7030
Counting Instruments
Approved by Standard Methods Committee, 2011. Editorial revisions, 2020. Joint Task Group: 22nd Edition—Robert T. Shannon.
7030
Radiochemical analytical instruments operate on the princi-
ple that the energy expended by a radiation event is detected
and recorded by an instrument suitable for the type of radiation
emitted. The counting instruments described below are com-
monly found in radioanalytical laboratories. Other less common
7030 B. Description and Operation of Instruments
1. Gas-Flow Proportional Counters
Gas-flow proportional counters (GPCs) detect and quantify
alpha- and beta-emitting radionuclides. If the sample contains
multiple radionuclides, the instrument will detect and count all
emissions regardless of their radionuclide source or energy. The
analysis may be made radionuclide-specific by combining this
detection method with a radiochemical separation to segregate
the desired radionuclide. The radionuclide (226Ra, Th, U, etc.) is
usually precipitated and mounted as a thin layer (generally less
than 5 mg/cm2) on planchets.
a. Types of GPCs commonly used for environmental analyses:
GPCs operate on the principle that radioactive decay particles,
such as alpha and beta particles, cause ionization in a gas-filled
detector. The liberated electrons are accelerated in an electrical
field placed across the detector cell, thereby amplifying the signal.
The signal is collected at the detector’s anode, creating a pulse of
electricity that then can be processed. The combined magnitude
of all pulses collected from one decay particle is proportional to
the energy deposited in the detector by that particle—hence the
term proportional count.
Select the detector fill gas to optimize amplification. Although
other gases have been used successfully, the most frequently used
mixture in low-background GPCs is called P-10; it consists of
90% argon and 10% methane.
Alpha particles may be determined by operating the detector at
the alpha plateau, where the voltage is low enough that the detector
does not respond to beta particles. Detectors are frequently oper-
ated at the higher-voltage beta plateau, where the detector responds
to both alpha and beta particles. Because each pulse produced is
proportional to the energy deposited in the active volume of the
detector by the decay particle, pulse-height analysis (PHA) can
be used to discriminate between the larger pulses associated with
alpha particles and the smaller pulses associated with beta particles.
b. Internal and thin-windowed GPCs: Internal and thin-win-
dowed GPCs are commonly used for low-level environmental
measurements. With internal GPCs, the test source is introduced
directly into the counting chamber, which is then filled with the
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A. Introduction
instruments may also be used for analysis. Instrument back-
ground and fractional counting efficiency must be measured
and integrated into the sample calculations. These characteris-
tics can be compared with historical data and used to evaluate
instrument stability.
counting gas. With thin-window GPCs, the test source is positioned
outside the active volume of the detector, next to an entrance win-
dow generally constructed of a very thin Mylar film. The entrance
window allows decay particles emitted from the source to enter
the active volume of the detector.
Thin-windowed GPCs are less sensitive to low-energy decay
particles than internal GPCs due to the less favorable counting
geometry associated with positioning the source outside the active
volume of the detector. Additionally, there are losses due to the
decay particles’ interaction with air and the window between the
test source and the active volume. In contrast, windowed GPCs
are much less subject to counting-chamber contamination and
damage due to loose residues, losses due to residual moisture, and
corrosion due to vapors commonly associated with test sources.
Prepare all GPC test sources in a manner that minimizes friable
particles and vapors from moisture or solvents because these can
contaminate or damage the detector chamber (internal GPCs) or
detector entrance window (thin-windowed GPCs).
c. Detection system components: The instrument consists of a
counting chamber, pre-amplifier, amplifier, scaler, high-voltage
power supply, timer, pulse-shape discriminator, and register. Use
the specified counting gas and accessories, make adjustments for
sensitivity, and operate in accordance with both the method and
the manufacturer’s instructions.
