Slavic Immigrants to the Colonial United States:

Their Stories and Contributions

Mara Johnson

HIST 368 Colonial America

Professor Mays

April 21 2021
From its beginning, America has been a nation of many varied peoples. Those of all ages,

nationalities, and walks of life have called it home, and each person and group of people have

made their own unique contributions to the history and culture of our country. One such ethnic

group which tends to be lesser known are the Slavic Americans, which is especially true in early

American History as most tend to think of the first settlers as simply English. Not only is this not

the case, but there is much more to Slavic American history than one might initially think; from

arriving in the Colonies to their role in the Revolutionary War, Slavic Americans have played a

part in multiple integral phases of American History.

During the era in which the Colonies had just begun to be established, ethnicity and language

were less of a concern than they are today, therefore there are not precise records detailing from

where the first Slavs arrived.1 Slavic peoples come from many areas of Central, Eastern, and

Southern Europe, regions in which there are many diverse ethnic groups. During the rise of the

American Colonies, however, many of these ethnic groups did not possess their own country, but

were instead ruled over by another more powerful monarchy or empire. How well each group

was treated varied widely, although in almost every case such ethnic minorities were mistreated

or oppressed, so desired to become independent or at the very least to flee to another place which

treated its citizens more equally.2 Among the reasons for oppression were religious differences, a

plight the peoples in question shared with the Protestants of England who would eventually

become the Pilgrims.3 However not all peoples fled their homeland for such unfortunate reasons,

some ventured to the New World due to their skill in a particular trade, which would prove

11
Clarence A Manning, A History of Slavic Studies in the United States, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Marquette
University Press, 1957.
2
Adele J Donchenko, Slavs in America, Washington D.C.: Eric Clearinghouse, 1976.
3
Kenneth C Davis, “America's True History of Religious Tolerance,” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution,
October 1, 2010, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/americas-true-history-of-religious-tolerance-61312684/.

1
useful overseas. Others still simply sought out a new life and adventure.4 To gather an

understanding of the ethnic makeup of the colonies, one must consider each group individually,

for they all bore subtle similarities and differences.5

One of the many ethnic groups of Slavic peoples who made their mark on the American

colonies were the Czechs. Although their homelands of Bohemia and Moravia were under the

rule of the largely germanic Holy Roman Empire, they had their own unique cultural identity

which Czech immigrants took with them to their new home across the Atlantic. One such group

known as the Moravian Brethren fled to escape religious persecution. Protestantism was

outlawed in Bohemia in the 17th century, and those who survived fled first to Germany in the

heart of the empire before eventually coming across the ocean to Pennsylvania in 1741.6 Many of

these settlers would have likely spoken Czech as well as German, contributing to the linguistic

diversity of the colonies. The architecture in the region also shows Slavic influence, thanks to

their part in constructing the settlement.7 The Moravian Brethren were also advocates of

education for all peoples including women and people of color, which was quite progressive for

the era. They were responsible for the founding Salem Academy in 1772, the second all girls

boarding school in the Colonies.8 One of the first people to become an American citizen via

naturalization was of Slavic descent, Augustine Herrmann of Bohemia.9 Herrmann was not one

of the Moravian Brethren however and journeyed to the New World in 1633, where he became a

surveyor of the new and foreign territory. He later constructed a mansion referred to as Bohemia

4
Manning, A History of Slavic Studies in the United States.
5
Donchenko, Slavs in America.
6
Manning, A History of Slavic Studies in the United States.
7
Manning, A History of Slavic Studies in the United States.
8
Stacy Jagodowski, “What Are the Oldest Boarding Schools in the US?” ThoughtCo, August 24, 2018,
https://www.thoughtco.com/the-oldest-boarding-schools-in-the-us-4115886#:~:text=
Linden%20Hall%20School%20for%20Girls&text=Founded%20in%201746%2C%20Linden%20Hall,for%20girls
%20in%20continuous%20operation.
9
Donchenko, Slavs in America.

