Speed

 &  Velocity    
• Average  speed    
total distance s
Average speed = =
total time Δt

DEFINITION − AVERAGE SPEED

• Instantaneous  velocity  
€ Δx x2 − x1 dx
v(t ) = lim = lim =
Δt →0 Δt Δt →0 t − t dt
2 1

• Average  velocity  
v =
Δx
=
( x -x)f i
(so Δx = v Δt)
ave x ave x
Δt (t − t )
f i

DEFINITION − AVERAGE VELOCITY

 Instantaneous velocity
s
Average speed = Δx x −x dx
Δt v(t) = lim = lim 2 1 =
Δt → 0 Δt Δt → 0 t − t dt
2 1

€ t2 t1
€
Δt Δt
distance

distance
x2

Δx
s x1

time time
 Mo@on  with  constant  accelera@on  1  
• Accelera@on  
Δv x
ax = lim
Δt→0 Δt

DEFINITION − INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION

• Average  accelera@on  
€
aave x
Δv
= x =
(v fx - v ix ) (so Δv x = aave x Δt)
Δt (t f − ti )
DEFINITION − AVERAGE ACCELERATION

• For  constant,  non  zero  accelera@on  the  velocity  varies  

€
linearly  in  .me  and  distance  as  a  quadra.c  in  .me  
 Instantaneous acceleration
Δv x
ax = lim
Δt→0 Δt
Δt
velcoity Average acceleration
Δv
Δvx aave x = x
Δt

For constant acceleration

time ax = aave x

€
distance

For constant acceleration

• velocity varies linearly with time
• distance varies quadratically with time

time
 Mo@on  with  constant  accelera@on  2  
• Equa@ons  of  mo@on  in  one  dimension  with  
constant  accelera@on   t
vx

velcoity
Δvx=axt
v x = v 0x + ax t
2 v0x
1
Δx = x − x 0 = v 0x t + ax t
2
time

v 2 = v 0x
2
+ 2ax Δx vx
t

velcoity
Δvx=axt
area= ½ axt2
see Tipler p38-39
v0x
area=v0xt
area=distance moved
€ time
 suvat?  
• v=u+at   v x = v 0x + ax t
• s=ut+½at2   Δx = x − x 0 = v 0x t + 12 ax t 2
2 2
• v2=u2+2as   v = v + 2ax Δx
0x

€
velcoity
Δt vi

velcoity
Δxi=viΔti
distance Δx=vxt vx

time time Δti

t
vx
velcoity

Δvx=axt
area= ½ axt2

v0x
area=v0xt

time
 Posi@on,  displacement  &  velocity  vectors  

  
Δ r = r2 − r1 = (x 2 − x1 )iˆ + (y 2 − y1 ) ˆj = Δxiˆ + Δyˆj

POSITION VECTOR 
 Δr Δxiˆ + Δyˆj % Δx ( % Δy (
DISPLACEMENT VECTOR v = Δlim = lim = lim ' *i + lim ' * ˆj
ˆ
t→0 Δ t Δt→0 Δt Δ t → 0& Δt ) Δ t → 0& Δt )
VELOCITY VECTOR
See Tipler p64
 dx dy ˆ
v = iˆ + j = v x iˆ + v y ˆj
dt dt
 Rela@ve  velocity  

• If  a  par@cle  p  moves  with  velocity      v    pA      rela@ve  
to  reference  frame  A,  which  is  in  turn  moving  

with  velocity    v    AB
       rela@ve  to  reference  frame  
B,  the  velocity      v    pB      of  the  par@cle  rela@ve  to  
€
reference  frame  B  is    
  €   
v pB = v pA + v AB
  
v pA € 
v AB


v pB
Tipler p66
€ €

€
 Accelera@on  vector  

 dx ˆ dy ˆ dz ˆ
v= i+ j+ k
dt dt dt

 dv x ˆ dv y ˆ dv z ˆ d 2 x ˆ d 2 y ˆ d 2 z ˆ
a= i+ j+ k= 2 i+ 2 j+ 2 k
dt dt dt dt dt dt
= ax iˆ + ay ˆj + az kˆ

