metals
Article
The Evolution of the Nugget Zone for Dissimilar
AA6061/AA7075 Joints Fabricated via Multiple-Pass
Friction Stir Welding
Yu Chen 1,2 , Zhihui Cai 3, *, Hua Ding 4 and Fenghe Zhang 1






Citation: Chen, Y.; Cai, Z.; Ding, H.;
Zhang, F. The Evolution of the
Nugget Zone for Dissimilar
AA6061/AA7075 Joints Fabricated
via Multiple-Pass Friction Stir
Welding. Metals 2021, 11, 1506.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
met11101506
Academic Editor: Alfonso Paoletti
Received: 30 August 2021
Accepted: 18 September 2021
Published: 23 September 2021
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Metals 2021, 11, 1506. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11101506
1 School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China;
chenyu@me.neu.edu.cn (Y.C.); crainy11@126.com (F.Z.)
2 National Defense Key Disciplines Laboratory of Light Alloy Processing Science and Technology,
Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, China
3 School of Mechanical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Science and Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China
4 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China;
dingh@smm.neu.edu.cn
* Correspondence: tsaizhihui@163.com
Abstract: AA6061 and AA7075 aluminum alloys were successfully joined by using single-pass and
multiple-pass friction stir welding techniques after which the effects on the nugget zone evolution
from a second overlapping pass and its welding direction, were investigated. In comparison to
single-pass friction stir welding, the application of a second overlapping pass prolonged the dynamic
recrystallization time, and the grains of the nugget zone became finer with increased high angle grain
boundaries. Moreover, reversing the welding direction of the second overlapping pass enhanced the
vertical flow of materials, increasing the strain of the friction stir welding in the nugget zone. As a
result, the efficiency of the grain refinement and mixture of dissimilar materials during the second
overlapping pass were significantly elevated. The tensile strength of the nugget zone was improved
after the second overlapping pass due to both the grain refinement and mechanical interlocking of
the AA6061/AA7075 alloys. The nugget zone, which was fabricated via the multiple-pass friction stir
welding technique using an opposite welding direction, exhibited a 23% increase in yield strength as
compared to the sample using the single-pass friction stir welding technique.
Keywords: friction stir welding; multiple-pass; welding direction; dissimilar aluminum alloys;
microstructure and mechanical properties
1. Introduction
Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining technique which was developed
by The Welding Institute (TWI) in 1991 [1–3]. During FSW, the melting of the base metal
(BM) does not occur with the BM being joined below the melting point, and as a result, the
problems (e.g., porosity and liquation cracking) caused by conventional fusion welding
can be avoided [4]. This attribute leads to FSW being widely applied in joining aluminum
alloys [5]. In fact, it has been reported that single-pass FSW requires a careful selection of
welding parameters as improper welding parameters give rise to the formation of defects
(such as cavity, tunnel and kissing bond defects) [6,7]. Recently, multiple-pass FSW was
proposed to broaden the selection of welding parameters, because the employment of a
subsequent overlapping pass was proved to be effective for repairing defective joints [8].
Some researchers have performed multiple-pass FSW on aluminum alloys and found that,
except for the defect repairing effect, the microstructures and mechanical properties of the
nugget zone (NZ) might also be varied during the subsequent overlapping pass [9–12].
Cui et al. [9] utilized multiple-pass FSW to modify the characteristics of Al–Si–Mg
casting (A356) and stated that, in comparison to single-pass FSW, the application of a
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals
Metals 2021, 11, 1506 2 of 11

subsequent overlapping pass exhibited a more obvious advantage in the microstruc-

ture refinement process and the enhancement of properties in the NZ. Similarly, Murib-
wathoho et al. [10] fabricated AA1050/AA6082 joints via multiple-pass FSW, detecting
that the grains of the NZ became smaller and that the NZ was strengthened during the
subsequent overlapping pass. The above results show a positive effect of multiple-pass
FSW on the NZ evolution; however, some contradictory data in the literature can also be
found. For instance, El-Rayes et al. [11] observed that multiple-pass FSW led to an increase
in the grain size of AA6082, and that the accumulated heat input of a subsequent overlap-
ping pass softened the NZ. Additionally, Brown et al. [12] friction stir welded AA7050 and
demonstrated that both the microstructural morphology and hardness of the NZ remained
essentially unchanged during the subsequent overlapping pass. In summary, there is still
no agreement on multiple-pass FSW behavior, and thus further research is required.
As to the FSW of dissimilar aluminum alloys, apart from the traditional welding pa-
rameters (i.e., welding/rotational speed and the plunge depth of the stir tool), the welding
direction also plays an important role in the NZ evolution. For example, Msomi et al. [13]
friction stir welded AA1050 and AA6082 using different welding directions and stated that
in comparison to FSW using AA1050 on the advancing side (AS), reversing the welding di-
rection (namely, FSW using AA6082 on the AS) was beneficial for both grain refinement and
increased hardness of the NZ. Thus, it can be inferred that during multiple-pass FSW, the
welding direction of the subsequent overlapping pass may also affect the microstructural
and mechanical characteristics of the NZ; however, research on this topic is scarce.
In the present study, dissimilar AA6061 and AA7075 alloys were first joined by using
single-pass FSW, and then a second overlapping pass using both the same and opposite
welding directions was conducted. The influences of both the second overlapping pass
and its welding direction on the NZ evolution were investigated, aiming to reveal the
multiple-pass FSW behavior in depth.

