Science notes

Chromosome and karyotypes

Chromosome are made out of chromatin
Chromatin consist of DNA and protein
DNA being wound around proteins called histones this forms
nucleosome and are often considered to look like beads.
The newly made chromosome is still bound here in this region called
the centromere.
Would you ever get a chance to see all your 46 of your chromosomes
clearly?
Well you could in something called a karyotype. An image of all
your chromosomes. The chromosome from a karyotype are
typically from a cell that is in mitosis stage.

When arranging the karyotype, the chromosomes are arranged in

homologous pairs.
Homologous chromosomes are about the same size and contain
the same types of genes. In each homologous pairs, you receive
one chromosome from one parent and one chromosome from the
other parent.

22 of the pairs na nasa karyotype is called autosomes. This means

they are not related to your biological sex. They may have genes
related to your eye color or height or hair texture. And ang last 2
chromosome sa karyotype is called sex chromosomes because
they determine biological sex.
Females have two x chromosome. Males have one x and one y
chromosome.

23 of these chromosome is from the father. From a sperm cell

which is a gamete.
Sperm cells are considered haploid because they only have a set
of chromosomes.
The other 23 of the chromosomes came from the mother,
contained in an egg, which is also a gamete. Same sa sperm cell
haploid sya, it only contains only 1 set of chromosomes.
When a sperm and egg cell combine, they form a fertilized egg,
known as a zygote. The resulting cell is diploid at it has 2 sets of
chromosomes and it will divide to continue to form more diploid
cells. YOU ARE A DIPLOID ORGANISM. Diploid diploid ka.
Fathers determine the biological sex.

Karyotype can help us when we are trying to understand genetic

disorders.

PTC- phenylthiocarbamide
Each parent contributes an allele which is a variant of a gene
An allele is a variety of a gene

Kapag capital letter ang gina use to represent an allele, it means

it’s a dominant allele.
Then if I use lowercase letter to represent an allele, that means
it’s a recessive allele.

TT,Tt and tt na basta ung dominant and recessive chuchuness.

These are called genotypes.
Genotype can help determine a phenotype, which is a physical
characteristic.
Punnett square can be used to determine the probalities of
offspring having certain genotypes. Which then can be used to
determine their phenotypes.

Platelets, which are fragments of cytoplasm that help stop us

from bleeding. They help our blood to clot when we get hurt.

Hemophilia- a disorder that can affect those platelets and even a

. because special clotting chuchuness that are needed to work
with the platelets may not work correctly. So pag masugatan ka
they could continuously flow kasi wlang may ga stop.

Hemophilia is a sex linked, recessive trait which means it is

different from basic mendelian genetic problems.

Sex chromosome
Sex linked traits are traits that are specifically on the sex
chromosomes.

Require a continuous supply of new cells

- Growth
- Development
- Repair

The process through which these cells are generated is known

as the cell cycle and it can be thought of as the life cycle of the
cell.
Within this cell cycle there are three main stages you need to
be aware of
- Growth
- Dna replication= mitosis
- Division ( cytokinesis)
Non mendelian – genetically they are rule breakers.
Incomplete dominance, the dominant allele is not completely
expressed with the recessive allele is around.
Mendelian ng dominant ung ga expressesed gid
Pero if non- mendellian wala ga express ang dominant if jan ung
recessive trait.

Codominance- they work together

Polygenic- means many genes coding for one trait is what polygenic
means.
Epistatasis- when one gene depends on another gene for it to be
expressed
Pwet
Traits, the pattern his body, his size, these are all traits, these traits are
coded for in his DNA.
Nuclei= plural of nucleus
Dna has a beautiful structure and that structure will help you
understand how inheritance works. Double helix structure nya.
DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid
Nucleic acids are made up of building blocks called nucleotides
Nucleotides have 3 parts
One of them is a sugar called deoxyribose
One of them is a phosphate
But the most important part of the nucleotide is the base, because the
sequence of the bases can actually code for traits.

There are 4 types of bases in DNA

- Adenine
- Thymine
- Cytosine
- Guanine
These bases actually pair in a specific way
A=T
C=G

DNA has 2 strands so there are nucleotides running up one side

and there’s nucleotides running on the other side.
The bases are what pair in the middle.
The base are held together by hydrogen bonds.
The DNA is also twisted in something we call a double helix
shape.

Portions of DNA make up genes.

You have a lot of DNA. When it is compacted, it can be organized
into a unit called a chromosome.

These genes consist of dna. Dna is made up of nucleotides.

DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid
It’s the chemical that all of our genetic material made up.

DNA is a polymer which means it’s made up of lots of similar units stuck
together.

So if gin unravel mo ung dna into a long strand and that strand would be
over 2 meters long.

GENE- small section of DNA that codes for a protein

- Small segment of a chromosome basically a code for a particular
sequence of amino acids. And when these amino acids are combined
in ths particular sequence they form a protein.
- Dna determines which protein the cell produces which in turn is going
to determine what type of cell it will going to be.
Genome- entire set of genetic material in an organism
For example, my genome would probably be quite a different to a stranger but
it would be more similar to my parent’s genomes. And if I had an identical twin
we’d have the same genome.

Sometimes the genes may cause a particular disease in which case we call it an
inherited disease because you inherit the genes and therefore the disease from
your parents.

Alleles- different versions of the same gene.

We have 2 copies of every gene one from each of our parents it means that
we’ll have two alleles of each gene.
- And these could be both the same allele
- Or they could be 2 different alleles
if they were the same we’d say they were homozygous for that allele. Whereas if
they were different we would be heterozygous.
Gregor Mendel- founding father of genetics, live in the 1800s.
Being passed on from one generation to the next which he called
hereditary units. These units could be dominant or recessive
For example these are homozygous
- BB,bb GG,gg same sila na capital or same sila na small letter homo
yan.

Then if heterozygous
For example
- Bb,Gg,Tt so if different sila na ganyan edi yan search mo oo

Genotype- is basically the entire collection of alleles

Phenotype- is the characteristics that you get from your genotype