€
 Projec@les  1  
• 2D  mo@on  with  constant  accelera@on  (gravity)  
vox = vo cos θ o
voy = vo sin θ o

ax = 0 v x = vox
ay = −g v y = voy − gt

x(t ) = xo + vox t
1 2
y (t ) = yo + voy t − gt
2

• Treat  dimensions  independently  

 Projec@les  2  
Total flight time T

• Flight  @me   Set (y(t) − y 0 ) = 0 in

2v 0y 2v 0 1
y(t) = y o + v oy t − gt 2
T= = sin θ 0 2
g g ⇒T =
2v 0y
g

• Range  
€
# 2v 0 & 2v 0 2
R€= v 0x T = (v 0 cosθ 0 )% sin θ 0 ( = sin θ 0 cosθ 0
$ g ' g
sin2θ = 2sin θ cosθ
2
v0
R= sin2θ 0
g
 Uniform  circular  mo@on  

Δv v
 =
Δr r
 
Δv v Δr
=
Δt r Δt

Tipler p80

v2
€
ac =
r
CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
Newton’s  Laws  
Fric@on  
Fn is the normal force, ie
the force pushing the
surfaces together
  
Condi9ons  For  Sta9c  Equilibrium  
 
• Net  External  Force  Ac9ng  on  Body  Must  Be  Zero  

 
∑F i =0 No  accelera9on  of  
centre  of  mass  
  i

• Net  External  Torque  ac9ng  on  the  body  must  be  zero  about  any  point  or  
axis  
No  Rota9on  
∑τ i = 0
i !
τ
 
€ !
Recall definition of torque - Tipler Chapter 10 r !
                   !            !  
! F
τ =r×F

|τ|=|r||F|.sin θ ! |τ|=|r|.|F| for  force  perpendicular  to  displacement  

 Sta9c  equilibrium:  Example  1  

Question: what weights are measured at the ends of the plank?

 Example  1  

!"
!
net  external  force  
∑ Fi = F1 + F2 − Mg − mg = 0; F1 + F2 =(M+m)g
must  be  zero  
i
 Example  1  

Calculate torques with respect to axis

going through F1 & perpendicular to page
(clockwise positive)

!"
! net  external  force  
∑ Fi = F1 + F2 − Mg − mg = 0; € F1 + F2 =(M+m)g must  be  zero  
i

" #x +x &
net  external  torque  
∑i τ i = F1.(0) + Mg % 1 2 2 ( + mgx1 − F2 (x1 + x2 ) = 0 must  be  zero  
$ '

|τ|=|r|.|F|
 Example  1  

Calculate torques with respect to axis

going through F1 & perpendicular to page
(clockwise positive)

!"
!
∑ Fi = F1 + F2 − Mg − mg = 0; € F1 + F2 =(M+m)g net  external  force  
i must  be  zero  
" #x +x &
∑i τ i = F1.(0) + Mg % 1 2 2 ( + mgx1 − F2 (x1 + x2 ) = 0 net  external  torque  
$ ' must  be  zero  
Mg # x1 + x2 & x1
F2 = % ( + mg rearrange to get F2
(x1 + x2 ) $ 2 ' (x1 + x2 )
 Example  1  

Calculate torques with respect to axis

going through F1 & perpendicular to page
(clockwise positive)

net  external  force  

∑F i = F1 + F2 − Mg − mg = 0;
€
F1 + F2 = (M + m)g must  be  zero  
i

 % x1 + x 2 (
∑i τ i = F1.(0) + Mg'& 2 *) + mgx1 − F2 (x1 + x 2 ) = 0 net   external  torque  
must  be  zero  
Mg % x1 + x 2 ( x1
F2 = ' * + mg rearrange to get F2
(x1 + x 2 ) & 2 ) (x1 + x 2 )
For M = 2 kg (plank); m = 6 kg (weight); x1 = 2.5 m; x 2 = 0.5 m
F2 = 1g + 5g = 6g
As F1 + F2 = (M + m)g = 8g; F1 = 8g - 6g = 2g substitute values
 Example  1   repeat exercise with different
choice of axis