2. Materials and Methods

Cold-rolled AA6061 and AA7075 sheets of 2 mm thickness were selected as the BM and
all aluminum sheets were artificially aged. The chemical compositions of the AA6061 and
AA7075 alloys are listed in Table 1. The schematic diagrams of single-pass and multiple-
pass FSW are drawn as shown in Figure 1. The AA6061 (placed on the AS) and AA7075
were first friction stir welded using a single-pass (namely, the first pass shown in Figure 1a),
then a second overlapping pass was conducted with the welding direction of the second
overlapping pass being the same as (Figure 1b) or opposite to (Figure 1c) the first pass. The
length of the first pass was 250 mm while that of second overlapping pass was 200 mm.
In this work, the sample fabricated by the single-pass FSW is denoted as S-1, while those
fabricated by the multiple-pass FSW using both the same and opposite welding directions
are denoted as S-2 and S-3, respectively. An H13 stir tool was employed for the single-pass
and multiple-pass FSW. The shoulder was concave with a 10 mm diameter and the pin
was conical with a 1.75 mm length (the root/head diameter of the pin was 4 mm/3.6 mm,
respectively), and the schematic diagram of this stir tool is shown in Figure 2. All the
FSW passes were performed under the same welding conditions, and the detailed welding
parameters are illustrated in Table 2.

Table 1. Chemical compositions (wt. %) of the studied AA6061 and AA7075 alloys.

Mg Si Cu Mn Fe Cr Al
AA6061
1.11 0.65 0.19 0.22 0.69 0.28 Bal
Zn Mg Cu Mn Fe Cr Al
AA7075
5.72 2.36 1.65 0.22 0.31 0.24 Bal
 TableTable 1. Chemical
1. Chemical compositions
compositions (wt.
(wt. %) of%)
theofstudied
the studied AA6061
AA6061 and AA7075
and AA7075 alloys.
alloys.

Mg Mg Si Si Cu Cu Mn Mn Fe Fe Cr Cr Al Al
AA6061
AA6061
1.11 1.11 0.65 0.65 0.19 0.19 0.22 0.22 0.69 0.69 0.28 0.28 Bal Bal
Metals 2021, 11, 1506 3 of 11
Zn Zn Mg Mg Cu Cu Mn Mn Fe Fe Cr Cr Al Al
AA7075
AA7075
5.72 5.72 2.36 2.36 1.65 1.65 0.22 0.22 0.31 0.31 0.24 0.24 Bal Bal

FigureFigure 1.
1. The The schematic
1.schematic diagrams
diagrams of (a)ofsingle-pass
(a) single-pass
FSW;FSW;
single-pass FSW; multiple-pass
FSWFSW
multiple-pass
multiple-pass with with
FSW with (b) the
the same
(b)same
(b) the and and
same and
(c)opposite
(c) the
(c) the opposite
the opposite welding
welding direction.
direction.
welding direction.

Figure
Figure 2.schematic
2. The
2. diagram
The schematic of theofstir
diagram thetool tool used
stir used
tool used inwork.
in this
in this work.
this work.

Table
Table
Table 2. Experimental
2. Experimental
2. Experimental welding
welding
welding parameters
parameters
parameters for
forsingle-pass
single-pass
for single-pass and
andmultiple-pass
FSW.FSW.
multiple-pass
and multiple-pass FSW.

Rotational
Rotational Welding
RotationalWelding Plunge
Welding Plunge Plunge Tilt PassPass Direction
PassDirection of of
Direction of
Sample
Sample
Sample
Speed Speed Speed Depth
Tilt Angle
Tilt Angle
Depth
Angle Number Second Pass
Speed
Speed Speed Depth Number
Number Second
Second PassPass
S-1 S-1 12001200
1200rpm
rpm 200
200mm/min
200 mm/min
rpm mm/min 0.20.2mm
0.2 mm 2.5◦
mm 2.5° 2.5° 1 11 - --
Same Same
Same as
as the as the
the
S-2 S-2 12001200
1200rpm
rpm 200
200mm/min
200 mm/min
rpm mm/min 0.20.2mm
0.2 mm 2.5◦
mm 2.5° 2.5° 2 22
first first
pass pass
first pass
Opposite
Opposite to the
Opposite totothe
S-3 S-3 12001200
1200rpm
rpm 200
200mm/min
200 mm/min
rpm mm/min 0.20.2mm
0.2 mm 2.5◦
mm 2.5° 2.5° 2 22
firstthe first
first
pass pass
pass

