Pastpaper PhysicalChemistry SQs Solved 6th Sem (2014-24) - by Haseeb Ahmad (Revised Edition)

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6th Sem PHYSICAL PAST PAPERS

SHORT QUESTIONS SOLUTION (2014 – 2024)
BY HASEEB AHMAD (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD
PAST-PAPER’s QUESTIONS
1. Salt bridge is helpful in elimination of a liquid, comment on?
Salt bridge is a vital component in many electrochemical cells. The primary
purpose of a salt bridge is not to eliminate a liquid, but rather to maintain
electrical neutrality within the cell. It does so by allowing the free flow of ions
between the half-cells, preventing the buildup of charge imbalance. This enables
the cell to sustain a continuous flow of electrons and ions, facilitating the overall
electrochemical reaction. So, while it doesn't directly eliminate a liquid, it plays
a crucial role in ensuring the proper functioning of the cell.
2. Statistical mechanics is believed to be a bridge between quantum mechanics

and classical Mechanics, comment on?
Statistical mechanics serves as a bridge between quantum mechanics and
classical mechanics, connecting the microscopic behavior of particles described
by quantum mechanics to the macroscopic properties described by classical
mechanics. It provides a statistical framework to understand how microscopic
interactions give rise to macroscopic phenomena and enables the calculation of
thermodynamic quantities and equilibrium states.
3. Wave function (ᵠ) alone has no physical significance, comment on?

The wave function (𝜳) alone does not have direct physical significance, as it is a
mathematical description of a quantum system. However, the square of the
wave function (𝜳𝟐 ) represents the probability density of finding a particle in a
particular state. It is the probability distribution that provides physical
significance, allowing us to make predictions about the behavior and properties
of quantum systems.
BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

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4. Define cell constant, give its dimensions?

The “Cell constant” is a parameter used in conductivity measurements to relate
the measured electrical conductivity to the concentration of the analyte. It is
defined as the ratio of the distance(𝑳) between the electrodes to the cross-
𝑳
sectional area(𝑨) of the cell. i.e, (𝑲 = ) where ‘𝑲’ is cell constant.
𝑨
The dimensions of the cell constant are reciprocal distance, typically expressed
as 𝒄𝒎−𝟏 or 𝒎−𝟏.
5. Define occupation number with an example?

“Occupation number” refers to the number of particles occupying a specific
quantum state in a quantum system. It is a concept used in quantum mechanics
to describe the distribution of particles among available energy levels.
For example, in the context of electron orbitals, the occupation number
represents the number of electrons present in a particular orbital. It can take
values of 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, and so on, depending on the Pauli Exclusion Principle and the
quantum statistics applicable to the particles in the system.
6. Debye Huckel’s law is applicable only to dilute solutions, comment on?

The Debye-Hückel law is applicable primarily to dilute electrolytic solutions,
where the concentration of ions is low. It is based on assumptions such as weak
interactions between ions and their point-like nature. At higher concentrations
or in concentrated solutions, these assumptions may break down, leading to
deviations from the Debye-Hückel behavior.
7. Define variance of conductance with dilution of solution?

The “Variance of conductance” with dilution of a solution refers to how the
conductance (electrical conductivity) changes as the solution is diluted by
adding more solvent. In general, because of dilution, the number of ions per unit
volume are reduced, this leads to fewer charge carriers available for electrical
conduction, thus resulting in lower conductance.
8. What is Eigen value theorem of quantum mechanics?

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The “Eigenvalue Theorem” in quantum mechanics states that “Observable

physical quantities (such as energy or angular momentum) correspond to
eigenvalues of the corresponding operators. When an operator acts on its Eigen
function, the result is a scalar multiple of the Eigen function, representing a
measurable quantity.” This theorem is fundamental in understanding the
quantization of physical properties in quantum systems. i.e (𝑯̂ ∙ 𝝋 = 𝑬 ∙ 𝝋)
(𝑶𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓) ∗ (𝑬𝒊𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏) = (𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆/𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕) ∗ (𝑺𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝑬𝒊𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
9. Define an operator with two examples?

In the context of quantum mechanics, an “Operator” is a mathematical entity
that acts on a wave function to produce a new wave function a scalar quantity
or a physical observable. It represents a physical property or transformation of
a quantum system.
Here are two examples of operators: The position operator (𝒙) determines the
position of a particle in space by acting on the wave function, while the
momentum operator (𝒑) determines the momentum of a particle by operating
on the wave function. Etc.
10. Define statistical weight factor in case of statistical thermodynamics?

In statistical thermodynamics, the “Statistical weight factor” (also known as
degeneracy or multiplicity) represents the number of ways a particular
macrostate can be realized by redistributing the available energy among its
microstates. It accounts for the multiplicity of microstates associated with a
given macrostate and is crucial in calculating thermodynamic properties using
the principles of statistical mechanics.
(The higher the statistical weight factor, the more probable and
thermodynamically favored the corresponding macrostate.)
11. State selection rule for rotational spectra?

