Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

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 Introduction
• Operational amplifier(Op-amp) is a direct coupled high-gain amplifier consisting
of one or more differential amplifiers followed by a level shifter and output stage.
• Operational amplifier is a circuit building block of universal importance.
• One of the reasons for the popularity of the op amp is its versatility. one can do
almost anything with op amps.
• IC op amp has characteristics that closely approach the assumed ideal. This
implies that it is quite easy to design circuits using the IC op amp.
• Op-amp circuits work at performance levels that are quite close to those predicted
theoretically.

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 History
• Operational amplifiers (Op amps) have been in use for a long time, their initial
applications being primarily in the areas of analog computation and sophisticated
instrumentation.
• Early op amps were constructed from discrete components (vacuum tubes and
then transistors, and resistors), and their cost was prohibitively high (tens of
dollars).
• In the mid-1960s the first integrated circuit (IC) op amp was produced. This unit
(the µA 709) was made up of a relatively large number of transistors and resistors
all on the same silicon chip.
• Although its characteristics were poor (by today's standards) and its price was still
quite high.
• Finally semiconductor manufacturers designed high-quality op amps at extremely
low prices (tens of cents).

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 THE IDEAL OP AMP
The Op-Amp Terminals
• From a signal point-of-view the op amp has three
terminals: two input terminals (terminal 1 and 2)
and one output terminal (terminal 3).
Figure1
• Amplifiers require dc power to operate. Most IC op Circuit symbol for the op amp
amps require two dc power supplies, as shown in
Figure 2.
• Two terminals, 4 and 5, are brought out of the op-
amp package and connected to a positive voltage
Vcc and a negative voltage -VEE, respectively.

Figure 2 The op amp shown

connected to dc power supplies
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 THE IDEAL OP AMP
The Op-Amp Terminals
• In Figure 2(b), the two dc power supplies, as
batteries, with a common ground, is shown.
• The reference grounding point in op-amp circuits is
just the common terminal of the two power supplies;
that is, no terminal of the op-amp package is
physically connected to ground.
• In addition to the three signal terminals and the two
power-supply terminals, an op amp may have other Figure 3 The op amp shown
terminals for specific purposes like frequency connected to dc power supplies
compensation and offset nulling.

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 THE IDEAL OP AMP
Exercise 1.
What is the minimum number of terminals required by a single op amp? What is the
minimum number of terminals required on an integrated-circuit package containing
four op amps (called a quad op amp)?
Answer-
➢ The minimum number of terminals required by a single op amp = 5
(2 Input terminals, one output terminals, two dc power supplies VCC and –VEE)
➢The minimum number of terminals required on an integrated-circuit package
containing four op amps = 14
(3 input and output terminals for each op-amp = 3×4 = 12
terminals for dc power supplies VCC and –VEE = 2)

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 OP AMP Block Diagram

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 OP AMP Block Diagram
Dual-input balanced-output differential amplifier

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 OP AMP Block Diagram
Dual-input unbalanced-output differential amplifier

• Provides additional gain

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 OP AMP Block Diagram
Level Shifter
• Even if the input to an amplifier has an average value
of zero volts, the output often has a non-zero average
voltage due to biasing effects.
• These dc voltages can cause an undesired offset which
adversely affects the operation of a system.
• Since the op-amp is a multi-stage dc amplifier with
high gain, unwanted dc voltages can be a source of
concern.
• A small offset in an early stage can saturate a later
stage.
• Level shifters are amplifiers that add or subtract a
known voltage from the input in order to compensate
for dc offset voltages.
• Op-amps have level shifters included in their design.

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 OP AMP Block Diagram
Level Shifter

• Equation shows that by

varying RE, Vout can be set to any
desired dc level (limited to a maximum
of VBB–VBE).
• Since VBB is the dc level acquired from the
previous stage, this amplifier is used to
shift the level downward (to a lower
value).
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 OP AMP Block Diagram

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 OP AMP Block Diagram Example

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 OP AMP Block Diagram Example