d. Background-reduction measures: Low backgrounds are
important for environmental analysis. One technique for minimiz-
ing background activity is constructing the detection system with
low-background materials. Two other techniques used for back-
ground reduction—passive and active shielding—are designed to
minimize the effect of external radiation (e.g., cosmic radiation as
well as gamma and X-ray radiation from terrestrial sources, build-
ing materials, and radioactive sources at the laboratory). A passive
shield typically consists of a 5- to 10-cm-thick layer of lead sur-
rounding the detector. An active shield involves a guard detector
placed next to the primary detector so any radiation that impinges
on the primary detector must pass through the guard detector. The
primary detector is operated in anticoincidence mode (i.e., any
counts registered concurrently in the primary and guard detectors
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 7030 COUNTING INSTRUMENTS - B. Description and Operation of Instruments
Figure 7030:1. Shape of counting rate-anode voltage curves. Key: (a) and (b) are for internal proportional counter with P-10 gas; (c) is for end-window
Geiger-Mueller counter with Geiger gas (Note: Beta losses depend on radiation energy and thickness of window and air path.)
are not registered as valid sample counts). With these measures,
modern low-background GPCs can routinely achieve background
count rates on the order of 0.05 to 0.2 alpha counts per minute
(cpm) and 0.5 to 2 beta cpm.
e. Availability: GPC detection systems are commercially avail-
able in a number of assembled configurations. Detectors may
be configured alone or in arrays (e.g., of 4, 8, and 10 detectors),
and may incorporate automatic sample changers. The most com-
monly encountered detector diameter is approximately 5 cm. Ten-
centimeter detectors are also available; they are most frequently
used to count larger sources (e.g., air filters).
f. Instrument setup:
1) Radioactive sources—See Section 7020 A.3h.
2) Voltage plateau (alpha or beta)—A voltage plateau is a
curve used to determine an operating voltage that will provide
reproducible count rates. It is obtained by placing an appropriate
alpha or beta source in each detector and varying the detector
voltage until the change in the count rate reaches a minimum.
Further increases in voltage will produce little change in overall
detector response until the plateau region is exceeded. Caution:
Continuous discharge at too high a voltage will damage the
instrument.
The alpha plateau is generally a region in the 300 to 800 V
range (depending on the detector) where the instrument responds
to an alpha source but not a beta source. The beta plateau is gen-
erally a region in the 1000 to 1700 V range where the instrument
responds to both alpha and beta radiation.
The relative counting rate (ordinate) is plotted against the volt-
age (abscissa). The operating point is generally established on the
plateau curve at a point marginally beyond the knee of the curve
(Figure 7030:1), where instrument response to a point source
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varies by less than 5% per 100-V change in voltage. Distributed
planar test sources are the most common test source counted in
most laboratories. When plateaus are obtained using distributed
sources, the slope of the curve at the operating voltage may nomi-
nally exceed a target of 5% per 100 V. Check the plateau to ensure
that the optimal operating voltage has not changed by performing
instrument response and background checks after each change of
counting gas.
Most modern GPC software contains utilities for perform-
ing plateau curve acquisition and establishing operating
voltage set-points. Consult the instrument manual for setup
details.
3) Pulse-height discriminator setup—GPCs use pulse-height
analysis (PHA) to discriminate between pulses originating from
alpha or beta particles based on the amplitude of the pulses they
produce. Due to the physics of the measurement, alpha pulses
are generally much larger than beta pulses. Crosstalk refers to
the unavoidable misclassification of pulses during simultaneous
counting for alpha and beta. For example, pulses resulting from
alpha decays may be misidentified as beta pulses (alpha-to-beta
crosstalk), or pulses resulting from beta decays may be misidenti-
fied as alpha pulses (beta-to-alpha crosstalk). Alpha particles are
much more strongly attenuated than beta particles, so they often
result in smaller pulses that may be misclassified as beta pulses.
In other words, alpha-to-beta crosstalk will be much larger than
beta-to-alpha crosstalk.
Setting the pulse-height discriminator establishes the instru-
ment’s crosstalk response. Some instruments require that discrim-
inators be set up after the operating voltage is established, while
others are configured at the factory. Consult the instrument manual
for setup details. As an overall measurement strategy, setting the
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 7030 COUNTING INSTRUMENTS - B. Description and Operation of Instruments
discriminators to minimize beta-to-alpha crosstalk (e.g., to ~0.1%)
will decrease the magnitude of crosstalk corrections and improve
the quality of simultaneous alpha and beta measurements.
