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Flight Mechanics Exercise Problems
Flight Mechanics Exercise Problems
Exercise Problems
CHAPTER 4
Problem 4.1
• Consider the incompressible flow of water
through a divergent duct. The inlet velocity
and area are 5 ft/s and 10 ft2, respectively.
If the exit area is 4 times the inlet area,
calculate the water flow velocity at the exit.
Solution 4.1
dp VdV 0
p1 v1
V12 V22
p2 p1
2
62.4
1.94slug / ft 3
32.2
52 1.252
p2 p1 1.94 22.7lb / ft 2
2
Problem 4.3
• Consider an airplane flying with a velocity
of 60 m/s at a standard altitude of 3 km.
At a point on the wing, the airflow velocity
is 70 m/s. Calculate the pressure at this
point. Assume incompressible flow.
Solution 4.3
H.W.
Problem 4.4
• An instrument used to measure the airspeed on
many early low-speed airplanes, principally
during 1919 to 1930, was the venturi tube. This
simple device is a convergent - divergent duct
(The front section's cross-sectional area A
decreases in the flow direction, and the back
section's cross-sectional area increases in the
flow direction. Somewhere in between the inlet
and exit of the duct, there is a minimum area,
called the throat.) Let A1 and A2 denote the inlet
and throat areas, respectively. Let p1 and p2 be
the pressures at the inlet and throat, respectively.
The venturi tube is mounted at a specific location
on the airplane (generally on the wing or near
the front of the fuselage), where the inlet
velocity V, is essentially the same as the
freestream velocity that is, the velocity of the
airplane through the air. With a knowledge of
the area ratio A2/A1 (a fixed design feature) and
a measurement of the pressure difference p 1- p2
the airplane's velocity can be determined. For
example, assume A2/A1 =1/4 and p1- p2 = 80
Ib/ft2. If the airplane is flying at standard sea
level, what is its velocity?
Solution 4.4
H.W.
Problem 4.5
Consider the flow of air through a
convergent-divergent duct, such as the
venturi described in Prob. 4.4. The inlet,
throat, and exit areas are 3, 1.5, and 2 m 2
respectively. The inlet and exit pressures
are 1.02 x 105 and 1.00 x 105 N/m2,
respectively. Calculate the flow velocity at
the throat. Assume incompressible flow
with standard sea-level density.
Solution 4.5
V12 V32
p1 p3
2 2
A Note that only a
V3 V1 1
A3 pressure change of
2( p1 p3 ) 0.02 atm produce this
V1
A 2 high speed
1 1
A3
A1 3 2(1.02 1.00)105
V2 V1 2
102.22m / s
A2 1 .5 3
1.225 1
2
Problem 4.6
An airplane is flying at a velocity of 130
mi/h at a standard altitude of 5000 ft. At a
point on the wing, the pressure is 1750.0
Ib/ft2. Calculate the velocity at that point
assuming incompressible flow.
Solution 4.6
88
V1 130mph 130 197.7 ft / s
60
2 2
p1 V1 p2 V2
2 2 p1 p2 2 21760.9 1750
V
2 V1 190.7 4
0.0020482
V2 216.8 ft / s
Problem 4.7
Imagine that you have designed a low-speed
airplane with a maximum velocity at sea level of
90 m/s. For your airspeed instrument, you plan
to use a venturi tube with a 1.3 : 1 area ratio.
Inside the cockpit is an airspeed indicator—a
dial that is connected to a pressure gauge
sensing the venturi tube pressure difference p 1-
p2 and properly calibrated in terms of velocity.
What is the maximum pressure difference you
would expect the gauge to experience?
Solution 4.7
V12 V22
p1 p2
2 2
A1
V2 V1
A2 Maximum when maximum
velocity 90 m/s and sea level
2
2
V A1 density; however better
1
p1 p2 1 design for over speed during
2 A2 diving
90 2
p1 p2 1.225
2
1.3 2 1 3423N / m 2
Problem 4.8
A supersonic nozzle is also a convergent-
divergent duct, which is fed by a large
reservoir at the inlet to the nozzle. In the
reservoir of the nozzle, the pressure and
temperature are 10 atm and 300 K,
respectively. At the nozzle exit, the
pressure is 1 atm. Calculate the
temperature and density of the flow at the
exit. Assume the flow is isentropic and, of
course, compressible.
Solution 4.8
H.W.
Problem 4.9
Derive an expression for the exit velocity of
a supersonic nozzle in terms of the
pressure ratio between the reservoir and
exit po/pe and the reservoir temperature To.