The “Selection rule for rotational spectra” is
𝜟𝑱 = ±𝟏

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Where 𝜟𝑱 represents the change in the rotational quantum number. It states

that “transitions between rotational energy levels are only allowed if the
difference in the quantum numbers is either +𝟏 or−𝟏. This selection rule
reflects the angular momentum conservation in rotational transitions and is
applicable to molecules undergoing pure rotational motion.
12. What are conditions for a function to be well behaved?

A well-behaved function is characterized by continuity, differentiability,
boundedness, and finite values. It should have no gaps or jumps in its graph
(continuity), well-defined derivatives at all points (differentiability), no infinite
growth or approach to infinity (boundedness), and finite and defined values for
all points in its domain. These conditions ensure a smooth and predictable
behavior of the function within its defined range.
13. Write down conditions for quantum mechanical tunneling?

Quantum mechanical tunneling occurs when certain conditions are met. i.e.
1) Particle should be light, having small mass.
2) Barrier of the energy should be finite.
3) Thickness of the barrier must be small.
Under these conditions penetration of electron or protons takes place.
14. What are the factors affecting the mobility of an ion in a solution?
The mobility of an ion in a solution is influenced by factors such as the ion's
charge, size, temperature and the viscosity of the solvent. Higher charge
generally leads to lower mobility due to stronger interactions with the solvent.
Smaller ions typically exhibit higher mobility. Higher temperatures provide
greater kinetic energy to the ions and solvent molecules, increasing their
mobility and diffusion rates. Additionally, the viscosity of the solvent affects ion
mobility, with higher viscosity slowing down the movement of ions through the
solution.

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15. Define electric cells with and without transference?

An “Electric cell, with transference”, refers to a cell where both oxidation and
reduction reactions occur at separate electrodes, and ions involved in the
reactions move through the electrolyte, contributing to the cell's overall current.
Examples: Daniell cell, lead-acid battery. Etc.
In contrast, an “Electric cell without transference” is a hypothetical scenario
where ions do not migrate through the electrolyte; instead, the electrode
reactions directly involve only species present at the electrodes. Examples:
Calomel electrode, Weston cell. Etc.
16. Define a rigid rotor with an example?

A “Rigid rotor” in quantum mechanics is a theoretical model used to describe
the rotational motion of a diatomic molecule as if it were a rigid, non-vibrating
entity. It assumes a fixed bond length and neglects vibrational motion.
An example is the diatomic hydrogen molecule (𝑯𝟐 ) treated as a rigid rotor in
the analysis of its rotational energy levels and spectra.
17. How does a macro state differ from a microstate, elaborate with an
example?
A macrostate describes the "big picture" of a system, like its temperature and
pressure, while a microstate captures the "zoom-in" details, like the precise
positions and momenta of every particle.
For example, consider a box of gas molecules. The macrostate of the system can
be characterized by its temperature, pressure, and volume. Different
microstates within this macrostate would correspond to different arrangements
of the gas molecules, such as the positions and velocities of each molecule.
18. Write mathematical equation of partition function?

The mathematical equation for the Partition Function (𝒁) is given by:
−𝑬𝒊
𝒁 = 𝜮𝒆 𝒌𝑻 )
(

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Where: 𝜮 represents the summation over all possible states i.

𝑬𝒊 is the energy of each individual state.
𝒌 is the Boltzmann constant.
𝑻 is the temperature of the system.
19. Define Debye length with an example?

“Debye length” is the distance over which a charged particle's electric field has
a significant influence in an electrolyte or plasma, effectively screened by
surrounding charged particles. It's like the radius of a particle's "sphere of
influence."
𝑻
Debye length ∝ √
𝝆
For Example: In a highly concentrated salt solution, the Debye length is short
due to abundant ions rapidly screening charges. In a dilute solution or a plasma,
the Debye length is longer as fewer ions are available for screening.
20. How does statistical mechanics help to explain quantum mechanics?

Statistical mechanics connects quantum mechanics to macroscopic phenomena.
It uses quantum concepts to explain thermal equilibrium, entropy, and energy
distribution among particles. By considering the statistical behavior of quantum
systems, it provides a framework for understanding and predicting macroscopic
phenomena based on underlying quantum principles.
21. How are Cartesian coordinates converted into polar coordinates?

Cartesian coordinates (𝒙, 𝒚) can be converted to polar coordinates (𝒓, 𝜽) using
the relationships:
𝒓 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 For the distance from the origin, and

𝒚
𝜽 = 𝒂𝒓𝒄 𝐭𝐚𝐧 for the angle with respect to the positive x-axis.
𝒙
These formulas express the position of a point in terms of its radial distance and
angular position in a polar coordinate system.

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22. What is the effect of temperature on the conductivity of an electrolyte?