The
The The microstructural
microstructural
microstructural characteristics
characteristics
characteristicsin thein NZ
in the of
the NZthe
NZ of single-pass
of the single-pass
the single-pass and
and and multiple-pass
multiple-pass
multiple-pass
FSW
FSWFSW jointsjoints
were were analyzed
analyzed systematically.
systematically. The The morphologies
morphologies of of
grains
joints were analyzed systematically. The morphologies of grains were observed grains
were were observed
observed
usingusing optical microscopy (OM, Olympus equipment: DSX-500,
using optical microscopy (OM, Olympus equipment: DSX-500, Tokyo, Japan) andelec-
optical microscopy (OM, Olympus equipment: DSX-500, Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan)
Japan) and and elec-
electron
tron back-scattered
tron back-scattered
back-scattered diffraction
diffraction
diffraction (EBSD,
(EBSD, (EBSD, FEI equipment:
FEIequipment:
FEI equipment: Quanta-600,
Quanta-600,
Quanta-600, Portland,
Portland,
Portland, OR,OR, OR,
USA).
USA). USA).
Mean-
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,
while, the the distribution
thedistribution
distribution ofof of elements
elements
elements andand and precipitates
precipitates
precipitates and/or
and/or and/or particles
particles
particles were
were were detected
detected
detected using
usingusing
scanning scanning
scanning electron electron
electronmicroscopymicroscopy
microscopy (SEM,
(SEM, FEI(SEM, FEI equipment:
FEI equipment:
equipment: Quanta-600,
Quanta-600,
Quanta-600, Portland,
Portland,
Portland, OR, OR,
OR, and
USA)
USA) and transmission
USA)transmission
and transmission
electron electron
electron
microscopy microscopy
microscopy
(TEM,(TEM, (TEM, FEI equipment:
FEI equipment:
FEI equipment: Tecnai-G20,
Tecnai-G20,
Tecnai-G20, Portland,
Portland,
Portland, OR, USA).
OR, samples
OR, The
USA). USA). The
for samples
The samples for
for the
the OM, SEM, theand
OM, OM,
SEM,
TEMSEM,
and andcut
TEM
were TEM
were were
cut
in the cut
in
middletheinsection
the middle
middle the section
ofsection
NZ.ofThe ofOM
the the
NZ.
NZ. and The
OM OM
The SEM and and
SEMwere
samples SEM samples
samples
first werewere
first first
mechanically mechanically
mechanically
polished polished
polished
and then and and
etched withthen
then etched
etched
Keller’swith with
reagent
for 15 to 30 s (HF: 2 mL, HCL: 3 mL, HNO3 : 5 mL and H2 O: 190 mL). The TEM foils were
jet electro-polished at −25 ◦ C using a nitric acid-methanol solution (HNO3 : 350 mL and
CH3 OH: 150 mL). The EBSD surfaces were electro-polished with a perchloric acid–ethanol
solution (HCLO4 : 50 mL and C2 H5 OH: 450 mL), and a 0.3 µm scanning step of the EBSD
was utilized, with the low-angle grain boundaries (LAGBs, 2◦ < θ < 15◦ ) marked as grey
lines while the high-angle grain boundaries (HAGBs, θ > 15◦ ) were marked as black lines.
 Keller’s reagent for 15 to 30 s (HF: 2 mL, HCL: 3 mL, HNO3: 5 mL and H2O: 190 mL). The
TEM foils were jet electro-polished at −25 °C using a nitric acid-methanol solution
(HNO3: 350 mL and CH3OH: 150 mL). The EBSD surfaces were electro-polished with a
perchloric acid–ethanol solution (HCLO4: 50 mL and C2H5OH: 450 mL), and a 0.3 μm
Metals 2021, 11, 1506 scanning step of the EBSD was utilized, with the low-angle grain boundaries (LAGBs, 4 of 11
2°
< θ < 15°) marked as grey lines while the high-angle grain boundaries (HAGBs, θ > 15°)
were marked as black lines.
Themechanical
The mechanicalproperties
propertiesof of
thethe
NZNZ fabricated
fabricated via single-pass
via single-pass and multiple-pass
and multiple-pass FSW
FSW were assessed using the Vickers hardness and tensile test.
were assessed using the Vickers hardness and tensile test. Vickers hardness Vickers hardness
testingtesting
was
was carried
carried out along
out along the centerline
the centerline of theof the cross-section
cross-section of the of
FSWthejoint,
FSW and
joint,
theand the loading
loading force,
force, dwelling
dwelling time andtime and interval
interval of testing
of testing point
point were 50were
gf, 5 50 gf, 50.5s and
s and mm,0.5 mm, respectively.
respectively. For the
For the tensile test, the strain rate was maintained at 1 × 10 −3 s−1 , and the
tensile test, the strain rate was maintained at 1 × 10−3 s−1 , and the tensile strength tensile strength
of eachof
each sample
sample was three
was tested testedtimes
threeto times
obtaintoanobtain
averageanmeasurement.
average measurement.
The tensile The tensile
specimens
were machined parallel to the welding direction inside the NZ, with a dimension of 20 amm
specimens were machined parallel to the welding direction inside the NZ, with di-
mension of 20 mm in gauge length
in gauge length and 4 mm in gauge width. and 4 mm in gauge width.

3. Results
3. Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
Figure33exhibits
Figure exhibitsthethe initial
initial microstructures
microstructures of BM.
of the the BM.
Due Due
to thetocold-rolling
the cold-rolling
deforma-de-
formation,
tion, the coarse
the coarse grains grains of the AA6061/AA7075
of the AA6061/AA7075 alloys alloys were elongated
were elongated (Figure(Figure 3a,b),
3a,b), while
numerous dislocations
while numerous were alsowere
dislocations introduced into the aluminum
also introduced matrix (Figure
into the aluminum 3e,f).(Figure
matrix In ad-
dition,
3e,f). Inthe artificialthe
addition, aging process
artificial contributed
aging process to the precipitation
contributed and thus, a high
to the precipitation andamount
thus, a
of nanoscale
high amountprecipitates
of nanoscale were observed were
precipitates (Figure 3c,d). For
observed the AA6061
(Figure 3c,d). For(i.e.,the
6000 series (i.e.,
AA6061 alu-
minum alloy),aluminum
6000 series the nanoscale precipitates
alloy), were the
the nanoscale needle β0 (β”)-Mg
precipitates were the 2 Sineedle
phase [14,15],
β′ (β″)-Mgwhile
2Si
those
phasefor the AA7075
[14,15], (i.e., 7000
while those series
for the aluminum
AA7075 (i.e., alloy) were the
7000 series sphericalalloy)
aluminum η (η0 )-MgZn
were the 2
phase [16–18].
spherical The existence
η (η′)-MgZn 2 phaseof the above
[16–18]. The fine phases
existence ofled
the to a high
above finelevel
phases of precipitation
led to a high
strengthening in the BM.
level of precipitation strengthening in the BM.