Solution 4.9
1 1
c pTo V02 c pTe Ve2
2 2
1
ho he Ve2
2
Ve 2c p (T0 Te )
1
Te pe
T0 p0
Note that the velocity
1
increases as To goes up
pe
Ve 2c pT0 1 or pressure ratio goes
p0 down; used for rocket
engine performance
analysis
Problem 4.10
H.W.
Problem 4.11
The mass flow of air through a supersonic
nozzle is 1.5 Ibm/s. The exit velocity is
1500 ft/s, and the reservoir temperature
and pressure are 1000°R and 7 atm,
respectively. Calculate the area of the
nozzle exit. For air, Cp = 6000 ft • lb/(slug)
(°R).
Solution 4.11
1
c pT0 c pTe Ve2 Energy eq.
2
Ve2 15002
Te T0 1000 812.5 R
2c p 2 6000
0
p0
7 2116 0.0086
RT0 17161000 No shock wave,
1 1 isentropic
T
1
812.5
1.4 1
relationship
e 0 e 0.0086 0.0051
To 1000
1.5
m e AeVe Continuity eq.
32.2
m 1. 5
Ae 0.0061 ft 2
eVe 32.2 0.00511500
Problem 4.12
A supersonic transport is flying at a
velocity of 1500 mi/h at a standard altitude
of 50,000 ft. The temperature at a point in
the flow over the wing is 793.32°R.
Calculate the flow velocity at that point.
Solution 4.12
1 2 1 2
c pT1 V1 c pT2 V2
2 2
V22 2c p T1 T2 V12
88
V1 1500mi / h 1500 ft / s 2200 ft / s
60
V22 2 6000 389.99 7993.32 22002
V2 6.3 ft / s
Very low value, almost a stagnant point
Problem 4.13
For the airplane in Prob. 4.12, the total cross-
sectional area of the inlet to the jet engines is 20
ft2. Assume that the flow properties of the air
entering the inlet are those of the freestream
ahead of the airplane. Fuel is injected inside the
engine at a rate of 0.05 Ib of fuel for every pound
of air flowing through the engine (i.e., the fuel-air
ratio by mass is 0.05). Calculate the mass flow
(in slugs/per second) that comes out the exit of
the engine.
Solution 4.13
H.W.
Problem 4.14
Calculate the Mach number at the exit of
the nozzle in Prob. 4.11.
Solution 4.14
Ve 1500 ft / s
Te 812.5 R
ae RTe 1.4 1716 812.5 1397 ft / s
Ve 1500
Me 1.07
ae 1397
Problem 4.15
A Boeing 747 is cruising at a velocity of
250 m/s at a standard altitude of 13 km.
What is its Mach number?
Solution 4.15
H.W.
Problem 4.16
A high-speed missile is traveling at Mach 3
at standard sea level. What is its velocity
in miles per hour?
Solution 4.16
H.W.
Problem 4.17
Calculate the flight Mach number for the
supersonic transport in Prob. 4.12.
Solution 4.17
V 2200 ft / s
a RT 1.4 1716 389.99 967.94 ft / s
V 2200
M 2.27
a 967.94
Problem 4.18
Consider a low-speed subsonic wind
tunnel with a nozzle contraction ratio of 1 :
20. One side of a mercury manometer is
connected to the settling chamber, and the
other side to the test section. The
pressure and temperature in the test
section are 1 atm and 300 K, respectively.
What is the height difference between the
two columns of mercury when the test
section velocity is 80 m/s?
Solution 4.18
p 1.01*105
1.173kg / m 3
RT 287 300
2
V 2
A2
2
p1 p2 1
2 A1
p1 p2 h 1.33 *105 h Manometer reading
2
V 2
A2 1.173 80 2 2
1
2
h 1 5 1
2 A1 1.33 *10 2 20
0.028m 2.8cm
Problem 4.19
We wish to operate a low-speed subsonic wind tunnel so
that the flow in the test section has a velocity of 200 mi/h
at standard sea-level conditions. Consider two different
types of wind tunnels: (a) a nozzle and a constant-
area test section, where the flow at the exit of the test
section simply dumps out to the surrounding
atmosphere, that is, there is no diffuser, and (b) a
conventional arrangement of nozzle, test section, and
diffuser, where the flow at the exit of the diffuser dumps
out to the surrounding atmosphere. For both wind
tunnels (a) and (b) calculate the pressure differences
across the entire wind tunnel required to operate them
so as to have the given flow conditions in the test
section.
For tunnel (a) the cross-sectional area of
the entrance is 20 ft2, and the cross-
sectional area of the test section is 4 ft 2.
For tunnel (b) a diffuser is added to (a)
with a diffuser area of 18 ft2. After
completing your calculations, examine
and compare your answers for tunnels (a)
and (b). Which requires the smaller
overall pressure difference? What does
this say about the value of a diffuser
on a subsonic wind tunnel?