2
Manor in eastern Maryland. He was also a major figure in the introduction of tobacco to the

Americas, which would change the political, cultural, and economic landscape of the colonies for

good.10

Another distinct group of peoples who arrived from Central Europe were the Poles, who

began arriving in the colonies as early as 1650.11 Unlike the Czechs, the Poles were independent

for a large portion of the time during which the colonies were growing. Even so, the Polish

people had their own reasons for wanting a new life overseas, and there was no shortage of them

willing to make the voyage. This would also not always be the case, as other empires would later

become dominant over the Poles in the decades and centuries to come, nearing the Revolutionary

War.12 People of widely varying backgrounds such as military men, scholars and tradesmen alike

arrived in the Colonies, and settled in various locations such as Pennsylvania, Virginia, and

Delaware.13 In the settlement of Jamestown, the Poles were some of the hardest workers, and in

her piece Slavs in America, Donchenko outlines their many contributions to the settlement in her

piece. “They founded the first glass factory, a tar distillery and soap establishments in the colony

and the products from these enterprises were among the first cargo exports from Jamestown.”14

Despite these many contributions, the fact that they were not of English descent meant less rights

for the Poles, until eventually being granted the right to vote. 15

A third group who may have been in the Americas far longer than most other Europeans

are the Croatians. It has been proposed that the people of Croatia; especially those from the city

of Ragusa, which was known for its shipbuilders, could have accompanied Christopher
10
Donchenko, Slavs in America.
11
Donchenko, Slavs in America.
12
Donchenko, Slavs in America.
13
Lucille Sister, "The Causes of Polish Immigration to the United States," Polish American Studies 8, no. 3/4
(1951): 85-91, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20147265.
14
Donchenko, Slavs in America.
15
Donchenko, Slavs in America.

3
Columbus on his initial journey to the New World.16 Louis Adamec, a scholar of Croatian

history, even makes the claim that they beat Columbus there entirely. “Ragusa ... in its day was a

greater sea power than Britain…For hundreds of years Ragusan ships and seamen were among

the most famous in the world…Certain is that a number of them reached Mexico, Central and

South America, in the few years immediately after Columbus adventure”"17 However this is far

from the most interesting theory regarding Croatian exploration of the New World. Several

researchers believe the lost colony of Roanoke has a connection to the Croats. This is due to the

fact that the tribe of Native Americans in the area, the Croatoan, have a remarkably similar name

to “Croatian”, and evidence of Ragusan shipwrecks have been discovered in the area which

support such a narrative.18 However, the evidence against this theory is that Croatoan was a name

given to the natives by European settlers, rather than what they called themselves. Whether or

not this theory proves correct in the future, the Croatians have undoubtedly shaped America in

many ways.19

As has been mentioned before, religion was a major factor in the minds of the people

willing to immigrate to the New World. However, the reason for this was not always religious

persecution, but the desire to spread one’s faith. Missionaries of many backgrounds ranging from

Croatian to Russian to Slovenian arrived in the Colonies hoping to convert others to their

religions.20 Where the story of these missionaries differ from other settlers is that many of them

travelled to the Southwestern area of the Americas, where Spain’s influence was dominant rather

16
George J Prpic, Early Croatian Contacts with America and the Mystery of the Croatans, Studia Croatica, 1960,
http://www.studiacroatica.org/jcs/01/0103.htm.
17
Prpic, Early Croatian Contacts with America and the Mystery of the Croatans.
18
. Ivan Čizmic and Matja Klemencic, “Croatian and Slovene Missionaries as Inventors and Explorers of the
American West and Midwest,” Društvena istraživanja: časopis za opća društvena pitanja, Institut društvenih
znanosti Ivo Pilar, October 31, 2002, https://hrcak.srce.hr/19677.
19
Prpic, Early Croatian Contacts with America and the Mystery of the Croatans.
20
Prpic, Early Croatian Contacts with America and the Mystery of the Croatans.

4
than that of the English.21 For example Ivan Taraj and Ferdinand Konščak, who worked in the

region in the 17th and 18th centuries, were Jesuit missionaries who had travelled from Croatia.

