352
Jot. J. Sports Med. 8(1987)352—356
Metabolic and Hormonal Responses to Long-Distance Swimming in Cold Water
S. Dulac', A. Quirion', D. DeCarufel', J. Le8anc2, M. Jobin2, J. C6té2, G.R. Brisson3,
JM. Lavoie4, and P. Diamond2
Département des sciences de l'activité physique, LJniversité du Québec è Trois-Rivières
Département de physiologie, Faculté do médecine, Université Laval, Québec
3INRS-Santé, Montréal
4Département d'éducation pnysique, Université do Montréal
Abstract
S. Dulac, A. Quirion, D. DeCarufel, J. LeBlanc, M. Jobin,
J. Côte, G. R. Brisson, J.M. Lavoie, and P. Diamond,
Metabolic and Hormonal Responses to Long-Distance
Swimming in Cold Water. mt J Sports Med, Vol 8, No 5,
pp 352—356, 1987.
The acute effects of long-distance swimming in cold water on
selected hormonal and metabolic variables were evaluated
on 22 long-distance swimmers (16 males and 6 females)
during a 32-km swimming competition (La Traversée Inter-
nationale du Lac St-Jean). The water temperature was
18.5° C and the mean performance times were 8 h and 32
mm for men CM) and 9 h and 1 mm for women (F). The
blood samples were withdrawn in the fasting state during
the week preceding the event and within 30 mm after
completion of the race. A positive correlation was ob-
tained, for both groups, between percent body fat and
rectal temperature measured at the end of the competi-
tion. After the competition, an increase in plasma epmne-
phrine, norepmnephrine, cortisol, thyroxine, free fatty
acids, lactate, a decrease in glucose and insulin and no
change in growth hormone, triiodothyronine, triglycerides,
and cholesterol concentrations were observed in both groups.
The increase in plasma thyroxine was more pronounced in
the slower swimmers while the change in blood cortisol
concentrations was higher in the subjects having the most
acute decrease in body temperature. Male and female
swimmers have a similar metabolic and hormonal response
to a long-distance swimming competition in cold water.
Key words: swimming, cold water, hormone, carbo-
hydrate, lipid, sex differences
Introduction
During high-intensity prolonged exercise, the energy supply
to the working muscles (mobilization, membrane transport,
and intracellular utilization of substrate) is primarily regu-
lated by humoroendocrine factors (17, 31). The energy
utilized during this type of exercise is mainly derived from
carbohydrate and fat sources (12, 15). The endocrine and
metabolic responses to prolonged muscular exercise were
partly studied in running (3, 13, 16, 40), cross-country
skiing (37), and swimming events (10, 19), and studies
have shown that these responses could be affected by changes
in body temperature (1, 10). For both sexes, during exercise
in cold water (20°C), similar thermoregulatory responses
Georg Thieme Verlag Stuttgart' New York
were observed (21). This study was conducted to investi-
gate: (a) the metabolic and hormonal responses to a long.
duration swimming competition in cold water and there-
fore the possible relationship between rectal temperature
change and the hormonal responses as well as (b) the in-
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fluence of the sex of the swimmers on these responses.
Materials and Methods
Twenty-two long-distance swimmers (16 males and 6 females)
participating in "La Traversde Internationale du Lac St-Jean"
(a 32-km swimming competition) were investigated. During
the week prior to the competition, anthropometric data
were measured. The mean body density of men was pre-
dicted from skinfold measurements using all of the equa-
tions of Brozek and Keys (5), Pascale et al. (25), and Sloan
(34), while for the female swimmers, the equations of Sloan
et al. (35), Katch and Michael (14), and Wilmore and Behnke
(42) using skinfold and girth measurements were utilized.
The percentage of body fat was computed from body den-
sity using the equation of Brozek et al. (4).
On one occasion, between the fourth and the last day
preceding the competition, venous blood was collected
from each subject between 7:00 and 10:00 a.m. after an
overnight fast.
The swimming competition started at 8:00 a.m.; the mean
water temperature was 18.5°C. The participants were al-
lowed free food and beverage intake before and throughout
the 32-km race. A post-exercise venous blood sample was
obtained between 20 and 30 miii after the end of the com-
petition.
The blood samples were analyzed for total proteins on an
automatic analyzer (K.D.A.; American Monitor Corpora-
tion, Indianapolis), glucose (2), FFA (28), lactate (7),
epinephrune and norepinephrine (27), insulin (41), growth
hormone (32), cortisol (36), triiodothyronine and thyro-
xine (22), triglycerides (Boehringer Mannheim GmbH kit),
and cholesterol (Boehringer Mannheim GmbH kit). The
assays coefficients of variation (inter and intra) for cortisol,
insulin, growth hormone, thyroxine, and triiodothyronine
were < 5% while they were < 11% for epinephrine and nor.
epinephrine. Statistical analysis was performed using a two-
way analysis of variance (sex and exercise) with repeated
measurements on the second variable.
Metabolic and Hormonal Responses to Long-Distance Swimming in Cold Water mt. J. Sports Med. 8 (1987) 353