The conductivity of an electrolyte generally increases with increasing
temperature. This is due to the increased mobility of ions at higher
temperatures. As temperature rises, the kinetic energy of the ions increases,
leading to enhanced ion movement and faster diffusion through the electrolyte.
23. Define degeneracy? How many degenerate quantum states are possible
for𝑬 (𝟐𝟐𝟐)?
In quantum mechanics, “Degeneracy” occurs when multiple quantum states
have the same energy. It arises from symmetries in the system or limitations in
measuring certain quantum numbers. For 𝑬(𝟐𝟐𝟐) state of a hydrogen-like
atom, all three orbital quantum numbers (𝒏 = 𝟐) contribute degeneracy,
𝑬(𝟐𝟐𝟐) has only 𝟏 degenerate state.
24. What is accidental degeneracy?

“Accidental Degeneracy” in quantum mechanics occurs when two or more
different quantum states happen to have the same energy level, despite not
having the same quantum numbers. This phenomenon is coincidental and not a
result of the system's symmetry. Accidental degeneracy is typically encountered
in more complex systems where certain interactions or conditions lead to the
alignment of energy levels.
25. State 'Eigen value' of quantum mechanics?

In quantum mechanics, an “Eigenvalue” represents a measurable quantity
associated with a physical observable, such as energy, angular momentum, or
position. Eigenvalues are obtained by solving the eigenvalue equation
associated with the operator representing the observable.
26. Define orthogonally of a wave function?

“Orthogonality” of wave functions in quantum mechanics refers to the
mathematical property of wave functions. Two wave functions are said to be
orthogonal if their inner product or integral is zero.

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Mathematically, if 𝝍₁(𝒙) and 𝝍₂(𝒙) are two wave functions, their orthogonality
is expressed as ∫ 𝝍𝟏 (𝒙)*𝝍𝟐 (𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎, where ‘*’ denotes the complex
conjugate.
27. Calculate the value of Hamiltonian operator?

The “Hamiltonian operator (H)” represents the total energy of a quantum
system. Its value depends on the specific system and is obtained by summing
the kinetic and potential energy operators.
In a simple case, like a particle in a box, the Hamiltonian operator is given by,
𝒉𝟐 𝒅𝟐
̂=−
𝑯 + 𝑽(𝒙)
𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒙𝟐
Where “𝒉” is the reduced Planck constant, “𝒎” is the mass of the particle, and
𝑽(𝒙) is the potential energy.
28. What is the effect of interionic interactions upon the mobility of ion in
dilute and concentrated solution the mobility of an ion, comment on?
Interionic interactions have different effects on ion mobility in dilute and
concentrated solutions. In dilute solutions, weak interionic interactions have
minimal impact on ion mobility, which is mainly influenced by factors like ion
properties and solvent conditions. In contrast, in concentrated solutions,
stronger interionic interactions hinder ion mobility through collisions, solvation
effects, and complex formation, leading to a decrease in overall ion mobility
compared to dilute solutions.
29. What is the effect of temperature on the conductivity of dilute solutions?

An increase in temperature generally enhances the conductivity of dilute
solutions. Elevated temperatures provide ions with greater kinetic energy,
facilitating their movement through the solution. This increased energy reduces
the resistance to ion flow, resulting in higher conductivity as the rate of ion
migration rises with temperature.
30. What is selection rule? Give its applications in rotational spectra?

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The “Selection rule for rotational spectra” is
𝜟𝑱 = ±𝟏
Where 𝜟𝑱 represents the change in the rotational quantum number. It states
that “transitions between rotational energy levels are only allowed if the
difference in the quantum numbers is either +𝟏 or−𝟏.
The selection rule helps in identifying the allowed rotational transitions and
provides valuable information about the molecular structure, rotational
constants, and moments of inertia of molecules.
31. Define degeneracy? How many degenerate quantum states are possible
for𝑬 (𝟐𝟏𝟏)?
In quantum mechanics, “Degeneracy” occurs when multiple quantum states
have the same energy. It arises from symmetries in the system or limitations in
measuring certain quantum numbers. The degeneracy depends on the values of
these quantum numbers.
To determine the degeneracy (number of degenerate states) for a particular
electron configuration, we need to consider the possible ways the electrons can
be distributed within each level. For 𝑬(𝟐𝟏𝟏), there will be 𝟑 possible
degenerate states. i.e, (𝟐, 𝟏, 𝟏), (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟏), (𝟏, 𝟏, 𝟐).
32. Define a harmonic oscillator with one example?

A “Harmonic Oscillator” in quantum mechanics is a system that exhibits a
restoring force proportional to its displacement from equilibrium. For simple
harmonic motion, the resulting equation of motion is a sinusoidal function,
typically expressed as:
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓)
where: 𝒙(𝒕) is the displacement at time 𝒕, 𝑨 is the amplitude of the motion, 𝝎
is the angular frequency, 𝒕 is time, and 𝝓 is the phase angle.
Example: Imagine a mass on a spring – gently pull it, and it gently swings back,
a perfect example of this rhythmic, "sinusoidal" motion. Etc.