Figure3.3.The
Figure Themicrostructures
microstructures of the
of the initial
initial BM:grain
BM: the the morphology
grain morphology of (a) AA6061
of (a) AA6061 and (b)
and (b) AA7075;
AA7075;
the the precipitate
precipitate distributiondistribution
of (c) AA6061of and
(c) AA6061 and the
(d) AA7075; (d) dislocation
AA7075; the dislocation characteristics
characteristics of (e) AA6061
of (e) AA6061 and (f) AA7075. (The TEM was observed using the bright field mode).
and (f) AA7075. (The TEM was observed using the bright field mode).

The cross-sections
The cross-sections of
of the
the single-pass
single-pass and
and multiple-pass
multiple-pass FSW
FSW joints
joints are
are shown
shown in in
Figure 4,4,where
Figure wherethe
theAA6061
AA6061 andand AA7075
AA7075 alloys
alloys were
were successfully
successfully joined
joined and and the macro-
the macrostruc-
structure
ture of theofNZthe NZ varied
varied dependent
dependent on the on the welding
welding conditions.
conditions. An “onion
An “onion ring” isring” is a
a typical
feather of FSW [19]; however, no “onion ring” was found in the NZ for the S-1 sam-
ple (Figure 4a) and the AA6061/AA7075 boundary was relatively smooth (Figure 5a),
indicating that the mixing of dissimilar materials during the single-pass FSW was insuf-
ficient [20–22]. In practice, the formation of an “onion ring” is related to the material
flow [22–24]; if the materials cannot move around the tool for more than one revolution,
then the mixture of materials is insufficient and the formation of an “onion ring” can be in-
hibited. By contrast, in this study the application of a second overlapping pass contributed
to the mixing of the dissimilar materials and as a result, a distinct “onion ring” formed in
 typical feather of FSW [19]; however, no “onion ring” was found in the NZ for the S-1
typical feather of FSW [19]; however, no “onion ring” was found in the NZ for the S-1
sample (Figure 4a) and the AA6061/AA7075 boundary was relatively smooth (Figure 5a),
sample (Figure 4a) and the AA6061/AA7075 boundary was relatively smooth (Figure 5a),
indicating that the mixing of dissimilar materials during the single-pass FSW was insuf-
indicating that the mixing of dissimilar materials during the single-pass FSW was insuf-
ficient [20–22]. In practice, the formation of an “onion ring” is related to the material flow
ficient [20–22]. In practice, the formation of an “onion ring” is related to the material flow
Metals 2021, 11, 1506 [22–24]; if the materials cannot move around the tool for more than one revolution,5then of 11
[22–24]; if the materials cannot move around the tool for more than one revolution, then
the mixture of materials is insufficient and the formation of an “onion ring” can be in-
the mixture of materials is insufficient and the formation of an “onion ring” can be in-
hibited. By contrast, in this study the application of a second overlapping pass contrib-
hibited. By contrast, in this study the application of a second overlapping pass contrib-
uted to the mixing of the dissimilar materials and as a result, a distinct “onion ring”
uted
the NZtoofin
the
themixing
S-2NZ of
andofS-3the dissimilar materials andthe
as a result, a distinct “onion in
ring”
formed the thesamples
S-2 and(Figure 4b,c), and
S-3 samples (FigureAA6061/AA7075 boundary
4b,c), and the AA6061/AA7075 the
formed
“onion in
ring”the
alsoNZ of
became the S-2 and
tangled S-3
(Figuresamples
5b,c). (Figure 4b,c), and the AA6061/AA7075
boundary in the “onion ring” also became tangled (Figure 5b,c).
boundary in the “onion ring” also became tangled (Figure 5b,c).

Figure4.4. The
The cross-sections of
of dissimilar AA6061/AA7075
AA6061/AA7075 joints
joints fabricated
fabricated via
via (a)
(a)single-pass
single-passFSW,
Figure 4. The cross-sections
Figure cross-sections of dissimilar
dissimilar AA6061/AA7075 joints fabricated via (a) single-pass FSW,
FSW,
and multiple-pass FSW using (b) the same and (c) the opposite welding direction.
and
andmultiple-pass
multiple-passFSWFSWusing
using(b)
(b) the
the same
same and
and (c)
(c) the
the opposite
opposite welding
welding direction.
direction.