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 THE IDEAL OP AMP
Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp
• The op amp is designed to sense the difference between the voltage signals
applied at its two input terminals (i.e., the quantity v2-v1), multiply this by a
number A, and cause the resulting voltage A(v2 – v1) appear at output terminal 3.
• Here it should be emphasized that the voltage at a terminal is the voltage
between that terminal and ground; thus v1 means the voltage applied between
terminal 1 and ground.
• The ideal op amp is not supposed to draw any input current; that is, the signal
current into terminal 1 and the signal current into terminal 2 are both zero.
• In other words, the input impedance of an ideal op amp is supposed to be
infinite.
• The terminal 3 is supposed to act as the output terminal of an ideal voltage
source.
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 THE IDEAL OP AMP
Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp
• The voltage between terminal 3 and ground will always be
equal to A(v2 – v1), independent of the current that may be
drawn from terminal 3 into a load impedance .
• In other words, the output impedance of an ideal op amp is
supposed to be zero.
• The output is in phase with (has the same sign as) v2 and is
out of phase with (has the opposite sign of) v1. Figure 3 Equivalent circuit
of the ideal op amp
• For this reason, input terminal 1 is called the inverting input
terminal and is distinguished by a “−” sign, while input
terminal 2 is called the noninverting input terminal and is
distinguished by a “+” sign.

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 THE IDEAL OP AMP
Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp
• The op amp responds only to the difference signal v2 − v1 and hence ignores any
signal common to both inputs.
• That is, if v1 = v2 = 1 V, then the output will (ideally) be zero.
• This property is called common-mode rejection, and we conclude that an ideal op
amp has zero common-mode gain or, equivalently, infinite common-mode
rejection.
• The op amp is a differential-input, single-ended-output amplifier, with the latter
term referring to the fact that the output appears between terminal 3 and ground.
• Furthermore, gain A is called the differential gain. The other name for A is open-
loop gain.

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 THE IDEAL OP AMP
Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp
• An important characteristic of op amps is that they are direct-coupled or dc
amplifiers, where dc stands for direct-coupled.
• The fact that op amps are direct-coupled devices will allow us to use them in many
important applications.
• The ideal op amp has a gain A that remains constant down to zero frequency and
up to infinite frequency.
• That is, ideal op amps will amplify signals of any frequency with equal gain, and
are thus said to have infinite bandwidth.
• The ideal op amp should have a gain A whose value is very large and ideally
infinite.

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 THE IDEAL OP AMP
Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp

Characteristics of the ideal Op-amp

1. Infinite input impedance
2. Zero output impedance
3. Zero common-mode gain or, equivalently, infinite common-
mode rejection
4. Infinite open-loop gain A
5. Infinite bandwidth

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 THE IDEAL OP AMP

Figure 4 Representation of the signal sources

v1 and v2 in terms of their differential and
common-mode components.

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 THE IDEAL OP AMP
Exercise 2
Consider an op amp that is ideal except that its open-loop gain A = 103 . The op amp is used in a
feedback circuit, and the voltages appearing at two of its three signal terminals are measured. In each
of the following cases, use the measured values to find the expected value of the voltage at the third
terminal. Also give the differential and common-mode input signals in each case.
(a) v2 = 0 V and v3 = 2 V; (b) v2 = +5 V and v3 = −10 V;
(c) v1 = 1.002 V and v2 = 0.998 V; (d) v1 = −3.6 V and v3 = −3.6 V
Solution-
For an op-amp
v3 = A(v2 - v1)
Differential input signal
vId = v2 – v1
Common mode input Signal

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 THE IDEAL OP AMP
Solution for Exercise 2
(a) v2 = 0 V and v3 = 2 V;
v1 = - 0.002 V
vId = 0.002 V = 2 mV
vIcm = - 0.001 V = -1 mV

(c) v1 = 1.002 V and v2 = 0.998 V;

v3 = -4 V
vId = -4 mV
vIcm = 1 V

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 THE IDEAL OP AMP
Exercise 3.
The internal circuit of a particular op amp can be modeled by the circuit shown
in Figure Ex1. Express v3 as a function of v1 and v2. For the case Gm = 10 mA/V,
R = 10 kΩ, and μ = 100, find the value of the open-loop gain A.
Solution-
From the Figure Ex1
v3 = µ vd
vd is voltage across resistance R Figure Ex1
Figure Ex1
vd = R(Gmv2 – Gmv1) = GmR(v2 – v1)
so v3 = µGmR(v2 – v1)
v3 = 100 × 10m × 10 k (v2 – v1) v3 = 10000 (v2 – v1)
We know that v3 = A(v2 – v1) so A = 10,000 V/V or 80dB

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 Operational Amplifier
The Inverting Configuration

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 Op Amp-The Inverting Configuration
• Consists of one op amp and two resistors R1 and R2.
• Resistor R2 is connected from the output terminal of the op amp, terminal 3, back
to the inverting or negative input terminal, terminal 1. R2 is applied as a negative
feedback.
• If R2 is connected between terminals 3 and 2 , then it is called as positive
feedback.