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33. State Boltzmann's distribution law?

“Boltzmann's distribution law" It provides the probability of finding a particle
in a particular energy state at a given temperature. It states that the probability
(𝑷𝒊 ) of finding a particle in a specific energy state (𝑬𝒊 ) is proportional to the
exponential of the negative ratio of the energy to the product of the Boltzmann
constant (𝒌) and the absolute temperature (𝑻).
𝜺(−𝜺/𝒌𝑻)
Mathematically: 𝑷𝒊 = , Where (𝒁) is the partition function.
𝒁
34. For a macro state (4,0,0) how many micro states are there for the system?
To determine the number of microstates, we need to know the number of
particles in the system and the possible energy levels for each particle. Assuming
there are 3 particles and 3 possible energy levels for each particle, there are 𝟐𝟕
microstates for the macrostate (𝟒, 𝟎, 𝟎). This is because each particle has 𝟑
independent choices of energy levels, leading to 𝟑^𝟑 = 𝟐𝟕 possible
combinations.
35. What is salt bridge? Give an example?

A “Salt Bridge” is a component of an electrochemical cell that helps maintain
charge neutrality and the flow of ions between the half-cells. It typically consists
of an electrolyte solution, often a salt, contained in a porous material or a U-
shaped tube. The salt bridge allows for the exchange of ions, preventing the
buildup of excessive charge and maintaining electrical balance in the cell.
An example of a salt bridge is a glass tube filled with a potassium chloride
(𝑲𝑪𝒍) solution connecting the half-cells of a galvanic cell.
36. Write down the time dependent Schrodinger's wave equation?

The time-dependent Schrödinger equation is:
𝝏𝝍(𝒓, 𝒕)
Ĥ𝝍(𝒓, 𝒕) = 𝒊𝒕ℏ
𝝏𝒕

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where: 𝒊 is the imaginary unit

ℏ is the reduced Planck constant
𝝏𝝍(𝒓,𝒕)
is the partial derivative of the wave function 𝝍(𝒓, 𝒕) with
𝛛𝐭
respect to time 𝒕
Ĥ is the Hamiltonian operator, representing the total energy of
the system
This equation describes the evolution of the wave function over time and is a
fundamental equation in quantum mechanics.
37. What is the mathematical expression for the R(r) equation for hydrogen
atom?
The radial part of the hydrogen atom wave function, denoted as 𝑹(𝒓), is
governed by the radial Schrödinger equation. For the hydrogen atom, 𝑹(𝒓)
satisfies the equation:
𝒉𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝑹 𝟐 𝒅𝑹 𝒉𝟐 𝒍(𝒍+𝟏)
- ( + ) + (𝑽(𝒓) + ) 𝑹 = 𝑬𝑹
𝟐𝝁 𝒅𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝟐𝝁𝒓𝟐
where: 𝒉 is the reduced Planck constant,

𝝁 is the reduced mass of the electron and nucleus,
𝑽 is the potential energy,
𝒍 is the azimuthal quantum number,
𝑬 is the energy eigenvalue of the hydrogen atom.
38. Write two postulates or Quantum Mechanics?

1) Wave Function Postulate: The state of a quantum system is completely
described by its wave function, 𝝍(𝒓, 𝒕). This function gives the probability of
finding the particle at any point in space and time.
2) Born Postulate: The square of the wave function's absolute value at a specific
point gives the probability of finding the particle at that point. This links the
abstract wave function to measurable realities like particle location.
39. What ` the effect of temperature on Partition Function?

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The “𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏” (𝒁) in statistical mechanics is influenced by

temperature. As temperature increases, the partition function tends to increase
as well. This is because higher temperatures provide more energy to the system,
allowing a greater number of accessible states and increasing the probability of
occupying higher energy levels. Consequently, the partition function, which
sums over all possible states, tends to grow with increasing temperature.
40. If 𝑰 = 𝟐, how many magnetic quantum numbers (𝒎) are associated with
an Electron?
If (𝒍 = 𝟐), the magnetic quantum number (𝒎) can take on (𝟐𝒍 + 𝟏) values.
Therefore, for (𝒍 = 𝟐), there are (𝟐(𝟐) + 𝟏 = 𝟓) possible values for the
magnetic quantum number. The allowed values for (𝒎) range from (−𝟐) to
(+𝟐) in integer increments.
41. Sterling approximation can provide a distribution of micro slates in given

macro State. Comment on with mathematical evidence?
The Sterling approximation is often employed to estimate the factorial function,
which is crucial in determining the number of microstates in a given macrostate
for statistical mechanics. The approximation is given by:
𝒏 𝒏
𝒏! ≈ √𝟐𝝅𝒏 ( ) .
𝒆
By using this approximation, one can estimate the number of microstates and
calculate the entropy of a system, providing a statistical understanding of its
behavior in a given macrostate.
42. Differentiate between Asymmetric effect and electrophoretic effect?