Once the operating voltage and discriminator settings have
been established, they must be documented and locked down.
Changing either parameter invalidates all previously established
performance check data and instrument calibrations, and the
instrument must be recalibrated.
4) Background (alpha or beta)—Most detectors have a back-
ground count rate that is due to several factors: cosmic radiation;
radionuclides contained in instrument materials; the counting
room’s construction material; undesirable signals from electron-
ics; and the proximity of radioactive sources. The background is
roughly proportional to the size or mass of the counting chamber
or detector but can be reduced by shielding or anti-coincidence
guard circuitry (see ¶ d above).
a) Determination of background count rate—The background
count rate is subtracted from each measurement to determine the
net activity of the sample test source. Determine the background
count rate by counting an empty planchet in the counting chamber
in the same configuration as the sample test source. The back-
ground count duration should be as long as or longer than the
counts from which it will be subtracted.
b) Control of backgrounds—Verify the continuing stability
of the background count rate during the count by tracking back-
ground performance via control charts. Also, evaluate method
blank control charts for persistent high or low bias in results (i.e.,
absolute bias), then determine the cause and correct it. If the cause
is intrinsic to the method, a correction factor (independent of QC
samples) may be developed and applied to eliminate absolute bias
as long as the additional correction’s uncertainty is reflected in
the combined standard uncertainty reported for the sample result.
5) Initial calibration (alpha, beta, or radionuclide specific)—
The purpose of initial calibration is to empirically derive counting
efficiency factors for a geometry that matches those of the test
samples, thus ensuring that the correction for efficiency is accu-
rate. Parameters that must match include radionuclide, matrix
composition, and density and thickness (which causes self-ab-
sorption of alpha or beta particles in the sample matrix). Each
detector’s detection efficiency must be determined separately. Ini-
tial calibration is procedure dependent; see individual procedures
for specific instructions. Absorption curve values do not need to
be re-established after initial calibration as long as the continuing
calibration (source check) response is monitored regularly and
indicates that the instrument has remained stable between calibra-
tion and sample measurements.
6) Continuing calibration (source check)—Verify instrument
stability at the operating voltage by counting separate check
sources for alpha and beta (where applicable) on each detector.
Monitor the major and minor channel count rates (i.e., for an
alpha source, alpha is the major channel and beta is the minor
channel) for each source counted and plot the results on a con-
trol or tolerance chart to demonstrate the continuing stability of
the detector efficiency and crosstalk (Section 7020 A). The tests
and acceptance criteria used should be addressed in the laboratory
quality manual. If the checks do not provide evidence of continu-
ing instrument stability, the detector should be taken offline until
the problem is fixed and the instrument is recalibrated, or until
continuing checks demonstrate that maintenance has not changed
instrument response.
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7) Sample counting—Place the prepared sample test source
in the detector in a geometry consistent with initial calibration.
For internal GPCs, ensure that there is electrical contact between
planchet and chamber, and flush the chamber with counting gas.
Count for a preset duration or a preset count to give the desired
counting uncertainty (Section 7020 D).
2. Alpha Scintillation Counter
Alpha scintillation counters detect and quantify alpha-emitting
radionuclides. If the sample contains multiple radionuclides, the
instrument will detect and count all alpha emissions regardless of
their radionuclide source or energy. The analysis may be made
more radionuclide-specific by using a radiochemical separation
to isolate the desired radionuclide. This radionuclide (226Ra,
Th, U, etc.) is usually precipitated and mounted as a thin layer
(≤5 mg/cm2) on planchets. Radon-222 (radium-226 by radon
emanation) also can be counted in alpha scintillation cells in a
modified sample chamber (Section 7500-Ra C).