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 The Inverting Configuration
• Note that R2 closes the loop around the op amp.
• In addition to adding R2, we have grounded terminal 2 and connected a resistor R1
between terminal 1 and an input signal source with a voltage vI.
• The output of the overall circuit is taken at terminal 3 (i.e., between terminal 3 and
ground).
• Terminal 3 is, of course, a convenient point from which to take the output, since
the impedance level there is ideally zero.
• The voltage vo will not depend on the value of the current that might be supplied
to a load impedance connected between terminal 3 and ground.

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 The Inverting Configuration
The closed-loop gain
Analyze the circuit to determine the closed-loop gain G, defined as

having zero voltage but not physically

connected to ground

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 The Inverting Configuration
The closed-loop gain
• Assume the op-amp to be ideal with infinite open-loop gain A.
From the figure, so

• A virtual short circuit exists between the two input terminals.

• Virtual short-circuit – Not physically shorting terminals 1 and 2
together while analyzing a circuit.
• A virtual short circuit means that whatever voltage is at 2 will
automatically appear at 1 because of the infinite gain A. But terminal 2
happens to be connected to ground; thus v2 = 0 and v1 = 0. Terminal 1
being a virtual ground-that is, having zero voltage but not physically
connected to ground.

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 The Inverting Configuration
The closed-loop gain
Apply Ohm’s law and find the current i1 through R1;

• i1 cannot go into the op amp, since the ideal op amp has an infinite
input impedance and hence draws zero current.
• It follows that i1 will have to flow through R2 to the low-impedance
terminal 3.
Apply Ohm’s law to R2 and determine vo;

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 The Inverting Configuration
The closed-loop gain
• The closed-loop gain is simply the ratio of the two resistances R2 and R1.
• The minus sign means that the closed-loop amplifier provides signal inversion.
Thus if R2/R1= 10 and we apply at the input (vI) a sine-wave signal of 1 V peak-to-peak, then the
output vo will be a sine wave of 10 V peak-to-peak and phase-shifted 180 with respect to the input
sine wave.
• Because of the minus sign associated with the closed-loop gain, this configuration is called the
inverting configuration.
• The fact that the closed-loop gain depends entirely on external passive components (resistors R1
and R2) is very significant.
• We can make the closed-loop gain as accurate as we want by selecting passive components of
appropriate accuracy.
• Also means that the closed-loop gain is (ideally) independent of the op-amp gain.

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 The Inverting Configuration
Effect of Finite Open–Loop Gain
• Assume the op-amp to be ideal with a finite open-loop gain A.

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 The Inverting Configuration
Effect of Finite Open– Loop Gain
• The current i1 through R1;

The infinite input impedance of the op-amp forces the current i1 to flow entirely through R2.
• The output voltage vo can be determined from

• The closed-loop gain G is found as

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 The Inverting Configuration
Effect of Finite Open–Loop Gain
• Note that as A approaches , G approaches the ideal value of R2/R1.
• As A approaches , the voltage at the inverting input terminal approaches zero.
• This is the virtual-ground assumption used in earlier analysis when the op amp
was assumed to be ideal.
• To minimize the dependence of the closed-loop gain G on the value of the open-
loop gain A, we should make-

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 The Inverting Configuration
Input and Output Resistances
• Assuming an ideal op amp with infinite open-loop gain, the input resistance of the closed-loop
inverting amplifier of Fig is simply equal to R1.