The “Asymmetric effect” refers to the uneven distribution of charge or electron
density within a molecule, resulting in the development of a permanent dipole
moment. It is a property of individual molecules or chemical species.
On the other hand, the “Electrophoretic effect” pertains to the movement of
charged particles or molecules in a fluid medium under the influence of an

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electric field. It is a collective behavior observed in systems where charged

species are subjected to an electric field.
43. Wave function is recognized to be a window is Quantum mechanics?

The wave function in quantum mechanics is often described as a mathematical
representation providing information about the probability amplitude of finding
a particle in a particular state. It serves as a "window" into the behavior of
quantum systems, offering insights into information about the position,
momentum, and other observable properties of the particle. The mathematical
operations such as square of the wave function gives the probability density,
guiding predictions about a particle's behavior.
44. Define activity and coefficient of activity?

“Activity” is a measure of the effective concentration of a species in a solution,
accounting for deviations from ideal behavior. It is denoted by “𝒂” and defined
as the product of the concentration (𝑪) and the activity coefficient (𝜸):
𝒂 = 𝜸 ∙ 𝑪.
The “Activity coefficient” is a dimensionless factor that represents the deviation
of a solution from ideal behavior and corrects the concentration term in the
activity formula. It is denoted by “𝜸” as the ratio of the activity (𝒂) to the
concentration(𝑪):
𝒂
𝜸=
𝑪
45. What are operators? Give description of Hamiltonian operator?

“Operators” in quantum mechanics are mathematical entities representing
physical quantities or transformations.
“Hamiltonian Operator” is a key operator in quantum mechanics, representing
the total energy of a system. It includes kinetic and potential energy terms and
acts on the wave function to obtain the energy eigenvalues of the system. The
time-dependent Schrödinger equation involves the Hamiltonian operator.

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𝒉𝟐 𝒅𝟐
̂ =−
𝑯 + 𝑽(𝒙)
𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒙𝟐
46. What is orthogonal wave function?

“Orthogonal wave functions” are those that satisfy the condition of
orthogonality, meaning: the integral of product of two wave functions over all
space is zero.
Mathematically, if 𝝍𝟏 (𝒙) and 𝝍𝟐 (𝒙) are two wave functions, they are
orthogonal if ∫ 𝝍⋇𝟏 (𝒙) ∙ 𝝍𝟐 (𝒙) where “∗” denotes the complex conjugate. This
condition is fundamental in quantum mechanics and indicates that the wave
functions represent distinct quantum states.
47. How conductivity does vary with temperature?

Conductivity generally increases with temperature for most of materials. As
temperature rises, more charge carriers (such as ions or electrons) gain energy,
leading to increased mobility (more frequent collisions between electrons and
lattice ions) and conductivity in materials. However, for some materials, such as
semiconductors, the relationship between conductivity and temperature can be
more complex, as it depends on the specific band structure and doping levels.
48. What is electrophoresis effect?

The “Electrophoretic Effect” is the migration of charged particles or molecules
in a fluid medium under the influence of an electric field. Charged species
experience a force due to the electric field, causing them to move towards the
opposite electrode. This phenomenon is utilized in techniques like gel
electrophoresis for separation and analysis of biomolecules based on their
charge and size.
49. What is rotational partition function?
The “Rotational Partition Function” (𝑸𝒓𝒐𝒕 ) is a thermodynamic quantity that

represents the sum of the degeneracies of all possible rotational energy levels

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in a molecule. It is calculated as the sum of the degeneracy factors, which

depend on the rotational quantum number (𝑱), and is given by the formula:
𝑸𝒓𝒐𝒕 = ∑∞
𝑱=𝟎(𝟐𝑱 + 𝟏), where 𝑱 is the rotational quantum number.
The rotational partition function is essential in determining the contribution of

rotational motion to the overall thermodynamic properties of a molecule.
50. Define Boltzmann’s distribution law and its mathematical expression?

“Boltzmann's distribution law" describes the probability distribution of
particles among different energy states in a system at thermal equilibrium. The
law states that the probability (𝑷𝒊 ) of finding a particle in a specific energy state
(𝑬𝒊 ) is proportional to the exponential of the negative ratio of the energy to the
product of the Boltzmann constant (𝒌) and the absolute temperature (𝑻).
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
𝜺(−𝜺/𝒌𝑻)
𝑷𝒊 = , where (𝒁) is the partition function.
𝒁
51. How does the particle in three dimensional box give the idea of
degeneracy?
In a 3-D box, the particle in a box model demonstrates degeneracy by showing
that multiple quantum states can have the same energy. The degeneracy arises
because different combinations of quantum numbers (𝒏_𝒙, 𝒏_𝒚, 𝒏_𝒛) can yield
the same total energy level. The degeneracy is quantified by counting the
number of unique combinations of quantum numbers that correspond to the
same energy, showcasing the concept of degeneracy in quantum systems.
52. State two Faraday's law of electrolysis?