Figure 5. The AA6061/AA7075 boundary in the “onion ring” of (a) S-1, (b) S-2 and (c) S-3 samples
Figure5.5.The
TheAA6061/AA7075
AA6061/AA7075 boundary
boundary in the
the “onion
“onion ring”
ring”inof (a) S-1, (b) S-2 and (c) S-3 samples
samples
Figure
observed by OM; the relative position of in
AA6061/AA7075 of(d)
(a)S-1,
S-1,(e)
(b)S-2
S-2 and
and (f)
(c) S-3
S-3 samples
observed by OM; the relative position of AA6061/AA7075 in (d) S-1, (e) S-2 and (f) S-3 samples
observed by SEM.
detected by OM; the relative position of AA6061/AA7075 in (d) S-1, (e) S-2 and (f) S-3 samples
detected by SEM.
detected by SEM.

Apart from analyzing the mixture of dissimilar materials, the distribution of the Zn,
Mg and Cu elements was also scanned to illustrate the location of the AA6061/AA7075
alloys. For the S-1 and S-2 samples, the AA6061 was mainly located in the lower part of the
NZ (Figure 5d,e), but by contrast, the AA6061 moved upward in the S-3 sample (Figure 5f).
Based on results from our previous studies [21,22], the materials on the AS rotated around
the stir tool and flowed downward to the retreating side (RS), therefore, the lower part
of the NZ was occupied by the AA6061 after the single-pass FSW. As for the S-2 sample,
the pattern of material flow remained unchanged due to the same welding direction being
 Apart from analyzing the mixture of dissimilar materials, the distribution of the Zn,
Mg and Cu elements was also scanned to illustrate the location of the AA6061/AA7075
alloys. For the S-1 and S-2 samples, the AA6061 was mainly located in the lower part of
the NZ (Figure 5d,e), but by contrast, the AA6061 moved upward in the S-3 sample
Metals 2021, 11, 1506
(Figure 5f). Based on results from our previous studies [21,22], the materials on the AS
6 of 11
rotated around the stir tool and flowed downward to the retreating side (RS), therefore,
the lower part of the NZ was occupied by the AA6061 after the single-pass FSW. As for
the S-2 sample, the pattern of material flow remained unchanged due to the same weld-
employed,
ing direction hence,
beingthe relative position
employed, hence, the of the AA6061/AA7075
relative position of thealloys was stable during
AA6061/AA7075 alloys
the
wassecond
stable overlapping
during the secondpass. In comparison,
overlapping theInopposite
pass. comparison, weldingthe direction used in the
opposite welding di-
S-3 sample
rection used converted
in the S-3the AA7075
sample from the
converted theRSAA7075
to the AS,from the AA7075
the RS to the flowed downward
AS, the AA7075
and pushed
flowed the AA6061
downward upward the
and pushed during the second
AA6061 upward overlapping
during thepass, second changing the relative
overlapping pass,
position of the AA6061/AA7075.
changing the relative position of the AA6061/AA7075.
The
The morphologies
morphologies of of the
the grains
grains in the NZ were detected using the EBSD technique, technique,
and
andin incomparison
comparison to to the
the coarse
coarse and
and elongated
elongated grains of the initial BM, the grains in the
NZ
NZ for
for the
the S-1 sample were were fine
fineand
andequiaxed
equiaxed(Figure
(Figure6a,b).
6a,b).InIn addition,
addition, thethe difference
difference in
in
thethe grain
grain sizesize between
between thethe AA6061
AA6061 andand AA7075
AA7075 waswas notnot significant
significant (no (no
moremore
thanthan
0.2
0.2
μm),µm), which
which indicates
indicates thatthat
thethe grain
grain uniformity
uniformity of the
of the NZNZ waswas relatively
relatively high.
high. DueDue to
to the
the application of a second overlapping pass, the grains in the NZ
application of a second overlapping pass, the grains in the NZ became finer in the S-2 and became finer in the S-2
and S-3 samples
S-3 samples (Figure
(Figure 6c–f).6c–f). It is known
It is known that
that the theinput
heat heat andinput and plastic
plastic deformation
deformation caused
caused
by FSWbycontributes
FSW contributesto the to the occurrence
occurrence of dynamic
of dynamic recrystallization
recrystallization (DRX)(DRX) [25–27],
[25–27], and
and
thatthat
DRX DRX
notnotonlyonly leads
leads to atorefinement
a refinement of of grains
grains butalso
but alsototoananincrease
increaseofofHAGBs
HAGBs[28].[28].
Consequently,
Consequently, after after single-pass
single-pass FSW FSW in in this
this study,
study, thethe grains
grains in in the
the NZ
NZ became finer
became finer
(4.2/4.0 µm) and the fraction of the HAGBs reached 78% (Figure
(4.2/4.0 μm) and the fraction of the HAGBs reached 78% (Figure 7). Compared to the S-1 7). Compared to the S-1
sample, the application of a second overlapping pass prolonged
sample, the application of a second overlapping pass prolonged the DRX time and the the DRX time and the DRX
became sufficient.
DRX became Sufficient
sufficient. DRX enhanced
Sufficient the grain
DRX enhanced therefinement further, further,
grain refinement while the fraction
while the
of HAGBs increased to 81% in the S-2 sample and 89% in the
fraction of HAGBs increased to 81% in the S-2 sample and 89% in the S-3 sample. S-3 sample.

