differences

are so ingrained in the culture that it is persistent. The vision of this theory is

to highlight the important roles of women in the context of sisterhood (Lewis).

As mentioned above, Kalagan women have roles in the stories that are either

accepted as natural essential differences or cultural essential differences.

Following this model, the cultural feminist theory is applicable when

there are certain systems of power that enable oppression to exist solely

because it is, well, culture. Kalagan stories from the material source often

have recurring roles of being sickly, a reward for a man through marriage, a

longing lover, or a devoted wife. The patriarchal system present in the stories

reinforce the stereotypes of Kalagan women within the literary piece.

As mentioned, there is a need to highlight gender-centered problems

within the Kalagans through examining their literature. Through the pursuance

of this study, an in-depth analysis of Kalagan literature in the feminist

perspective is a stepping stone to further studies including Kalagan women

and their present standing in society as a result of their history in their own

communities.

In the Oman Kagan cultural context, the story of Pastora Acubena

underscores the deeply ingrained gender norms and the limited independence

of women, particularly when it comes to making marriage-related decisions.

Pastoras story mostly reflects outside factors that shaped her path, like
parental choices and social norms. In response, cultural feminism promotes

women's agency and emphasizes their self-governance in making decisions.

The story gently upholds traditional gender roles by assuming that women will

follow social mores. These assumptions are challenged by cultural feminism,

which leads to a wider appreciation of women's abilities and contributions.

Narratives that highlight women's inner strength and perseverance are

essential, as seen by Pastora's transformational path, which is dependent on

outside assistance. The goals of cultural feminism are to upend gender

stereotypes, empower women, and foster a culture that values the diversity

and autonomy of women. Cultural feminism essentially offers a framework for

rewriting stories such as Pastora Acubena's, promoting women's autonomy,

and opposing the limitations imposed by conventional gender roles.

Cultural feminism contributes by fostering awareness and dialogue

about the imperative of women's autonomy. It encourages the formulation and

dissemination of alternative narratives that underscore women's agency and

resilience, countering the reinforcement of traditional gender roles. Through

cultural feminist perspectives, society can better value and celebrate the

diverse experiences and capabilities of women, establishing a foundation for

dismantling restrictive norms and advancing gender equality.

Research Questions

1. What roles do Kalagan women play in the story?

2. How are Kalagan women’s lives portrayed in the work?

3. What are the character developments of Kalagan women throughout

the story’s progress?

 METHOD

Research Materials/Instrument

This study will rely on Moslima Pacio’s Oman-oman ng mga Kalagan, a

compilation of the tribe’s literary works, short stories and poems in particular.

Selected stories will be chosen from the book for analysis of the content and

characters. The stories are written in Kalagan language, so the researchers

will work closely with Kalagan cultural masters in the vicinity of Barangay

Madaum to validate the translated versions of the stories.

Research Design and Procedure

The researchers will use literary analysis through the lens of cultural

feminism proposed by Adrienne Rich, Mary Daly, and Susan Griffin. Literary

analysis is defined as closely studying a text and interpreting its meaning. It is

a type of analysis that involves scrutinizing elements like the language,

perspective, and structure of the text (Caulfield, 1). Further, the analysis of

Kalagan literature will be in a feminist approach, tackling the existing gender

issues in the story, and how the selected female characters live within the

pieces of literature. Five Kagan female characters from ‘Oman-oman ng mga

Kalagan’ will be analyzed in this study, namely: Pasaya from O, Kay Pasaya,

Pastora Acubena, Ina from sawupak, Putri Rangkamanis and Bayi from Putri

Rangkamanis.
 First, the stories written in Kalagan language will be translated to

English with the guidance of cultural masters from the tribe itself. After

verifying the translated short stories, the researchers will closely analyze the

story, starting with identifying the female characters of the selected short

stories. Going forward, the researchers will determine the characters’ roles

within the stories, and how pivotal or insignificant they might be for the

progression of the plot. In addition, the researchers will also determine the

patriarchal system within the stories, and will expound how the said factor

affected the female Kalagan characters.