Calculate torques with respect to axis

going through F2 & perpendicular to page
(clockwise positive)

net  external  force  

∑F i = F1 + F2 − Mg − mg = 0;
€
F1 + F2 = (M + m)g must  be  zero  
i

 % x1 + x 2 (
∑i τ i = F1(x1 + x 2 ) − Mg'& 2 *) − mgx 2 + F2 .(0) = 0 net   external  torque  
must  be  zero  
Mg % x1 + x 2 ( x2
F1 = ' * + mg rearrange to get F1
(x1 + x 2 ) & 2 ) (x1 + x 2 )
For M = 2 kg (plank); m = 6 kg (weight); x1 = 2.5 m; x 2 = 0.5 m
F1 = 1g +1g = 2g
as F1 + F2 = (M + m)g = 8g F2 = (8 - 2)g = 6g substitute values
 2.1 Work
What is it?
W = F ∆x

W – work, F- Force, ∆x – distance moved, where the force acts in the

direction of the motion only
Note that in this case the Force is assumed to be a constant

If the force acts at an angle, as in the case of pulling a block along a floor,
as in the figure below

W = Fx ∆x = F cos θ ∆x

where θ is the angle between force and the

direction of motion

111 Unit 2 Concepts and Definitions Prof Mark Lester

 2.1 Work
What is it? W = ∫ F .dl where F is a variable force with distance and l is distance

A.B = A B cos θ where A and B are vectors and θ is the angle between them

(the above equation is the vector dot product, or scalar product (maths
course) – but is also explained in section 6.3

Crudely
Work = Force * Distance along direction of motion
x2
More correctly W = ∫F x dx
x1

Work has magnitude and sign - it is a scalar

Units are newton-metres or Joules

111 Unit 2 Concepts and Definitions Prof Mark Lester

 2.2 Work and Kinetic Energy Theorem

From Newton’s Laws: Fx = ma x

Where Fx is net force in x-direction; ax is acceleration

For a small distance Δx and a constant force, Fx

v 2f = vi2 + 2a x ∆x
1
i.e. a x ∆x = (v 2f − vi2 )
21 1
Fx ∆x = mv 2f − mvi2
2 2
1 1
Wtot = mv 2f − mvi2
2 2
1
Define Kinetic Energy , K K = mv 2
2
1 1
Wtot = ∆K = mv 2f − mvi2
2 2

So total work equals change in Kinetic energy

111 Unit 2 Concepts and Definitions Prof Mark Lester

 2.3 Power

Power, P, is the rate of transfer of energy by a Force

Consider a particle moving with velocity, v. In a short time

interval, dt, the particle undergoes a displacement, dl

d l = vdt
Work, dW, done by a force, F, acting on a particle during this
time interval is
dW = F .dl = F .vdt
dW
P= = F .v
dt
Power is a scalar SI Unit is Joules s-1 or Watts
111 Unit 2 Concepts and Definitions Prof Mark Lester
1.A hailstone with a mass of 10g falls a distance of 1000 m to the
ground which it hits with a velocity of 50 m s−1. How much work
has been done by air resistance? (Take g to be 9.81 m s-2)

2.A force, F, A force, F, acts in the x direction with a magnitude given

by F = ax2 where x is in metres and a = 5 N m-2.

i. Find the work done by this force as it acts on a particle

which moves from x = 0 m to x = 6:0 m.
ii. If the particle has a mass of 1 kg and was moving with a
velocity of 20 m s-1 when it passed x = 0, what is its velocity
at x = 6 m?
iii. What is the power being input by the force at x = 6 m?
 Rotating Disk