Metals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW Figure 6. The grain morphologies in the NZ of (a) AA6061 and (b) AA7075 for the S-1 sample;7 (c)
of 12
Figure 6. The grain morphologies in the NZ of (a) AA6061 and (b) AA7075 for the S-1 sample; (c)
AA6061 and (d) AA7075 for the S-2 sample; (e) AA6061 and (f) AA7075 for the S-3 sample.
AA6061 and (d) AA7075 for the S-2 sample; (e) AA6061 and (f) AA7075 for the S-3 sample.

Figure
Figure 7.7.The
Thefraction of of
fraction high angle
high grain
angle boundaries
grain (HAGBs)
boundaries of theofNZ
(HAGBs) thefor
NZ single-pass and mul-
for single-pass and
tiple-pass FSW samples.
multiple-pass FSW samples.

It was also interesting to observe that reversing the welding direction of the second
overlapping pass affected the efficiency of the grain refinement effect, with the grains of
the S-3 sample (2.1/2.3 μm) being much smaller than those of the S-2 sample (3.4/3.5 μm).
Metals 2021, 11, 1506 7 of 11

It was also interesting to observe that reversing the welding direction of the second
overlapping pass affected the efficiency of the grain refinement effect, with the grains of
the S-3 sample (2.1/2.3 µm) being much smaller than those of the S-2 sample (3.4/3.5 µm).
In general, the grain size of the NZ is controlled by both the FSW temperature and strain
rate [29], and fine grains form at a low temperature when combined with a high strain rate.
In the present work, a similar temperature of all the FSW passes was maintained due to
the constant welding parameters that were used, and thus the FSW strain rate may be the
key factor in the grain refinement results. The material flow during the FSW process can
be divided into a horizontal flow and vertical flow [30]. The horizontal flow induces the
materials’ transfer from the AS to the RS (or from the RS to the AS), and the vertical flow
leads the materials to flow upward (or downward). Under the coupled impacts of both
horizontal and vertical flow, in this study the AA6061 on the AS moved downward to the
RS and the AA7075 filled the cavity left on the AS (Figures 4a and 5d) for the S-1 sample.
The relative position of the AA6061/AA7075 in the S-2 sample was similar to that in the
S-1 sample, and only a small amount of AA7075 (which filled the AS during the first pass)
flowed downward (Figures 4b and 5e). This illustrates that the vertical flow during the
second overlapping pass was relatively weak, and that the FSW strain rate used in the
S-2 sample was mainly caused by the horizontal flow. By contrast, the vertical flow of the
S-3 sample was significant, where the AA7075 moved downward and took the place of
the AA6061 during the second overlapping pass. This implies that reversing the welding
direction of the second overlapping pass enhanced the vertical flow, and that the enhanced
vertical flow increased the FSW strain in the S-3 sample. Therefore, the grain refinement
process observed in the S-3 sample was more effective than that in the S-2 sample. The
enhanced vertical flow also promoted the mixing of dissimilar materials in the NZ, except
for the formation of an “onion ring”, where some clamped regions were detected at the
AA6061/AA7075 boundary of the S-3 sample (as shown in Figures 4c and 5f).
Figure 8 shows the morphologies of the NZ observed by the TEM. For the S-1 sample,
the density of dislocations in the NZ reduced dramatically due to the occurrence of DRX,
and furthermore, the initial fine precipitates disappeared. The melting points of the fine
precipitates (i.e., Mg2 Si and MgZn2 ) were much lower than the FSW temperature [31,32],
and thus most precipitates were dissolved during the single-pass FSW (Figure 8a,b). The
heat input of the second overlapping pass was similar to that of the single-pass FSW which
was also high enough for dissolving the Mg2 Si and MgZn2 , and therefore, the amount
Metals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of of
12
precipitates remained small in the S-2 and S-3 samples (Figure 8c–f).

Figure 8. The TEM images in the NZ of (a) AA6061 and (b) AA7075 for the S-1 sample; (c) AA6061
Figure 8. The TEM images in the NZ of (a) AA6061 and (b) AA7075 for the S-1 sample; (c) AA6061
and (d) AA7075 for the S-2 sample; (e) AA6061 and (f) AA7075 for the S-3 sample. (The TEM was
and (d) AA7075 for the S-2 sample; (e) AA6061 and (f) AA7075 for the S-3 sample. (The TEM was
observed using the bright field mode).
observed using the bright field mode).
Aside from the dislocation decrease and precipitate dissolution, some rod and round
Aside from the dislocation decrease and precipitate dissolution, some rod and round
particles remained in the aluminum matrix (Figure 9), and energy dispersive X-ray
particles remained in the aluminum matrix (Figure 9), and energy dispersive X-ray spec-
spectroscopy (EDS, FEI equipment: Quanta-600, Portland, OR, USA) was carried out to
troscopy (EDS, FEI equipment: Quanta-600, Portland, OR, USA) was carried out to analyze
analyze the compositions. The remaining particles in the AA6061 were mainly in the
Al-(FeCrMn)-Si phase (Figure 9a) while those in the AA7075 were in the Al-Cu-Fe phase
(Figure 9b), and these particles were difficult to dissolve during the FSW on account of
their high melting points [33–35]. It should be noted that the average size of the above
particles was fine enough (less than 500 nm) after the single-pass FSW and that they were
 Figure 8. The TEM images in the NZ of (a) AA6061 and (b) AA7075 for the S-1 sample; (c) AA6061
and (d) AA7075 for the S-2 sample; (e) AA6061 and (f) AA7075 for the S-3 sample. (The TEM was
observed using the bright field mode).
Metals 2021, 11, 1506 8 of 11
Aside from the dislocation decrease and precipitate dissolution, some rod and round
particles remained in the aluminum matrix (Figure 9), and energy dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy (EDS, FEI equipment: Quanta-600, Portland, OR, USA) was carried out to
the compositions.
analyze The remaining
the compositions. particles inparticles
The remaining the AA6061 were
in the mainly were
AA6061 in themainly
Al-(FeCrMn)-
in the
Si phase (Figure phase
Al-(FeCrMn)-Si 9a) while those
(Figure 9a)inwhile
the AA7075
those in were in the Al-Cu-Fe
the AA7075 were in thephase (Figure
Al-Cu-Fe 9b),
phase
and these particles were difficult to dissolve during the FSW on account
(Figure 9b), and these particles were difficult to dissolve during the FSW on account of of their high
melting points
their high [33–35].
melting It should
points [33–35].beItnoted thatbethe
should average
noted that size of the above
the average size particles was
of the above
fine enough (less than 500 nm) after the single-pass FSW and that they
particles was fine enough (less than 500 nm) after the single-pass FSW and that they werewere unable to
be broken
unable down
to be further
broken down byfurther
the mechanical stirring ofstirring
by the mechanical the second
of theoverlapping pass [6].
second overlapping
Overall,
pass [6].the influences
Overall, of multiple-pass
the influences FSW on theFSW
of multiple-pass evolution
on theofevolution
dislocations, precipitates
of dislocations,
and remaining
precipitates andparticles
remaining were minimal.
particles were minimal.