Solution 4.19 (a)
V12 V22
p1 p2
2 2
A2
V1 V2
A1
2
V
2
2
A2
p1 p2 1
2 A1
293.32 4 2 2
p1 p2 0.002377 1 98.15lb / ft
2 20
Solution 4.19 (b)
V12 V32
p1 p3
2 2
A A
V1 V2 2 , V3 V2 2
A1 A3
2 2
V
2
A A2
2
p1 p3 2
2 A3 A1
2 2
293.3 4 4
2
2
p1 p2 0.002377 0.959lb / ft
2 18 20
p 2116
0.00233slug / ft 3
RT 1716 70 460
V 2
p0 p
2
2
0.00233 88
p0 2116 150 *
2 60
0.00233
p0 2116 220 2 2172lb / ft 2
2
Problem 4.21
The altimeter on a low-speed Piper Aztec
reads 8000 ft. A Pitot tube mounted on the
wing tip measures a pressure of
1650 Ib/ft2. If the outside air temperature is
500°R, what is the true velocity of the
airplane? What is the equivalent airspeed?
Solution 4.21
H.W.
Problem 4.22
The altimeter on a low-speed airplane
reads 2 km. The airspeed indicator reads
50 m/s. If the outside air temperature is
280 K, what is the true velocity of the
airplane?
Solution 4.22
p 7.95 *10 4
0.989kg / m 3
RT 287 280
Vtrue 0
Veq
1.225
Vtrue 50 56m / s
0.989
Problem 4.23
A Pitot tube is mounted in the test section
of a high-speed subsonic wind tunnel.
The pressure and temperature of the
airflow are 1 atm and 270 K, respectively.
If the flow velocity is 250 m/s, what is the
pressure measured by the Pitot tube?
Solution 4.23
H.W.
Problem 4.27
An airplane is flying at a pressure altitude
of 10 km with a velocity of 596 m/s.
The outside air temperature is 220 K.
What is the pressure measured by a Pitot
tube mounted on the nose of the airplane?
Solution 4.27
1 2 1 p 2 p 2
q V V V
2 2 p 2 p
2
a
dp
d
c
1
c
p
as
d d
p 2 p V 2 p 2
so q V 2 M
2 p 2a 2
Problem 4.29
After completing its mission in orbit around
the earth, the Space Shuttle enters the
earth's atmosphere at very high Mach
number and, under the influence of
aerodynamic drag, slows as it penetrates
more deeply into the atmosphere. (These
matters are discussed in Chap. 8.) During
its atmospheric entry, assume that the
shuttle is flying at Mach number M
corresponding to the altitudes h:
h, 60 50 40 30 20
km
M 17 9.5 5.5 3 1
h, km 60 50 40 30 20
p∞ 25.6 87.9 299.8 1.19*103 5.53*103
M 17 9.5 5.5 3 1
q∞ 5.2*103 5.6*103 6.3*103 7.5*103 3.9*103
p 2
q M
2
Problem 4.30
Consider a Mach 2 airstream at standard
sea-level conditions. Calculate the total
pressure of this flow. Compare this result
with (a) the stagnation pressure that would
exist at the nose of a blunt body in the flow
and (b) the erroneous result given by
Bernoulli's equation, which of course does
not apply here.
Solution 4.30
Total pressure when the flow is isentropically stopped (true for
supersonic and subsonic)
1.4
2 2
p0 ( 1) M (1.4 1)2
1 1.4 1
1 1 7.824
p 2 2
p0 7.824 p 7.824 2116 16560
But there must be a shockwave at the nose (at the stagnation point)
2 2
p02 ( 1) M 1
1 1 2M 12
2
p1 4M 1 2( 1) 1
1.4
2 2
(1.4 1) 2 1 1.4 2 *1.4 * 2 2
1.4 1
2
5.64
4 *1.4 * 2 2(1.4 1) 1.4 1
p02 5.64 * 2.116 1.193 *10 4 lb / ft 2
If Bernoulli’s equation is used accidentally
2
V 2 p M
p0 p p
2 2
1.4
p0 2.116 * 2.116 * 2 2 0.804 *10 4 lb / ft 2
2
51% error
Problem 4.31
Consider the flow of air through a
supersonic nozzle. The reservoir pressure
and temperature are 5 atm and 500 K,
respectively. If the Mach number at the
nozzle exit is 3, calculate the exit
pressure, temperature, and density.
Solution 4.31
1.4
2
( 1) M e 1 (1.4 1)32 1.4 1
pe p0 1
2
5
5 * 1.01*10 1
2
1.37 *104
2 1
( 1) M e
Te T0 1 500 * 0.357 178.6 K
2
p0 1.37 *104
0 0.267kg / m 3
RT0 287178.6
Problem 4.32
• Consider a supersonic nozzle across
which the pressure ratio is pe/po = 0.2.