Aside from his work as a missionary, Konščak also created a map of the lower California region,

a similar contribution to the aforementioned Augustine Herrmann.22

While the East Coast is the region of North America which was most heavily colonized,

prior to eventual westward expansion, the West Coast was far from ignored. As mentioned

earlier, there was a Spanish and Southern European presence in the Southwest, comprised of

mainly Catholic missionaries who sought to convert the native peoples of the region to their

faith.23 However what is lesser known, due to the fact that it would not last, is the Russian effort

to set up settlements in the Northwest. Russian explorers were able to make the voyage across

the relatively narrow sea separating Russia and North America, and ventured southward along

the coast once they made landfall.24 Many of these early explorations were headed by Vitus

Bering, and the later ones by Grigory Shelikov, who is referred to as the “Russian Columbus” for

his explorations.25 The same factors pushed Shelikov and explorers like him to the West Coast as

drove others to the East Coast; the political and social situation in Russia was less desirable

compared with more democratic societies across the globe. Especially for those born in positions

like serfdom, freedom was enough encouragement to leave the continent altogether. The main

reason one might travel West rather than East from Russia simply had to do with where they

were born, this would determine which option was closer and therefore simpler as well as more

affordable.26
21
Donchenko, Slavs in America.
22
Donchenko, Slavs in America.
23
Donchenko, Slavs in America.
24
Kacper Dziekan, “Russian America: How Russia Colonised the West?” New Eastern Europe - A bimonthly news
magazine dedicated to Central and Eastern European affairs, May 17, 2017,
https://neweasterneurope.eu/2017/05/17/russian-america-how-russia-colonised-the-west/.
25
Dziekan, “Russian America: How Russia Colonised the West?”
26
Dziekan, “Russian America: How Russia Colonised the West?”

5
 Russian settlements in the west spread southward from Alaska into what is now

considered Washington, Oregon, and California. At the southernmost point, Russian settlements

began to reach close proximity with their Spanish neighbors, which neither group was

particularly happy with. Even so, no major conflict between them occurred.27 Where conflict did

occur, on the other hand, was in the original settlements in Alaska. The native peoples of the

region attempted to drive out the Russians, in a similar back and forth between the eastern

colonists and native peoples.28 Despite the fact that they were indeed able to keep a foothold in

North America, the profits were ultimately not worth the efforts it took to maintain the colony, at

least in the eyes of Russian leadership. Though they were in possession of a region rich in

resources, particularly furs and lumber, it seemed the most profitable option would be to sell the

land itself.29 By 1867 the entirety of the colony had been sold off to the Americans, who Russia

saw as a potential ally against the powerful British Empire. This put an end to Russian expansion

in North America, though the mark had already been made on the continent by explorers and

settlers alike.30

All the while as Russian settlers were travelling along the West Coast, the Eastern

Colonies and Britain were drifting ever closer to an all-out war. During the American

Revolution, there were several notable foreign soldiers and generals who made significant

contributions to the war effort, and helped to secure independence for the new American nation.

One of the most famous in both America and Poland is Tadeusz Kościuszko, a brilliant engineer,

military strategist, and revolutionary.31 Kościuszko was born in a region of Poland which is now

27
Mark Mancini, “The Forgotten History of Russia's California Colony,” Mental Floss, January 4, 2020.
https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/59502/forgotten-history-russias-california-colony.
28
Mancini, “The Forgotten History of Russia's California Colony.”
29
Dziekan, “Russian America: How Russia Colonised the West?”
30
Dziekan, “Russian America: How Russia Colonised the West?”
31
Stanislaw Herbst, “Tadeusz Kościuszko,” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., January 31,
2021, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tadeusz-Kosciuszko.