Figure9.9. The
Figure The EDS
EDS results
results of
of remaining
remaining particles
particles in
in the
the NZ
NZ of
of (a)
(a) AA6061
AA6061 and
and (b)
(b) AA7075
AA7075 for
for the
the S-1
S-1
sample. (The TEM was observed using the bright field
sample. (The TEM was observed using the bright field mode).mode).

Anotherinteresting
Another interestingphenomenon
phenomenonwas wasdetected
detectedunder
underobservation
observationusing
usingKernel
Kernelaver-
av-
erage misorientation (KAM), as shown in Figure 10. The distribution
age misorientation (KAM), as shown in Figure 10. The distribution of the Al-(FeCrMn)-Si of the
Al-(FeCrMn)-Si and Al-Cu-Fe phases were relatively random in the matrix,
and Al-Cu-Fe phases were relatively random in the matrix, while some remaining coarse while some
remaining coarse
precipitates precipitates
could also be foundcould
on thealso beboundary
grain found on (the
the grain
white boundary (theinwhite
color regions col-
the KAM
or regions
image). in the KAM
References image).
[36–38] References
reported that the[36–38] reported was
grain boundary that the preferential
grain boundary was
position
the
of Mgpreferential
2 Si and MgZnposition of Mgand
2 particles, 2Si and
thusMgZn particles, and
some2precipitates may thus some precipitates
re-precipitate may
on the grain
Metals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEWre-precipitate
boundary and on the grain
become boundary
coarsened andthe
during become
coolingcoarsened
period ofduring the cooling
FSW, however, 9 ofof
theperiod
amount 12
FSW,
of however, theisamount
re-precipitation limited.of re-precipitation is limited.

Figure10.
Figure 10. Kernel
Kernel average
average misorientation
misorientation micrograph
micrographand
andits
itscorresponding
correspondinghistogram
histogramininthe
theNZ
NZof
(a) AA6061 and (b) AA7075 for the S-1 sample; (c) AA6061 and (d) AA7075 for the S-2 sample; (e)
of (a) AA6061 and (b) AA7075 for the S-1 sample; (c) AA6061 and (d) AA7075 for the S-2 sample;
AA6061 and (f) AA7075 for the S-3 sample.
(e) AA6061 and (f) AA7075 for the S-3 sample.

The Vickers
The Vickershardness
hardness profiles
profilesof
ofthe
thesingle-pass
single-passand
andmultiple-pass
multiple-passFSW
FSWjoints
jointsare
are
shown in Figure 11a, showing that the hardness profiles were asymmetric due
shown in Figure 11a, showing that the hardness profiles were asymmetric due to the to the
differentmechanical
different mechanicalproperties
propertiesbetween
betweenthetheAA6061
AA6061and
andAA7075
AA7075alloys.
alloys.Compared
Comparedwith
with
the initial BM, the NZ was softened despite the significant grain refinement. During the
FSW, the precipitation and dislocation strengthening effect was reduced due to the de-
creased number of dislocations and precipitates. Furthermore, the above loss in strength
cannot be offset by the grain refinement [39–41], decreasing the hardness of the NZ. In
 Figure 10. Kernel average misorientation micrograph and its corresponding histogram in the NZ of
(a) AA6061 and (b) AA7075 for the S-1 sample; (c) AA6061 and (d) AA7075 for the S-2 sample; (e)
AA6061 and (f) AA7075 for the S-3 sample.