a. Principle and uses: An alpha particle interacts with zinc
sulfide phosphor (which contains a silver activator), exciting the
scintillator’s atoms. When the atoms return to the ground state,
they emit the energy as visible light. This process is called scin-
tillation. The light is further transformed into an electrical current
via an attached PMT, which amplifies the electrical current into a
measurable pulse. The pulses trigger a scaler, which counts each
pulse. Depending on the amount of radionuclide present and sta-
tistics required, count a sample long enough to obtain required
sensitivity. The counter is calibrated with a thin-layered precipi-
tate of a radionuclide or an electrodeposited radionuclide.
b. Components: The alpha scintillation counter consists of a light-
tight sample chamber with a phosphor detector coupled to a photo-
multiplier tube (PMT) and sample holder, a high-voltage supply, an
amplifier-discriminator, a scaler, and readout capability. Generally,
the PMT’s window has a larger diameter than that of the samples.
Put the phosphor between the sample and the PMT. The distance
between the sample surface and PMT face is usually about 3 to
5 mm. Arrange the phosphor so the PMT window is in optical con-
tact with the scintillator. Under these conditions, the counting effi-
ciency can be 35% to 40%. For details on operating and calibrating
an alpha scintillation counter, see manufacturer’s instructions.
c. Performance verification:
1) Radioactive source—See Section 7020 A.3h.
2) Plateau—In accordance with manufacturer recommen-
dations, use a radioactive source to find the operating voltage
where the count rate is consistent over some specified voltage
range.
3) Background—Two backgrounds are evaluated with alpha
scintillation counters: electronic instrument background and
chamber background. The electronic instrument background char-
acteristically measures the PMT’s electronic noise. It is determined
periodically (e.g., annually) by counting with an empty chamber
and should vary from 0 to 1 cpm.
The chamber background is counted with the zinc sulfide phos-
phor or scintillation cell in place. This background may be caused
by a number of factors including contaminated instrument parts,
counting-room construction materials, and nearby sources of
radioactivity. When measuring chamber background, use a dura-
tion as long or longer than the longest sample counting duration;
this background is subtracted from gross sample results.
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 7030 COUNTING INSTRUMENTS - B. Description and Operation of Instruments
4) Initial calibration—The purpose of initial calibration is to
determine the scintillation counting efficiency based on sam-
ple thickness (which causes absorption of some alpha or beta
particles in the sample matrix) or cell geometry (in the case of
scintillation cells). Initial calibration is method-dependent; see
individual methods for specific instructions.
Absorption curve values do not need to be re-established after
initial calibration as long as the check source response is mon-
itored regularly and control charts indicate instrument stability.
Recalibrate scintillation cells periodically.
5) Continuing calibration (source check)—See 7030 B.1f 6.
6) Sample counting—Place the prepared sample in the count-
ing chamber according to manufacturer’s instructions. Take the
following precautions:
• ensure that the counting chamber is light-tight;
• ensure that PMT is not exposed to direct light while high
voltage is applied;
• let sample chamber adapt to the dark before starting count;
• count for a preset duration or count, to give the desired
counting precision;
• ensure that the sample is in contact with the phosphor; and
• count samples in a geometry consistent with the initial
calibration.
3. Liquid Scintillation Counters
A liquid scintillation spectrometer system uses one or more
PMTs to count the number of scintillations (photons of light)
emitted from a sample vial. The number of photons produced
in the scintillator is proportional to the particle’s initial energy.
This information helps determine the specific radionuclide
present.
a. Principle and uses: A sample containing beta- (or alpha-)
emitting radionuclides is mixed in a liquid scintillator. Each beta
(or alpha) particle transfers kinetic energy to solvent and phos-
phor molecules in the liquid scintillation cocktail via a large num-
ber of collisions. As the excited molecules return to ground state,
they emit photons of light that are detected by PMTs in the instru-
ment. Although the number of photons produced for any given
decay event is proportional to the energy of the decay particle, it
is notable that alpha particles transfer energy at roughly one-tenth
the rate of beta particles and thus result in lower energy pulses.