Results Table 1 Anthropometric data and results of the swimming com-

petition.
The physical characteristics of the subjects are given in
Men Women
Table 1.
The mean swimming times for the 324cm competition were Age (yrs) 23.1±3.8k 20.5±2.1
8:32±0:55 (M) and 9:01±0:52 (F) and the rectal tempera- Body weight (kg) 79.3±5.6 61.8±8.9
Body height (cm) 177.3±5.0 163.2±7.9
tures upon completion of the race were 35.5°C±1.2°C (M) Body fat (%) 13.6±3.5 24.5±4.7**
and 36.0 C±l.5 C (F) (Table 1). In both groups, we ob- Swimming time (h : mm) 8:32±0:55 9:01±0:52
served a relationship between percentage of body fat and Rectal temperature (°C) 35.5±1.2 36.0±1.5
the rectal temperature at the end of the competition (r:
0.68, P <0.01 for M; r: 0.80,P < 0.02 for F) (Fig. 1). In * Mean standard deviation; ** < 0.05.
both groups, the swimming competition did not alter sig-
nificantly plasma protein concentration (Table 2). For both
groups, after the competition, and when compared with
basal values obtained prior to the event, glucose and insulin A
38
concentrations had decreased. Free fatty acid and lactate omen O,68** C

increased while cholesterol and triglycerides were not modi- —. 37 .women—0,80*

fied significantly (Fig. 2, Table 2). In both groups, after C.) 0
0
the competition, a significant increase was found in the blood 36 0
concentration of epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and

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thyroxine with no significant modification in the concentra- !i. 35
tion of growth hormone and triiodothyronine (Fig. 3,
Table 2). It should be noted that the two-way analysis of 34
variance performed revealed that the sex of the swimmers 1;
has no influence on the hormonal and metabolic variables 33
before and after exercise. 5 10 15 20 25 30
In both groups, the change in blood concentration of
thyroxine observed after the competition appeared to be % body fat
80E
related to the time required to complete the 32-km swim- omen— -0,62**
ming competition (r: 0.80,P< 0.001 for M;r: 0.82,F < 60 •women—-O,92**
0.02 for F) (Fig. 1). For both groups, an inverse relation-
ship was observed between rectal temperature measured at
the end of the competition and the change in blood cortisol 40
concentration (r: —0.62, P < 0.01 for lvi; r: —0.92, P <
0.00 1 for F) (Fig. 1).

Discussion
I:
O -20
The mean percentage of body fat of male long-distance 33 34 35 36 37 38
swimmers in the present study (13.6%) is higher than what rectal temperature (° C)
has been reported for shorter distance swimmers (7%) (9,
23) and for marathon runners (4.3%) (29). For the female
swimmers, the percentage of fat is 24.5% compared with omen —0,80** 0