6
considered Belarus, which further illustrates the earlier point of how difficult it can sometimes be

to pin down a person’s exact ethnicity or country of origin, thanks to ever-changing borders. He

enjoyed a successful career in his youth as an instructor at the Military Academy of Warsaw,

even attracting the attention of the king, Stanisław II Augustus Poniatowski.32 However in 1774

he fled to France, due to an altercation with the father of a woman he wished to marry, and

eventually continued to America in 1776. There, he joined the Revolutionary War and fought

alongside the American soldiers for their independence.33

Kościuszko was at first assigned to the army of General Horatio Gates, stationed in New

York, where he would remain until 1780 when he was transferred to serve with General

Nathanael Greene in North Carolina.34 During these years, Kościuszko assisted in several key

battles in the war, helping guide the American forces to victory time and time again. For

example, he fortified locations such as West Point, and was instrumental in the defeat of the

British alongside general John Burgoyne.35 Once Kościuszko made it to North Carolina, he

served in the battle of Ninety-Six, capturing an important fort from the British, and made his last

stand as a field commander in Charleston South Carolina at the close of the war. 36 Following the

American victory, Kościuszko was given American citizenship, although he would return to

Poland shortly after, hoping to secure independence for his own countrymen.37 Kościuszko was

far from the only foreigner who took part in the American Revolution, many others from

locations such as Prussia and France joined him. The American people acknowledged and

respected the contributions of these men, as can be seen in how they were honored at the time.
32
Herbst, “Tadeusz Kościuszko.”
33
Erick Trickey, “The Polish Patriot Who Helped Americans Beat the British,” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian
Institution, March 8, 2017, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/polish-patriot-who-helped-americans-beat-
british-180962430/.
34
Trickey, “The Polish Patriot Who Helped Americans Beat the British.”
35
Herbst, “Tadeusz Kościuszko.”
36
Trickey, “The Polish Patriot Who Helped Americans Beat the British.”
37
Herbst, “Tadeusz Kościuszko.”

7
Several paintings and engravings alike depict these heroes of the Revolution standing alongside

George Washington himself as equals.38

Meanwhile in Europe, the American Revolution had had profound effects across the

continent; the ripples of which would be felt for decades and even centuries to come. One of the

most commonly cited examples of such an effect is the outbreak of the French Revolution, which

occurred almost immediately after the Revolutionary War.39 However, the eastern reach of the

Revolution is lesser known, yet no less easily visible. It is of particular importance to examine

the changes in Eastern Europe in this paper particularly, as the countries in question are the

homelands of the people discussed throughout the narrative. Reactions to the Revolution varied

from country to country, as well as between government officials or nobility and the common

citizens.40

In more totalitarian nations such as Russia, to even mention the Revolution in the media

was something which earned close surveillance.41 Such tight control, however, did not prevent

the public from feeling sympathy for revolutionary ideals. Although he spoke out on such

subjects much later when he had more freedom to do so, Communist Revolutionary Karl Marx

expressed how he believed the situation in America had affected both Russia and Europe as a

whole. “…As in the eighteenth century the American War of Independence sounded the tocsin

for the European middle class, so in the nineteenth century the American Civil War sounded it

for the European working class.”42 However, the situation in Russia would still prove dangerous

38
Herbst, “Tadeusz Kościuszko.”
39
Julie Marks, “How Did the American Revolution Influence the French Revolution?” History.com, A&E
Television Networks, May 1, 2018, https://www.history.com/news/how-did-the-american-revolution-influence-the-
french-revolution#:~:text=The%20Americans'%20victory%20over%20the,them%20the%20motivation%20to%20
rebel.
40
Nikolai N Bolkhovitinov, "The Declaration of Independence: A View from Russia," The Journal of American
History 85, no. 4 (1999): 1389-398.
41
Bolkhovitinov, "The Declaration of Independence: A View from Russia.”
42
Bolkhovitinov, "The Declaration of Independence: A View from Russia.”

8
even decades after the end of the Revolutionary War, as those who spoke of or acted upon

revolutionary ideals often found themselves exiled or imprisoned. Despite clear inspiration the

Russian people took from the ideals present in the American Revolution and constitution, they

were never quite able to reconcile many of these worldviews with their own.43

While the government of Russia was strict with the press coverage of the American

Revolution, the Polish handled things rather differently. The reasons for this are clear right away,

considering Poland’s own position and history; they could relate to the American struggle for

independence and freedom, having undergone many wars and occupations of their own nation.44

While public opinion is one thing, the effects the Revolution had are another, and they were

nothing if not widespread. While the general opinion of the Revolution was positive in Poland,

there were of course still those who were opposed to such ideas, and supported the British

position, as well as the idea of imposing a system of government similar to their own in Poland.45

However those on the other side, who began to call themselves “Patriots” after the American

term, used the very same ideals to justify their own goals.46 The only difference was how each

party interpreted documents such as the Declaration of Independence or Constitution.