• The amplifier input resistance forms a voltage divider with the resistance of the source that feeds
the amplifier. Thus, to avoid the loss of signal strength, voltage amplifiers are required to have high
input resistance.
• In the case of the inverting op-amp configuration, to make Ri high we should select a high value
for R1.
• However, if the required gain is also high, then R2 could become impractically large (e.g., greater
than a few megohms).
• Thus, the inverting configuration suffers from a low input resistance.
• Since the output of the inverting configuration is taken at the terminals of the ideal voltage source
A(v2 - v1) , it follows that the output resistance of the closed-loop amplifier is zero.
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 The Inverting Configuration
An Important Application–The Weighted Summer
• A very important application of the inverting configuration is the
weighted-summer circuit shown in Figure.
• Here we have a resistance Rf in the negative-feedback path (as before);
but we have a number of input signals v1, v2,... , vn each applied to a
corresponding resistor R1, R2, . .. , Rn, which are connected to the
inverting terminal of the op-amp.
• The ideal op amp will have a virtual ground appearing at its negative
input terminal.
• By applying Ohm’s law, the currents i1, i2, . . . , in are given by

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 The Inverting Configuration
An Important Application – The Weighted Summer
• All these currents sum together to produce the current i; that is,

will be forced to flow through Rf (since no current flows into the input terminals of an ideal op-
amp). The output voltage vo may now be determined by another application of Ohm’s law,
Thus,

• The output voltage is a weighted sum of the input signals v1, v2, . . . , vn. This circuit is therefore
called a weighted summer.
• Note that each summing coefficient may be independently adjusted by adjusting the corresponding
“feed-in” resistor (R1 to Rn).
• In the weighted summer of Figure, all the summing coefficients must be of the same sign.
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 The Inverting Configuration
Weighted Summer with summing coefficients of both signs
• Summing signals with opposite signs can be implemented using two op-amps as
shown in Figure.
• Assuming ideal op amps, it can be easily shown that the output voltage is given
by-

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 Numerical 1
Assuming the op-amp to be ideal, derive an expression for the closed-loop gain vo/vI
of the circuit shown in Figure. Use this circuit to design an inverting amplifier with
a gain of 100 and an input resistance of 1MΩ. Assume that for practical reasons it is
required not to use resistors greater than 1MΩ. Compare your design with that based
on the inverting configuration.

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 Solution

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 Solution Cont…

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 Solution Cont…

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 Numerical 2
Design an inverting amplifier having a gain of -10V/V and an input resistance of
100kΩ.
Solution

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 Numerical 3
The circuit shown in Figure (a) can be used to implement a transresistance amplifier.
Find the value of the input resistance Ri, the transresistance Rm, and the output
resistance Ro of the transresistance amplifier. If the signal source shown in Figure
(b) is connected to the input of the transresistance amplifier, find its output voltage.

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 Solution
If the signal source is connected

Vo = - (10/10) VI
Vo = - (10/10) 5
Vo = - 5 V

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 Numerical 4
For the circuit in Figure, determine the value of v1, i1, i2, vo, iL and io. Also,
determine the voltage gain vo/vI, current gain il/iI and power gain Po/PI.

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 Solution

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 Solution Cont…

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 Operational Amplifier
The Non Inverting Configuration
Voltage buffer
Adder

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 Op Amp-The Noninverting Configuration
• In noninverting configuration of op amp ,the input signal vI is applied directly to
the positive input terminal of the op amp while one terminal of R1 is connected to
ground.

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 Op Amp-The Noninverting Configuration
The Closed-Loop Gain

• Assuming that the op amp is ideal with infinite gain, a virtual short circuit exists
between its two input terminals. Hence the difference input signal is-

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 Op Amp-The Noninverting Configuration
The Closed-Loop Gain
• Thus the voltage at the inverting input terminal will be
equal to that at the noninverting input terminal, which is
the applied voltage vI.
• The current through R1 can then be determined as vI/R1 .
Because of the infinite input impedance of the op amp,
this current will flow through R2.
• Now the output voltage can be determined from

which yields

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 Op Amp-The Noninverting Configuration
The Closed-Loop Gain
Other derivation for gain
• Since the current into the op-amp inverting input is zero,
the circuit composed of R1 and R2 acts in effect as a
voltage divider feeding a fraction of the output voltage
back to the inverting input terminal of the op amp; that is,

• Then the infinite op-amp gain and the resulting virtual

short circuit between the two input terminals of the op
amp forces this voltage to be equal to that applied at the
positive input terminal; thus,

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 Op Amp-The Noninverting Configuration
The Closed-Loop Gain
The Role of Negative Feedback-
Let vI increase-
➢ vId is increased.
➢ vO will correspondingly increase as a result of the high (ideally
infinite) gain of the op amp.
➢ A fraction of the increase in vO will be fed back to the inverting input
terminal of the op amp through the (R1, R2) voltage divider.
➢ The result of this feedback will be to counteract the increase in vId ,
driving vId back to zero.
➢ This degenerative action of negative feedback gives it the alternative
name degenerative feedback.