Ethical Considerations

Tribes must be truly equal partners in study design, interpretation, and

publication. Academic researchers must be familiar in the areas of

sovereignty, ethics, and informed consent (Harding et al, 6). Informed consent

is described as permission given by an individual for a set of procedures

(DeRenzo, 1). Of course, before in-depth analysis of Kalagan female

characters in Oman-oman ng mga Kalagan, the researchers will obtain

consent from the cultural masters for their guidance, particularly in translation.

Also, the researchers will ask permission from the University of Mindanao

(Tagum Branch) for an exemption to exclude research participants for the

study, since the reference for the study will be a book titled Oman-oman ng

mga Kalagan by Pacio, Moslima S., published in 1984.

Tribal sovereignty includes the right to govern one’s community, the ability to

preserve one’s culture, and the right to control one’s economy (Federal Bar

Association). This study will respect the authority of Kalagan cultural masters
by seeking validation of the translated English version of the Kalagan short

stories.

Based on well-established moral principles, ethics dictates what people

should do. These principles are typically expressed in terms of rights, duties,

benefits to society, justice, or particular qualities (Velasquez et al). The

research ethics will set a moral standard that this study will adhere to. After

analyzing the stories using the study's theoretical framework, the researchers

will speak with cultural experts on the role of women in the past in close-knit

tribal societies in order to further establish legitimacy. This is to make sure

that the experiences of women in literature and actual circumstances are

consistent.

The selected female Kagan characters from 'Oman-oman ng mga

Kalagan' are as follows:

Pasaya. She is a woman who is left alone as er husband finds work in

another place. She is a loyal wife, waiting for her husband to return.

Pastora Acubena. She was once a weak woman due to her illness,

but after bathing in the Jordan River, she became well. She became the wife

of the Datu's son after he took interest in her.

Ina. She is the mother of Sawupak. After waiting for a long time, she

gave birth to Sawupak, but because of her wish, her words were taken

literally, so Sawupak was born incomplete.

Putri Rangkamanis. The protagonist of Putri Rangkamanis. She is the

youngest daughter of the Sultan, and the loyal wife of the Giant Snake. Due to
her loyalty, she did her best to keep his name a secret, and she also went

through lengths to find her husband.

Bayi. The mother of Putri Rangkamanis, and the wife of Sultan. She is

a sick lady, but because of the Giant Snake, she was healed from her illness.

This section discusses the selected female characters, their roles,

portrayal, and character development as the story progresses.

CHARACTER ROLES/TROPE PORTRAYAL CHARACTER

DEVELOPMENT

Pasaya is Pasaya, until the very

portrayed as end, was consistent
someone who waits to her role as a
for her partner’s woman waiting for
return from working her husband to
in a distant place. return.

“Magaono ako,

Adon na wa da
kaw
Pasaya (o, Woman-in-
Adon na mawat da
Kay Pasaya!) waiting
Magaono pa ako?”

The verse implies

that Pasaya is
unaware of her
next steps in the
absences of her
 partner. Her
character shows
the feeling of
confusion and
restlessness.

“Dumuduma ng
madyaw

Yang kanmo
pyaglawongan

Na ako gayid yang

pasaya mo

Na ako gayid yang

akawoyan mo”

This verse shows

further of her
character: she finds
assurance from her
partner that no
other woman is
equal to her in his
heart. She equates
her value as that of
something her
partner holds. Not
only that, but she
wants to be
assured that only
she will have the
mercy and pity of
her husband,
 equating her value
to that of the
receiving end.

“Kasowat kaw ng
ginawa ko

Kusug kaw ng
badan ko”

Finally, the last two

lines signify that
her joy and
strength is
dependent on her
partner, which
further supports her
trope as a woman-
in-waiting.