Axis of
• Assume disk rotates about axis rotation
perpendicular to disk
• Assume disk is a rigid body:
distance between any 2 particles on
disk remain the same as disk
rotates
• If one point rotates through a given
angle, all points will rotate through
this angle
-> Angular Displacement
 Angular Displacement
Angular displacement gives change of angle with respect to reference
t = t0 t = ti
Pi
θ0=0
Pi θi
Reference
line -θi
Pi
Counter clockwise clockwise
Angular displacement of ∆θ = θi - θ0 = θi ∆θ = -θi
particle Pi:

For each particle along a line: ds dθ dsi

dθ = i ri
ri and dsi differ but dsi/ri = const ri

Units: radians (rad) φ (in o) = φ (in rad) x 180o/π

 Angular Velocity and Acceleration
For each particle on disk, angular displacement will be the same:
Angular velocity = angular displacement/elapsed time

∆θ θ i − θ o
Average angular velocity: ω= =
∆t t − to

dθ
Instantaneous angular velocity: ω= Units: rad/s
dt
Same sign
convention as for
displacement

dω d 2θ
Instantaneous angular acceleration: α= = 2 Units: rad/s2
dt dt
Comparison between rotational
and linear Kinematics
 Relation between Rotational and Linear
Dynamics
at
dsi dθ
Linear velocity: vt ,i = = ri = riω ac
dt dt
dvi dω
Linear acceleration: at ,i = = ri = riα
dt dt

Uniform motion = constant tangential speed and at = 0

Non-uniform motion = increasing/decreasing tangential speed

Particles have also a radial acceleration (centripetal acceleration)

(riω ) 2
vt2,i Leads to changes the
ac , i = = = riω 2
ri ri direction

at,i points inwards (radial)

Total acceleration : ai = ac2,i + at2,i
ac,i points in tangential direction
Test 1
Test 1

Both have same angular

displacement ∆θ per time
Test 2
 Test 2

The person farthest from the pivot has the

hardest job. He has to cover more distance
in the same amount of time

vt = r ω ω Is the same but r is greater

Test 3
 Test 3

Things toward the outer edge want to "fly off"

more than things toward the middle, ie greater
force

ac = r ω2 ω Is the same but r is greater

 Torque
Set a disk to spinning by applying a force in tangential direction

Direction and
(radial) position
of force matters

Figure 9-19
Forces F1 and F2 will Forces F1 and F2 will not
cause the disk to rotate result in rotation (forces
only in radial direction)

Torque is the rotational analogy of force

Torque : τ = rFt
τ = Tangential component of force x Radial distance

Unit: Nm
 Calculate Torque

l = r sinφ

Ft = F sinφ

Torque = lever arm x Force τ = Ft r = rF sin φ = lF

Lever arm l is perpendicular distance between axis of rotation and line

of action of force

Note that radial component force has no torque

Test 4
Test 4

Longest lever arm of

the force
 Moment of Inertia
Moment of inertia is analogue to mass for
rotations

I = m1r12 + m2 r22

Moment of inertia I = ∑ mi ri 2 Sum over all particles

i

I = ∫ r 2 dm Integral over body Unit: kg m2

r is radial distance to rotation axis

Torque due to force Fi τ i = ri Fi ,t = ri 2 miα

Newton’s second law for rotation τ net = ∑τ i = Iα Compare to F = ma

 Example: moment of inertia

I = ∫ r 2 dm I = ∫ r 2 ρdV
Integral can be more easily carried out if axis of rotation is also symmetry axis of
mass distribution (centre of mass). If not then apply parallel-axis theorem
Test 5
Test 5

I = mL2 + mL2 I = 2m(L/2)2 + 2m(L/2)2

= 2mL2 = mL2
 Rotational Energy
1 1
Kinetic energy of ith particle on K i = mi vi ,t = mi ri 2ω 2
2

rotating disk: 2 2
Rotational energy of a rotating 1 2
object is sum of rotational energy K = ∑ K i = ω ∑ mi ri 2
of all particles
2

1 2
Rotational energy of rotating object K= Iω Unit: J
2

1 2
Compare to translation energy (of K = mv
an object with mass m) 2