The PMTs amplify the incoming light into an electronic pulse. In
most instruments currently in use at radiochemistry laboratories,
background is significantly reduced by operating two PMTs in
coincidence. This means that signal must be received from both
PMTs within the same time interval (e.g., within 20 ns of each
other) to yield a valid pulse. Coincident signals are summed, dig-
itized according to their pulse-height and then stored in a multi-
channel analyzer in a channel corresponding to the energy of the
original radiation.
Although the instrument outputs spectrometric data, the con-
tinuous nature of beta spectra combined with the instrument’s
limited resolution limits the instrument’s use for spectrometric
determinations. Most frequently, LS counting is combined with
chemical separations to perform sensitive, radionuclide-specific
determinations of alpha and beta emitters. Liquid scintillation is
commonly used to determine the activities of some alpha (e.g.,
222
Rn and daughters) and most low-energy beta emitters (e.g., 3H
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and 14C). Counting efficiencies approaching 100% can be obtained
from alpha- and higher-energy beta-emitting radionuclides.
b. Components: The system consists of a liquid scintillator
[organic scintillator(s) diluted with an appropriate solvent], a
polyethylene or glass vial, a liquid scintillation counter (with one
or more PMTs coupled to a single- or multichannel analyzer), and
a readout device.
c. Performance verification:
1) Radioactive sources—See Section 7020 A.3h.
2) Background—Consider 3 backgrounds when dealing with
liquid scintillation spectrometers: electronic or instrument back-
ground, chamber background, and background for subtraction.
a) Electronic or instrument background—Periodically deter-
mine background using an empty counting chamber and a dark
vial. Some manufacturers supply a dark or black vial [a counting
vial filled with black material (e.g., graphite)] for this purpose.
b) Chamber background—The unquenched background is
determined using a vial supplied by the manufacturer. This back-
ground is used only to assess daily instrument performance and
should never be subtracted from sample results.
c) Background for subtraction—A method-specific back-
ground is determined and subtracted from each sample test
source result using vials identical to those used for samples,
except that they are free of activity. The background subtraction
sample is not a QC sample, but is part of the analytical process
and should be prepared independently of QC reagent or method
blanks. When analyzing tritium, for example, mix the same type
of vial with cocktail from the same production lot, using the
same sample-to-cocktail ratio with an aliquant of purified dead
water (e.g., a fossil source of water in which tritium has already
decayed).
3) Initial calibration—Before sample analysis, the counting
conditions may be optimized for measurements with constant
quench. For variable-quench measurements, counting regions
may be optimized if they take into account variation in the region
of interest as a function of quench. Some analysts maximize the
figure of merit (FOM):
E2/B
where:
E = efficiency and
B = background count rate.
Optimum counting conditions should not be re-established
after initial calibration because changing the analysis window will
affect the efficiency that is determined. Once optimum conditions
have been selected (via a pure source), determine sample counting
efficiency by one of several methods (see Sections 7500-3H and
7500-Rn): standard additions, quench curve, or prepared labora-
tory standard.
4) Continuing calibration (source check)—See Section 7500-
Rn for specific calibration procedures for radon-222 by liquid
scintillation counting.
5) Sample counting—Place prepared samples in the counting
chamber, let samples adapt to the dark, and count for the preset
count or duration needed to obtain the desired sensitivity.
As with other counting techniques, deal with any interferences to
the method. Such interferences include quenching (chemical, color,
or particle quenching), chemiluminescence, photoluminescence,
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 7030 COUNTING INSTRUMENTS - B. Description and Operation of Instruments
static electricity, scintillation volume variations, sample homoge-
neity, background, multiple radionuclides, and phase separation.
4. Alpha Spectrometers
a. Principle and uses: An alpha spectrometer detects, identi-
fies, and quantifies specific alpha-emitting radionuclides. The
radionuclides should be chemically separated from samples and
deposited as a thin layer on filter papers or electrodeposited on
metal disks. When a sample’s alpha emissions cause ionization
in a solid-state detector, a pulse of current is produced that has an
amplitude proportional to the alpha particle energy.
The current is collected, amplified, sorted according to depos-
ited alpha energy, and displayed on a multichannel analyzer.