First Law of Faraday: This law states that the amount of chemical change
(deposition or dissolution of substances) during electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte.
Mathematically:
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 ∝ 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅

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Second Law of Faraday: This law deals with the stoichiometry of electrolysis. It
states that the amounts of different substances produced or consumed during
electrolysis are related by the ratios of their chemical equivalents.
53. Give the mathematical equation of Debye Huckle?

The Debye-Hückel equation, which describes the activity coefficient (𝜸) in
electrolyte solutions, is given as:
𝟎.𝟓𝟏𝒛𝟐 √𝑰
𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝜸) = −
𝟏+𝑨√𝑰
where:
- 𝒛 is the charge of the ion,
- 𝑰 is the ionic strength of the solution,
- 𝑨 is a constant (0.509 for 1:1 electrolytes).
54. Give physical significance of partition function?

The partition function (𝑸) in statistical mechanics holds crucial physical
significance as it quantifies the statistical weight of different energy states in a
system at a given temperature. It provides a measure of the number of ways a
system can distribute its energy among its microstates. The information derived
from the partition function is fundamental for calculating thermodynamic
properties, including internal energy, entropy, and free energy, allowing a
comprehensive understanding of the system's behavior in equilibrium.
55. Differentiate between statistical mechanics and statistical

thermodynamics?
Statistical Mechanics Statistical Thermodynamics
1) Focuses on understanding the 1) Builds upon the principles of
behavior of individual particles and statistical mechanics and applies
their interactions at the microscopic them to the macroscopic properties
level. of systems.
2) Involves the use of statistical 2) Aims to bridge the gap between
methods and probability theory to the microscopic behavior of particles
and the macroscopic thermodynamic

17 | P a g e
describe and predict the collective quantities, such as energy, entropy,

behavior of particles in a system. and temperature.
3) Deals with concepts such as phase 3) Focuses on the relationships
space, microstates, and the between thermodynamic variables,
calculation of partition functions to the calculation of thermodynamic
determine thermodynamic potentials, and the interpretation of
properties. macroscopic observations using
statistical concepts.
56. Specific conductance decreases with the increase in concentration, Justify?

Specific conductance, also known as conductivity, generally decreases with an
increase in concentration. As concentration rises, the number of ions per unit
volume also increases, leading to more frequent ion collisions and enhanced
electrostatic interactions. These interactions hinder the free movement of ions,
reducing their overall mobility and resulting in a decrease in specific
conductance.
57. What is the function of salt bridge?

Maintains Charge Neutrality: Prevents charge buildup by facilitating the flow of
ions.
Completes Circuit: Connects two half-cells, allowing the overall electrochemical
reaction to proceed.
Prevents Mixing: Separates the electrolytes in the half-cells to avoid direct
contact, ensuring the integrity of the redox reactions.
Ensures Cell Stability: Helps maintain a stable potential difference between the
half-cells, promoting efficient electron flow.
58. What are fermions?

“Fermions” are subatomic particles that obey Fermi-Dirac statistics and possess
half-integer values of spin (𝒆. 𝒈. , 𝟏/𝟐, −𝟏/𝟐). These particles, including
electrons, protons, and neutrons, obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which
states that no two fermions can occupy the same quantum state simultaneously.
Fermions play a fundamental role in the structure of matter and are the building
blocks of atoms and subatomic particles.

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59. Differentiate between assembly and ensemble?

Assembly Ensemble
1) Refers to a specific arrangement or 1) Refers to a collection or ensemble
configuration of particles in a system. of multiple copies of a system, each
with slightly different initial
conditions.
2) Describes the state of a system at 2) Represents a statistical
a given moment, representing the distribution of possible states that a
positions and momenta of individual system can occupy.
particles.
3) Focuses on the microscopic details 3) Deals with the average behavior
of a system, such as the specific and properties of a system,
arrangement and interactions of considering all possible
particles. configurations and their probabilities.
4) A collection of particles or objects 4) A theoretical concept representing
grouped together. an infinite collection of identical
systems.
5) For Example: A collection of atoms 5) For Example: The canonical
forming a solid material. Etc. ensemble representing an ideal gas
system. Etc.
𝟑𝒉𝟐
60. a non-degenerate state, justify?
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
𝟑𝒉𝟐
The expression " " seems to be related to quantum mechanics, particularly
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
the expression for the average kinetic energy of a particle in a 3-D box.
𝟑𝒉𝟐
< 𝑻 >=
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
where: ⟨𝑻⟩ is the average kinetic energy, 𝒉 is the Planck constant, 𝒎 is the mass
of the particle, 𝒂 is the width of the box.
In the context of the particle in a box model, a non-degenerate state would
mean that the particle is in a specific energy level without any degeneracy. Each
energy level in the particle in a box model corresponds to a unique set of
quantum numbers, and there are no multiple states at the same energy level.
So, if the above expression corresponds to the average kinetic energy of a
particle in a 3-D box, and the system is in a non-degenerate state, it suggests
that the particle is in a unique, non-degenerate quantum state within the box.