17.1% for shorter distance swimmers and 16.8% for mara-

E •women 0,82* 0•
thon runners (43). This greater quantity of subcutaneous a, 0
2 0
fat most probably provides the long-distance swimmer with
a better insulation against cold water as previously demon- a 0
o
x0 I
strated by Berg et al. (1, 9) and by the relationship we ob- 00 o 0
served between percentage of body fat and the rectal tem- o
perature at the end of the competition. Furthermore, among I- 0•
the swimmers who entered the competition, the leaner 00
-1
subjects (percentage of body fat < 10%) were unable to
complete the race and seven of the ten nonfinishers had to 7 8 9 10
quit within 3 h due to a marked hypothermia. The mean
swimming time (hours)
rectal temperatures at the end of the competition (35.5°C
for men; 36°C for F) clearly demonstrated the effect of Fig. 1 Relationship between rectal temperature and the percent of
cold water on the swimmers and specially on four of them body fat (panel A), change in blood cortisol concentration and rec-
where we measured a marked hypothermia ( 34°C). tal temperature (panel B), and change in blood thyroxine concen-
tration and the swimming time (panel C) during a 32-km swimming
competition in cold water in male and female swimmers.
354 mt. J. Sports Med. 8 (1987) S. Dulac, A. Quirion, D. DeCarufel, J. LeBlanc, M. Jobin, J. Coté, G.R. Brisson eta!.

Table 2 Hormonal and metabolic response before and after a swimming competition for men and women.

Men Women
Before After % of basal Before After % of basal
value value

Protein (gIlOO ml) 7.38±0.74 7.78±0.39 105% 7.08±0.62 7.40±0.46 105%

Glucose (mM'l') 5.28±0.41 4.46±0.92 84% 5.27±0.41 4.41±0.80 84%
Insulin (plu•mr1) 8.50±5.1 5.1±4.1 60% 9.3±4.9 5.7±4.8 61%
Lactate (mM') 2.97±0.54 5.43±1.45 183% 2.45±0.3 4.48±1.25 183%
Free fatty acid (mM'l') 0.93±0.43 3.26±0.99 350% 0.76±0.33 2.52±1.01 332%
Triglycerides (mM'l') 0.89±0.42 1.13±0.77 127% 0.64±0.40 0.55±0.25 86%
Cholesterol (mMl) 4.68±0.67 4.63±0.63 99% 5.17±1.42 4.40±0.72 85%
Epinephrine(pg'mr) 61±34 197±115 323% 25±15 107±89 428%
Norepinephrine(pg'ml') 249±76 1026±589 412% 252±62 750±391 298%
Cortisol (ig/100 ml) 19.1±6.0 49.3±19.6 258% 26.7±12.0 51.6±27.1 193%
Thyroxine (g/100 ml) 8.15±1.42 9.31±1.85 114% 8.41±1.43 10.1 1±2.46 120%
Growth hormone (ng/100 ml) 10.40±12.8 8.8±9.1 85% 5.4±3.4 4.1±1.2 76%
Triiodothyronine(ng/lOOml) 130±33 128±20 98% 121±20 114±14 94%

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• Women
U Men

• Women
o Men

400

•1 3OO

L
** **
100
inauftn iactc FFA triglyceride. cholesterol
acid
E NE cORTISOL HGH 14 13

Fig. 2 Plasma concentrations of glucose, insulin, lactic acid, free
fatty acids (FFA), triglycerides, and cholesterol during a 32-km
swimming competition in cold water In male and female swimmers.
Results are expressed in percent of the basal value (fasting state).
Fig. 3 Plasma concentrations of epinephrine (E) norepinephrine (NE),
cortisol, growth hormone (HGH), thyroxine (T4), and triiodothyronin
(T3) during a 32-km swimming competition in cold water in male and
female swimmers. Results are expressed in percent of the basal value
(fasting state).