Pastora Acubena She was sickly at

was portrayed as first, but she got
the sickly daughter better by bathing in
of Tamisa, a poor the Jordan River.
person without There was no proper
much wealth. No narration of the love
Pastora The Sickly
matter how much story between her
Acubena Daughter, The
the family sought and the datu’s son-
Marriage
for help from she got married and
Partner
healers, no one lived with her in-laws
was able to cure in a far place away
her of her fatal from her parents. The
sickness. She was title of the story is her
healed by bathing name, but her lines
in the Jordan River. are non-existent.

Additionally, she
was the marriage
partner of the son
of the datu that
made her bathe in
the river while
granting wealth to
her family. She
became a marriage
partner because
the datu’s son took
interest in her.
During the process,
not even a word of
consent or
agreement was
heard from her. It
was only Tamisa
and the datu that
actively planned
the marriage, thus,
making her
presence very
passive for an
event that was
supposed to be set
for her. The literary
piece did not
mention any point
 of view from her
perspective. What
this implies is that
the datu was sure
that his goodwill will
be repaid through
marriage between
his son and
Pastora Acubena,
as if the reward
was Acubena
herself.

Sawupak’s mother Her character was

(ina) was portrayed unable to bear a child
at the very at the beginning, but
beginning of the after her visit to the
story. The story Sultan and praying to
opened with the God, she was
husband and wife’s granted the ability to
Ina (Sawupak) The Traditional inability to bear conceive, but she
Wife children. It was her gave birth to only half
husband that of Sawupak’s body. In
questioned her the end of the story,
about their lack of she remained as a
offspring, and so, mother towards
as a solution, she Sawupak, no other
said that she will development
visit the Sultan for a highlighted.
remedy. When she
successfully gave
birth to a child, she
was asked yet
 again about the
incomplete body of
her son.

Tag-Allang replied
to Sawupak that
the reason why he
was incomplete
was because his
mother wished for
‘sampingis’, or half,
putting the blame
on the desperate
wishes of a mother.
Her words were
taken literally by an
‘omnipotent’ being,
ironically so, since
such an existence
is expected to be
all-knowing.

Her role is that of a

wife in a traditional
household. In many
cultures, marriage
was made between
men and women to
reproduce
offsprings,
especially
pressuring on the
 woman’s part, as
the issue of
infertility and the
offspring’s health is
often thrown at her,
instead of the
husband, who is
also a part of the
conception
process.

Rangkamanis was She was a princess

portrayed as a throughout the story.
reward for the giant She fell in love with
snake after healing her handsome
the Sultan’s wife husband and was
(Rangkamanis’ loyal even at the end
Putri The Loyal Wife
mother) in a rather of the story.
Rangkamanis
The Reward eccentric manner.
The giant snake
was enamored, so
he said to the
Sultan that he
wanted to marry his
daughter. The
Sultan, her father,
immediately agreed
upon marriage as a
prize for the snake,
not taking into
account
Rangkamanis’
feelings.
Rangkamanis ruled
it out as an ‘order’,
something she will
not be able to do
anything about.

In their marriage,
Rangkamanis was
a loyal wife to her
husband. The
snake told her that
she should keep
his name in secret,
or he will forget her.
Her loyalty became
the catalyst for her
other sisters’
violence towards
her, almost leading
to her death.
However, her
husband was still
adamant in keeping
his real name a
secret. When in the
verge of abuse,
Rangkamanis
revealed the name
as a response to
the unbearable
pain brought by her
sisters’ actions, so
her husband
 disappeared. She
searched for him
tirelessly, going
through an arduous
journey and even
became a servant
for him.

Bayi, Putri Her character is

Rangkamanis’ passive, not much
mother, was sickly was said about her
in the story. The other than being the
story started with a Sultan’s wife and the
statement of her reason for the story’s
Bayi (Putri The Sickly Wife
uncurable illness, plot development.
Rangkamanis)
so the Sultan
announced a
decree that
whoever heals her
will have one of his
daughters as a
wife. The giant
snake, without
permission,
sneakily intruded
the private
chambers of Bayi.
The snake healed
her through a
disturbing mean: he
licked her entire
body, from head to
toe, as stated in the
 story. The Sultan
did not even ask
about the means of
healing his wife, but
instantly rewarded
the snake.

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