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61. Define specific conductance and equivalent conductance of an electrolyte?

“Specific conductance” also known as conductivity, is a measure of the ability
of an electrolyte solution to conduct electric current. It is defined as the
conductance of a solution divided by the distance between the electrodes and
multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the electrodes. It is denoted by the
symbol “𝜿” (kappa) & is expressed in units of mho per centimeter (𝒎𝒉𝒐. 𝒄𝒎−𝟏).
𝝈
It’s Formula is: 𝜿 = where 𝑪 is the concentration of the electrolyte solution.
𝑪
“Equivalent conductance” is a measure of the conductivity of an electrolyte

solution per equivalent of the electrolyte. It is denoted by the symbol 𝝀 (lambda)
and is expressed in units of mho per centimeter per equivalent (𝒎𝒉𝒐 ·
𝒄𝒎−𝟏 . 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗−𝟏 ). The equivalent conductance is defined as the ratio of the
𝜿
specific conductance to the concentration of the electrolyte: 𝝀 =
𝑪
62. What is the relationship between entropy and probability?

The relationship between entropy 𝑺 and probability 𝑷 is given by Boltzmann's
entropy formula: 𝑺 = −𝒌 ∑ 𝑷𝒊 𝒍𝒏(𝑷𝒊 )
Where: 𝑺 is the entropy,
𝒌 Is the Boltzmann constant,
∑ Denotes the sum over all microstates,
𝑷𝒊 Is the probability of each microstate.
This formula expresses how entropy is related to the distribution of probabilities
among different microstates in a system. Higher probability microstates
contribute more to the overall entropy.
63. State multiplication theorem?

The “Multiplication Theorem”, also known as the product rule is a fundamental
principle in probability theory. It states that the probability of the occurrence of
independent events 𝑨 and 𝑩 is the product of their individual probabilities.
Mathematically, it is expressed as:
𝑷(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩) = 𝑷(𝑨) ∙ 𝑷(𝑩)

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This rule applies when the occurrence of one event does not affect the
occurrence of the other, and it is fundamental in probability theory for
calculating the joint probability of independent events.
64. Differentiate between operator and function?

Operator Function
1) An operator is a symbol or 1) A function is a mathematical
notation that represents a relationship that maps input values
mathematical operation or (arguments) to output values
transformation. (results).
2) It acts on one or more operands to 2) It takes one or more inputs and
produce a result or perform a specific produces a single output.
action.
3) Operators can be unary (act on a 3) Functions can be defined by an
single operand), binary (act on two equation, algorithm, or set of rules.
operands), or n-ary (act on multiple
operands).
4) Examples of operators include 4) Examples of functions include
addition (+), subtraction (−), trigonometric functions
multiplication (∗), division (/), and (𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥), 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)), exponential
differentiation (𝜕/𝜕𝑥). function (𝑒 𝑥 ), and logarithmic
function (𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥)).
(Past-paper 2024)
65. State selection rule for vibrational spectroscopy?
The selection rule for vibrational spectroscopy, including infrared and Raman
spectroscopy, is based on changes in a molecule's dipole moment for infrared-
active transitions and changes in polarizability for Raman-active transitions
during vibrational changes. The only transitions allowed are those which change
the vibrational quantum number by 𝟏 unit, i.e. 𝜟𝒗 = ±𝟏, ±𝟐, ±𝟑. In other
words, there can only be one transition at a time.
66. How can we define thermodynamic probability?

“Thermodynamic probability” is a measure of the likelihood of a particular
macrostate occurring in a system, based on the distribution of microstates

21 | P a g e
associated with that macrostate. It is often expressed mathematically using the

Boltzmann entropy formula: 𝑺 = 𝒌𝒍𝒏𝑾
where: 𝑺 is the entropy, 𝒌 is the Boltzmann constant, 𝒍𝒏 denotes the natural
logarithm, 𝑾 is the thermodynamic probability or the number of microstates
corresponding to a given macrostate.
67. Distinguish between conductance and resistance and give their units too.
Resistance: Resistance is the opposition a material offers to the flow of electric
current. It is characterized by Ohm's law, 𝑽 = 𝑰 ⋅ 𝑹, where 𝑽 is voltage, 𝑰 is
current, and 𝑹 is resistance. The unit of resistance is the ohm (𝜴).
Conductance: Conductance is the measure of a material's ability to conduct
electric current. It is the reciprocal of resistance, 𝑮 = 𝑹𝟏, and is often used in
situations involving multiple resistances in parallel. The unit of conductance is
the siemens (𝑺), which is the reciprocal of the ohm.
68. How can entropy be related with probability.