Metals 2021, 11, 1506 The Vickers hardness profiles of the single-pass and multiple-pass FSW joints9 of are11
shown in Figure 11a, showing that the hardness profiles were asymmetric due to the
different mechanical properties between the AA6061 and AA7075 alloys. Compared with
the
the initial
initialBM,BM,the theNZNZwas wassoftened
softened despite
despite thethesignificant
significantgrain refinement.
grain refinement.During the
During
FSW, the precipitation and dislocation strengthening effect was
the FSW, the precipitation and dislocation strengthening effect was reduced due to the reduced due to the de-
creased
decreased number
number of of
dislocations
dislocations andandprecipitates.
precipitates.Furthermore,
Furthermore,the theabove
aboveloss
lossininstrength
strength
cannot
cannot be offset by the grain refinement [39–41], decreasing the hardness of the NZ.
be offset by the grain refinement [39–41], decreasing the hardness of the NZ. InIn
contrast
contrast toto the
the S-1
S-1 sample,
sample, the the hardness
hardness of of the
the NZNZ slightly
slightly increased
increased afterafter the
the second
second
overlapping
overlapping pass, pass, which
which mainly
mainly arose
arose as
as aa result
result ofof the
the finer
finer grains
grains in in the
the S-2/S-3
S-2/S-3sample.
sample.
Figure
Figure 11b shows the tensile properties of the NZ fabricated via the single-pass and
11b shows the tensile properties of the NZ fabricated via the single-pass and
multiple-pass
multiple-passFSW, FSW,and andsimilar
similartotothetheresults
resultsfor forhardness,
hardness,the theNZ NZwas wasenhanced
enhanced after a
after
second overlapping pass. Compared with the S-1 sample, the
a second overlapping pass. Compared with the S-1 sample, the yield strength (YS) was yield strength (YS) was
elevated
elevated from
from 226 226 MPa
MPa to to 235
235 and
and 277
277 MPa
MPa for for the
the S-2
S-2 and
and S-3S-3 samples,
samples, respectively,
respectively,
while
while aa 3%
3% andand 7%7% increase
increaseininultimate
ultimatetensile
tensilestrength
strength (UTS)
(UTS) was was also
also observed
observed in the
in the S-2
S-2
andand S-3 samples,
S-3 samples, respectively.
respectively. The strengthening
The strengthening of theofS-2the S-2S-3
and and S-3 samples
samples is at-
is attributed
tributed to not
to not only theonly therefinement
grain grain refinement buttoalso
but also thetomixture
the mixture of dissimilar
of dissimilar materials
materials in
in the
the AA6061/AA7075 alloys. It has already been reported
AA6061/AA7075 alloys. It has already been reported that the mixing that the mixing of the dissimilar
dissimilar
materials
materials induced mechanical interlocking,
induced additional mechanical interlocking,which whichwas wasbeneficial
beneficialforfor increas-
increasing
ing
the the tensile
tensile strength
strength [42].[42]. Reversing
Reversing the welding
the welding direction
direction of theofsecond
the second overlapping
overlapping pass
pass improved
improved the efficiency
the efficiency of theof the grain
grain refinement
refinement and the and the dissimilar
dissimilar materials materials
mixturemixture
further,
further,
and as aand as a consequence,
consequence, the S-3 samplethe S-3 samplethe
exhibited exhibited the highest
highest tensile strengthtensile
among strength
all the
among all the FSW samples.
FSW samples.

Figure
Figure 11.
11. The
The results
results of (a) Vickers
Vickers hardness
hardnessand
and(b)
(b)tensile
tensilestrength
strengthofofthe
thesingle-pass
single-pass and
and multi-
multiple-
ple-pass
pass FSW FSW samples.
samples.

4. Conclusions
AA6061 and AA7075 alloys were joined by using single-pass and multiple-pass FSW
techniques, then the impacts of a second overlapping pass and its welding direction, on
the characteristics of the NZ, were researched and the results are summarized as follows:
(1) Compared with single-pass FSW, the DRX time was prolonged with the application of
a second overlapping pass, and sufficient DRX during the multiple-pass FSW led to
finer grains (20% decrease in average grain size) with increased HAGBs (2% increase
in fraction) in the NZ. Additionally, reversing the welding direction of the second
overlapping pass enhanced the vertical flow of materials, increasing the FSW strain in
the NZ. Consequently, the grain refinement and mixing of dissimilar materials during
the second overlapping pass was significant, with the grains becoming further refined
from 4.2 µm to 2.1 µm.
(2) In comparison to the single-pass FSW, the NZ was strengthened after the second
overlapping pass, which was caused by both the grain refinement and the mechanical
interlocking of the AA6061/AA7075. A 3% increase was observed in both yield
strength and ultimate tensile strength. Moreover, the NZ fabricated via the multiple-
pass FSW with an opposite welding direction showed the highest tensile strength
among all FSW samples, and the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength was
increased by more than 50/30 MPa by conducting a second overlapping pass.
Metals 2021, 11, 1506 10 of 11

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.C. and F.Z.; methodology, Y.C.; investigation, Y.C.;
writing—original draft preparation, Y.C.; writing—review and editing, Z.C. and H.D.; project admin-
istration, Y.C.; funding acquisition, Y.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
No.52005090), Natural Science Foundation of Liaoning Province (Grant No.2020-BS-051), Fundamen-
tal Research Funds for the Central Universities of China (Grant No.N2103012) and National Defense
Key Disciplines Laboratory of Light Alloy Processing Science and Technology, Nanchang Hangkong
University (Grant No.EG202080409).
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments: Thanks for the technical support of Yuqing Mao, who is working in the National
Defense Key Disciplines Laboratory of Light Alloy Processing Science and Technology, Nanchang
Hangkong University.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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