The changes in plasma hormone concentration were not the
result of plasma volume changes since there was no modifi-
cation in plasma protein concentration.
Contrary to the results observed during long-distance run-
ning (from marathon to 100 1cm) where the authors found
no change (16, 40) or an increase (13) in glycemia, we did
observe a decrease in blood glucose concentration at the
end of the competition in spite of the fact that the swim-
mers were permitted free carbohydrate intake during the
race. This decrease in glycemia could result from inadequate
carbohydrate reserves before exercise (only three swimmers
had followed a carbohydrate overloading diet) or from an
insufficient carbohydrate intake during the event.
A decrease in blood insulin concentration was observed in
both groups after the competition, and this result re-
presents the logical consequence of both hypoglycemia and
marked increase in blood catecholarnines (1, 10, 33).
The blood lactate concentration observed in both groups
seems to indicate that the swimmers have exceeded the
Metabolic and Hormonal Responses to Long-Distance Swimming in Cold Water
anaerobic threshold of 4 mmolfl'. This relatively high level
of lactate is probably the result of the sprint at the end of
the competition (the faster swimmers for the last mile re-
ceived cash money prizes).
The observed increase in blood FFA concentration upon
completion of the swimming competition is in agreement
with other studies dealing with long-distance events (1, 10,
13, 16, 20,40); it seems to be related to the duration of
the event (20,40). The post-exercise blood concentration
of FFA ( 2.5 mmol/l) observed in our study is high enough
to have a high uptake and metabolism of free fatty acids by
working muscles.
The lipolysis seems to be mainly in the adipose tissue since
there is no change in blood triglycerides concentration.
These results contrast with the 50% decrease in plasma tri-
glycerides concentration observed after a 100-km run (16).
As expected, plasma cholesterol concentration was not
changed significantly after long-duration exercise (6).
During long-distance exercise with normal or increased core
temperature, the increased lipolysis is to be related to
higher concentrations of blood epinephrine and norepine-
phrme and growth hormone (16). In the same type of work
with decreased body temperature (10; present study), the
enhanced fat mobilization would be related primarily to
increased epinephrine and norepinephrine secretions since
there is no change in circulating growth hormone.
The increase in blood epinephrine and norepinephrine
concentrations during long-distance swimming competi-
tion are of the same magnitude as those reported for vari-
ous types of prolonged exercise (3, 10, 11, 17).
After prolonged muscular exercise, an increase in blood
cortisol concentration is usually observed (3, 8, 10, 16, 17,
26, 37, 38, 40) with the highest circulating levels being
found during exercise in a cold environment (37; present
study). These resultssuggest that the thermal stress has an
additive effect on the cortisol response to prolonged muscu-
lar exercise, and this is illustrated by the negative correla-
tion observed between rectal temperature and change in
blood cortisol concentration.
An increase in blood growth hormone concentration is
generally observed after long-duration muscular exercise
accompanied with rising body temperature (16, 17, 37, 38);
this effect is not observed in hypothermic conditions (10;
present study). One could link the absence of response of
blood growth hormone level during long-distance exercise
in hypothermic conditions to the specific effect of cold since
central body cooling in normal men at rest depresses hypo-
physial growth hormone release (39).
The response of blood thyroxine to prolonged exercise
appears to be influenced by temperature since an increased
concentration is observed in a cold environment (18, 30,
present study) while contradictory results (increase, de-
crease, or no change) were observed in running and cycling
experiments in a neutral environment (8, 11, 24). Further-
more, the plasma thyroxine response seems to be related
to the duration of the cold water exposure since the highest
blood thyroxine modifications were observed in the slower
swimmers. This seems logical if we take into account that
mt. J. Sports Med. 8 (1987) 355
the higher level of blood thyroxine concentration will
activate the thermogenesis, in cooperation with the increase
in blood epinephrine and norepinephrine, to prevent the
cooling effect of long-duration exposure to cold water.
In summary, long-distance swimming in cold water produces
higher blood concentrations of cortisol and thyroxine and
lower glucose, insulin, and growth hormone concentrations
than comparable activities in a neutral environment.
Furthermore, our study has demonstrated that long-distance
swimming in cold water represents, for some swimmers, the
limit of cold and long-duration exercise tolerance: some
swimmers had suffered from marked hypothermia (E34°C)
and/or hypoglycemia ( 3 mmol/1'), which represents
values below the normal physiologic range.
Despite the small sample size of the F group, our results
lead us to assume that female and male swimmers have
the same metabolic and hormonal response pattern to a
long-distance competition in cold water.
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