The documents certainly proved persuasive in the end, as even staunch monarchists,

including the current king Stanisław August Poniatowski himself, were eventually convinced of

the efficacy of American ideals and government policy. He had the following to say about

George Washington, when he heard of his deeds. “I am more and more convinced that

Washington and those of his countrymen who share his views are the best preceptors of

43
Bolkhovitinov, "The Declaration of Independence: A View from Russia.”
44
Zofia Libiszowska, "Polish Opinion of the American Revolution," Polish American Studies 34, no. 1 (1977):
5-15, http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.humboldt.edu/stable/20147971.
45
Libiszowska, "Polish Opinion of the American Revolution."
46
Libiszowska, "Polish Opinion of the American Revolution."

9
mankind.”47 Many others aside from the king were inspired by the Americans as well, and this

inspiration gave rise to Polish resistance to Russian occupation.48 These struggles would prove in

vain at first, as the Polish forces were no match for Russia, but eventually Poland would indeed

gain its freedom.49 While the above are examples of only two nations and their views on the

Revolution, similar sentiments spread like wildfire across Europe in the years following the

Revolution, and for generations to come. Truly, the war changed the world, and the course of

history. Therefore, the phrase “The shot heard ‘round the world,”50 in reference to the beginning

of the Revolutionary War, would prove to be truer than anyone alive at the time could have

dreamed.

In conclusion, by emphasizing the contributions of the lesser-known peoples in Colonial

America, in this case those of Slavic descent, the formation of the American identity being that

of a “melting pot”51 can really be seen from the very birth of the nation. The phrase is especially

appropriate here, considering the original play which coined the phrase featured Eastern

European immigrants.52 Recognizing the values of the culture and ideas each unique group of

people bring to our nation is more important now than ever, and one must look to the past to see

how vibrant and diverse the nation has always been. However, this is the case not just in terms of

racial backgrounds but within such groups as well; as one must look beyond such surface level

distinctions to discover the true richness and cultural heritage of humanity across the globe. The

study of Slavic History and Slavic influence in America is a great example of this kind of deeper

47
Libiszowska, "Polish Opinion of the American Revolution."
48
Libiszowska, "Polish Opinion of the American Revolution."
49
Libiszowska, "Polish Opinion of the American Revolution."
50
Ralph Waldo Emmerson, Concord Hymn, 1837.
51
Israel Zangwill, 1909, The Melting-Pot, Drama in Four Acts, New York: Macmillan.
52
Zangwill, The Melting-Pot, Drama in Four Acts.

10
consideration, which is of utmost importance for understanding and cooperation between all

peoples.

Bibliography

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of American History 85, no. 4 (1999): 1389-398.

Čizmic, Ivan, and Matja Klemencic. “Croatian and Slovene Missionaries as Inventors and
Explorers of the American West and Midwest.” Društvena istraživanja: časopis za opća
društvena pitanja. Institut društvenih znanosti Ivo Pilar, October 31, 2002.
https://hrcak.srce.hr/19677.

Davis, Kenneth C. “America's True History of Religious Tolerance.” Smithsonian.com.

Smithsonian Institution, October 1, 2010.
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/americas-true-history-of-religious-tolerance-
61312684/.

Donchenko, Adele K. Slavs in America. Washington D.C.: Eric Clearinghouse, 1976.

11
Dziekan, Kacper. “Russian America: How Russia Colonised the West?” New Eastern Europe - A
bimonthly news magazine dedicated to Central and Eastern European affairs, May 17,
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west/.

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%201746%2C%20Linden%20Hall,for%20girls%20in%20continuous%20operation.

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revolution#:~:text=The%20Americans'%20victory%20over%20the,them%20the
%20motivation%20to%20rebel.

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12
Trickey, Erick. “The Polish Patriot Who Helped Americans Beat the British.” Smithsonian.com.
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patriot-who-helped-americans-beat-british-180962430/.

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13