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 Op Amp-The Noninverting Configuration
Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain
• Consider the effect of the finite op-amp open-loop gain A on the gain of the
noninverting configuration.
• Assuming the op amp to be ideal except for having a finite open-loop gain A, it
can be shown that the closed-loop gain of the noninverting amplifier circuit is
given by-

• The gain expression reduces to the ideal value for A = ∞

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 Op Amp-The Noninverting Configuration
Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain

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 Op Amp-The Noninverting Configuration
Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain
• The expressions for the actual and ideal values of the closed-loop gain G can be
used to determine the percentage error in G resulting from the finite op-amp gain
A as

• Thus, as an example, if an op amp with an open-loop gain of 1000 is used to

design a noninverting amplifier with a nominal closed-loop gain of 10, we would
expect the closed-loop gain to be about 1% below the nominal value.

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 Op Amp-The Noninverting Configuration
Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain- Inverting V/S Noninverting
Inverting configuration

Noninverting configuration

• Observe that the denominator is identical for the inverting and noninverting
configuration .
• It is a result of the fact that both the inverting and the noninverting
configurations have the same feedback loop, which can be readily seen if the
input signal source is eliminated (i.e., short-circuited).
• The numerators, however, are different, for the numerator gives the ideal or
nominal closed-loop gain (-R2/R1)for the inverting configuration, and (1+R2/R1)
for the noninverting configuration).
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 Op Amp-The Noninverting Configuration
Input and Output Resistance
• The gain of the noninverting configuration is positive—hence the name
noninverting.
• The input impedance of this closed-loop amplifier is ideally infinite, since no
current flows into the positive input terminal of the op amp.
• The output of the noninverting amplifier is taken at the terminals of the ideal
voltage source A(v2 − v1) thus the output resistance of the noninverting
configuration is zero.

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 Op Amp-The Noninverting Configuration
The Voltage Follower
• The property of high input impedance is a very desirable feature of the
noninverting configuration.
• It enables using this circuit as a buffer amplifier to connect a source with a
high impedance to a low-impedance load.
• In many applications the buffer amplifier is not required to provide any
voltage gain; rather, it is used mainly as an impedance transformer or a
power amplifier.
• In such cases we may make R2 = 0 and R1 = ∞ to obtain the unity-gain
amplifier shown in Figure(a).
• This circuit is commonly referred to as a voltage follower, since the output
“follows” the input.
• In the ideal case, vO = vI, Rin = ∞, Rout = 0, and the follower has the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure(b).

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 Op Amp-The Noninverting Configuration
The Voltage Follower
• Since in the voltage-follower circuit the entire output is fed
back to the inverting input, the circuit is said to have 100%
negative feedback.
• The infinite gain of the op amp then acts to make vId = 0 and
hence vO = vI .
• Observe that the circuit is elegant in its simplicity!
• Since the noninverting configuration has a gain greater than or
equal to unity, depending on the choice of , some prefer to call
it “a follower with gain.”

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Problem 1
Use the superposition principle to find the output voltage of the circuit shown in
Figure.

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Solution

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Problem 2
Consider the circuit shown in Figure. If the 1-kΩ resistor is disconnected from
ground and connected to a third signal source v3, use superposition to
determine vO in terms of v1, v2, and v3.

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Solution

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Problem 3
Design a noninverting amplifier with a gain of 2. At the maximum output voltage
of 10 V the current in the voltage divider is to be 10 μA.
Solution-

We know that and i = vI/R1

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Problem 4
For the circuit in Fig. find the values of iI, v1, i1, i2, vO, iL, and iO. Also find the
voltage gain the current gain and the power gain.

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Solution

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