Calculate the ratio of exit area to throat
area.
Solution 4.32
pe ( 1) M e2 1
1
p0 2
1
2 pe
2
Me
1 5 0 .2 0.286
1 2.92
( 1) p0
M e 1.71
1
Ae 1 2 1 2 1
At
2 1 1 2 M e
Me
1.4 1
1 2 1.4 1 2
1.4 1
1 .4 1 1 1 .71 1.35
1.712 2
Problem 4.33
1 2 p V 2 p 2
q V 2 M
2 2 a 2
2 2
q M p M 1 2 1
1 M
p 2 p 2 2
q
0.7 M 2 1 0.2 M 2
3.5
p
H.W.
Problem 4.35
In Prob. 4.34, assume the flow is
completely turbulent. Calculate the
boundary layer thickness at the trailing
edge and the total skin friction drag.
Compare these turbulent results with the
above laminar results.
Solution 4.35
0.37 L 0.37 * 3
0.033m 3.3cm
Re L
0 .2
4.10 *10 7 0.2
turb 3.3
13.75
lar 0.24
0.0074 0.0074
Cf 0.0022
Re L
0 .2
4.10 *107 0 .2
Laminar Flow A
Xcr
Turbulent Flow B
Solution 4.36
V xcr
Re cr Calculate drag
force if the
Re cr 106 *1.7894 *10 5 laminar flow
xcr 7.3 *10 2 m portion A were
V 1.225 * 200 turbulent flow
0.074 0.074
D f turb q SC f q S q S
Re cr
0.2
10 6 0.2
1 1
q V2 1.225 * 2002 2.45 *10 4 N / m 2
2 2
S 7.3 *10 2 m *17.5m
D f turb 146 N
Drag of one side
D f total turbulent 2830 N
D f B D f total D f A 2830 146 2684 N
turb
1328
Df A q SC f q S
0 .5
laminar
Re cr
135
2.45 *10 7.3 *10
4 2
*17.5 42 N
10
6 0.2
dp
ds
1.1 1000 2 0.02 22000 N / m 2 .mm
1.4
2 2
p0 ( 1) M 1 (1.4 1)0.7 1.4 1
1
1 1.387
p 2 2
1 .4
2 2
p0 ( 1) M 1 (1.4 1)1.1 1.4 1
1 1 2.135
p 2 2
p0
p 1.387
p p p 0.65 * 7.0121*10 4 4.555 *10 4
p0 2.135
p Pressure at 3 km altitude
Problem 4.39
• Consider an airplane flying at a standard
altitude of 25,000 ft at a velocity of 800
ft/sec. To experience the same dynamic
pressure at sea level, how fast must the
airplane be flying?
Solution 4.39
Ve
V 0
1.0663 *10 3
Ve 800 3
535.8 ft / s
2.3769 *10
Problem 4.40
In Section 4.9, we defined hypersonic flow as
that flow where the Mach number is five
or greater. Wind tunnels with a test section
Mach number of five or greater are called
hypersonic wind tunnels. From Eq. (4.88),
the exit-to-throat area ratio for supersonic
exit Mach numbers increases as the exit
Mach number increases. For hypersonic
Mach numbers, the exit-to-throat ratio
becomes extremely large, so hypersonic
wind tunnels are designed with long, high-
expansion ratio nozzles.
In this and the following problems, let us
examine some special characteristics of
hypersonic wind tunnels. Assume we wish
to design a Mach 10 hypersonic wind
tunnel using air as the test medium. We
want the static pressure and temperature in
the test stream to be that for a standard
altitude of 55 km. Calculate: (a) the exit-to-
throat area ratio, (b) the required reservoir
pressure (in atm), and (c) the required
reservoir temperature. Examine these
results. What do they tell you about the
special (and sometimes severe) operating
requirements for a hypersonic wind tunnel.
Solution 4.40
1
Ae 1 2 1 2 1
At
2 1 1 2 M e
Me
1.4 1
1 2 1 .4 1 2 1.4 1
10 2 1.4 1 1 2 10 535.9
2 2 3.5
po ( 1) M (1.4 1)10
1
1 e
1 4.224 *104
pe 2 2
po 4.224 *104 48.373 2.053 *106 20.3atm \
( 1) M e2 ( 1)102
To Te 1 275.781 5791K
2 2
The surface of the sun is about 6000k; sacrifice
accuracy because of temperature
Problem 4.41
• Calculate the exit velocity of the
hypersonic tunnel in Problem 4.40.
Solution 4.41
At
2 1 1 2 M e
Me
1.4 1 28.7 times
1 2 1.4 1 2 1.4 1 increase of exit