Chemical yield tracers should be added to each sample to ensure
accurate quantitation.
b. Components: An alpha spectrometer consists of a sample
chamber (with detector, sample support, and vacuum chamber); a
mechanical vacuum pump; detector bias voltage supply; pream-
plifier; amplifier; multichannel analyzer (with ADC and memory
storage); and data readout capability. For details on calibration and
operations, see the operations manual provided by the manufacturer.
c. Performance verification:
1) Radioactive source—See Section 7020 A.3h.
2) Detector voltage—Set detector operating voltage in accor-
dance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
3) Background—Determine the chamber background count
using a clean filter or metal disk identical to those on which sam-
ples are mounted. The counting duration should be at least as long
as the longest sample counting duration. Monitor the background
count rate (which is subtracted from the sample count rate) via a
control chart to demonstrate its stability over the most recent 3
to 10 counts and to identify potential long-term trends that could
prevent the detector from providing results that meet detection
limit requirements.
4) Initial calibration—The purpose of initial calibration is to
establish a detector’s energy calibration and counting efficiency.
Use a standard source, as described in Section 7020 A.3h.
Before beginning calibration, ensure that the counting vacuum
chamber is well sealed and has an adequate, consistent vacuum
source. Inadequate vacuum will result in a distorted alpha spec-
trum. An inconsistent vacuum can cause significant drift of the
alpha spectra.
5) Continuing calibration (source check)—Verify detector effi-
ciency and energy calibration stability. A mixed alpha-emitting
isotopic source containing at least two distinct peaks (see Sec-
tion 7020 A.3h allows the energy calibration to be confirmed by
permitting identification of specific alpha-emitting radionuclides.
For criteria, see 7030 B.1f 6.
6) Sample counting—Place prepared sample in the counting
chamber according to manufacturer’s instructions. Take the fol-
lowing precautions:
• ensure that the air in the counting chamber is slowly evacu-
ated to the level of vacuum defined in the laboratory’s SOPs;
• count for a preset duration or preset count, to give the desired
counting precision;
• ensure that the sample is properly positioned on the sample
holder; and
• after counting, release vacuum slowly to minimize the risk of
contaminating chamber and detector.
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5. Gamma Spectrometers
Gamma spectrometry identifies and quantifies specific energy
photons (gamma rays), quantitating specific radionuclides.
a. Principle and uses: Gamma rays from a sample enter the
sensitive volume of the detector and cause ionization. The lib-
erated charge is converted into a voltage pulse whose ampli-
tude is proportional to the photon energy. Pulses are stored in
sequence in finite energy-equivalent increments over the desired
spectrum. After sample counting, the accumulated pulses over
a certain area result in photopeaks that can be identified and
attributed to specific radionuclides based on their characteristic
energies.
b. Components: A gamma spectrometer consists of a detector,
pre-amplifier and detector bias supply, pulse-height analyzer sys-
tem, data readout capability, and shielded sample enclosure. The
pulse-height analyzer system consists of a linear amplifier, an
analog-to-digital converter (ADC), memory storage, and a logic
control mechanism. The logic-control capabilities allow data stor-
age in various modes and data display or recall. For details on
operating and calibrating a gamma spectrum analyzer, see manu-
facturer’s instructions.
Commonly used gamma detectors consist of intrinsic or
high-purity germanium (HPGe). Lithium drifted germanium
[Ge(Li)] detectors are less robust, and many have been replaced
by HPGe detectors. Sodium iodide [NaI(Tl)] and silicon [Si(Li)]
detectors are sometimes encountered, but have limited application
(primarily to screen samples or analyze single gamma-emitting
radionuclides). Germanium detectors offer excellent resolution
and reasonable to good efficiency (depending on the application
and cost). NaI(Tl) detectors have poor resolution and reasonable
to good efficiency at reasonable cost. Si(Li) detectors have good
efficiency and reasonable resolution for low-energy X-rays (10
to 200 KeV). Other detectors are available. See Table 7030:1 for
typical resolution for several detector types.
c. Performance verification:
1) Radioactive sources—See Section 7020 A.3h.
2) Detector voltage—Set detector operating voltage according
to manufacturer’s recommendations.
3) Background—Background counts are the result of a contam-
inated sample chamber and cosmic, natural, and worldwide fall-
out in the detector shielding. Determine the detector background
count using an appropriate volume of reagent-grade water in the
desired geometry. The background counting duration should be at
least as long as the longest sample counting duration.
4) Initial calibration—Establish a detector’s energy calibration,
shape, and counting efficiency per sample geometry. Use a stan-
dard source, as described in Section 7020 A.3h.
5) Continuing calibration (source check)—Verify the detector’s
efficiency and energy calibration stability (Section 7020 A.3a).
Use a standard source, as described in Section 7020 A.3h.
6) Sample counting—Place the prepared sample in the count-
ing chamber and proceed according to the instrument manufac-
turer’s instructions.
d. Gamma scintillation: A common gamma spectroscopy sys-
tem is the sodium iodide, thallium-activated [NaI(Tl)] crystal sys-
tem using scintillation phenomenon. The high atomic number of
iodine in NaI gives good counting efficiency. A small amount of
Tl is added to activate the crystal. The best achievable resolution
is about 7% with the 137Cs gamma ray at 662 KeV gamma ray [in
5
 7030 COUNTING INSTRUMENTS - B. Description and Operation of Instruments
Table 7030:1. Energy Resolution for Various Detector Types
Resolution at Given Energy
Detector 5.9 keV 122 keV 1332 keV
Proportional counter 1.2 – –
X-ray NaI(Tl) 3.0 12.0 – Nader JS, Hagee GR, Setter LR. Evaluating the performance of the internal
3 × 3 NaI(Tl) – 12.0 60
Si(Li) 0.16 – –
Planar Ge 0.18 0.5 – 1963.
Coaxial Ge – 0.8 1.8
a 3-in.-diam × 3-in.-long (7.6-cm-diam × 7.6-cm-long) crystal]
and slightly worse for smaller or larger detectors.
The light decay time constant in NaI is about 0.25 µs. Typical
charge-sensitive pre-amplifiers translate this into an output pulse
rise time of about 0.5 µs. Fast coincidence measurements cannot
achieve the brief resolving times that are possible with plastic scin-
tillators, especially at low gamma-ray energies. Many configura-
tions of NaI detectors are available commercially, ranging from very
thin crystals for X-ray measurements to large crystals with multiple
phototubes. Crystals built with a well to allow nearly spherical (4π)
counting of weak samples also are a standard configuration. This
type of detector is used primarily for screening measurements, or
when a sample is known to contain only one radionuclide and its
limited resolution permits accurate measurements.
e. Solid state detectors: A common high-resolution germa-
nium detector consists of a sensitive-volume cylinder containing
a diode with more than 30 cm3 of sensitive volume and a dipstick
immersed in liquid nitrogen in a large cryostat, a pre-amplifier,
and a detector bias voltage supply. The detector is cooled with
liquid nitrogen to protect the diode and reduce electronic noise
generation. Keep intrinsic germanium detectors at the tempera-
ture of liquid nitrogen. Use a linear amplifier that will maintain
the detector’s pulse resolution.
In Ge-diode detector systems, gamma photons interacting with
the detector cause detector atoms to ionize. A bias voltage to the
detector allows a charge proportional to deposited photon energy
to collect, with resolving times of 10-9 to 10-13 s. Such systems
have exceptionally high resolution.
f. Data system: The data systems contain one or more of the
following: a visual display for the gamma spectrometer readout
indicator, a digital printer, and a computer terminal with associated
capabilities. An oscilloscope is helpful in aligning the instrument
Published Online: August 27, 2018
Revised: March 27, 2020
https://doi.org/10.2105/SMWW.2882.138
with standards (e.g., 60Co, 137Cs, 207Bi, and 154Eu). Computer capabil-
ity is essential in both data reduction and complex sample analysis.
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