“Entropy” is intimately related to the concept of probability, particularly in the
context of statistical mechanics and the microscopic description of a system. The
relationship between entropy (𝑺) and probability (𝑷) is often expressed
through Boltzmann's entropy formula:
𝑺 = −𝒌∑𝒊𝑷𝒊𝒍𝒏(𝑷𝒊)
where: 𝑺 is the entropy, 𝒌 is the Boltzmann constant, 𝑷𝒊 is the probability of the
system being in microstate 𝒊, and ∑𝒊 is the sum is taken over all possible
microstates.
This equation indicates that entropy is a measure of the uncertainty or disorder
in a system.
69. Define Galvanic cell.

A “galvanic cell”, also known as a voltaic cell, is an electrochemical cell that
generates electrical energy from spontaneous redox reactions. It consists of two
half-cells, each with an electrode immersed in an electrolyte solution. The two

22 | P a g e
half-cells are connected by a salt bridge or a porous barrier. During the redox
reaction, electrons flow from the oxidation half-reaction at one electrode
(anode) to the reduction half-reaction at the other electrode (cathode). The flow
of electrons through an external circuit creates an electric current. They are
commonly used in batteries to convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
70. Give the value of iota.

"Iota" is a Greek letter, and in mathematics, it is often used to represent the
imaginary unit. The imaginary unit is denoted by the symbol 𝒊, and its value is
√−1. Mathematically, 𝒊𝟐 = −𝟏
71. Define activity and activity coefficient.

“Activity” is a measure of the effective concentration of a species in a solution,
accounting for deviations from ideal behavior. It is denoted by “𝒂” and defined
as the product of the concentration (𝑪) and the activity coefficient (𝜸):
𝒂 = 𝜸 ∙ 𝑪.
The “Activity coefficient” is a dimensionless factor that represents the deviation
of a solution from ideal behavior and corrects the concentration term in the
activity formula. It is denoted by “𝜸” as the ratio of the activity (𝒂) to the
𝒂
concentration(𝑪): 𝜸=
𝑪
72. State multiplication theorem.

The “Multiplication Theorem”, also known as the product rule is a fundamental
principle in probability theory. It states that the probability of the occurrence of
independent events 𝑨 and 𝑩 is the product of their individual probabilities.
Mathematically, it is expressed as:
𝑷(𝑨 ∩ 𝑩) = 𝑷(𝑨) ∙ 𝑷(𝑩)
This rule applies when the occurrence of one event does not affect the
occurrence of the other, and it is fundamental in probability theory for
calculating the joint probability of independent events.
----------------------------------------

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ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
1. Define ionic strength?
“Ionic strength” is a unit less quantity that measures the concentration or total
amount of ions in a solution. It accounts for the charge and concentration of all
ions present in the solution, regardless of their specific identities. It's written as
𝑰 and is used to estimate the difference between the activity and the calculated
concentration of the ion.
2. Define concentration cell, give it’s types?

A “Concentration Cell” is an electrochemical cell where the potential difference
is generated due to a difference in concentration between the two half-cells. It
consists of two half-cells of the same material but with different concentrations.
The types of concentration cells are:
1) Concentration Gradient Cell: Involves different concentrations of the same

ion.
2) Electrolyte Concentration Cell: Involves different electrolytes with common
ions.
3) Gas Concentration Cell: Involves different partial pressures of gases in
electrode reactions.
3. State Ohm’s Law?

“Ohm's Law” states that the current(𝑰) flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage(𝑽) applied across it, given that the temperature and
other physical conditions remain constant.
𝑽
Ohm's Law can be expressed as: 𝑰 = where ‘𝑹’ is Resistance.
𝑹
4. Why fuel cells are better than other cells?

Fuel cells excel with high efficiency, minimal environmental impact, and
versatile applications. Their continuous operation, silent performance, and

24 | P a g e
lower emissions make them superior to other power sources, offering a cleaner
and more efficient energy solution.
5. Define probability and Ensemble?

“Probability” is a measure of the likelihood of an event occurring, expressed as
a value between 0 and 1, where 0 indicates impossibility, 1 indicates certainty,
and 0.5 denotes equal likelihood.
An “Ensemble” is a theoretical construction that allows for the statistical
analysis of a system's behavior. It provides a way to study the behavior of a
system by considering a large number of identical systems with various initial
conditions.
6. Give conditions for well-behaved function?

To be a well-behaved function, it should be defined and exists for all relevant
values, should be continuous, differentiable, smooth, bounded within a certain
range, and exhibit a consistent trend or monotonicity (either strictly increasing
or strictly decreasing).
7. What is effect of temperature on partition function?

The effect of temperature on the partition function is that it tends to increase
with rising temperature. When the temperature increases, the system gains
more thermal energy. This leads to an increase in the occupation of higher
energy states, resulting in a larger number of accessible energy levels.
Consequently, the partition function, which sums over all possible energy states
and their corresponding probabilities, tends to be larger at higher temperatures.
8. Define canonical ensemble?

The “Canonical Ensemble” is a concept in statistical mechanics that describes a
system in thermal equilibrium with a heat reservoir at a fixed temperature(𝑻),
volume(𝑽), and number of particles(𝑵).

25 | P a g e
In the canonical ensemble, the system is described by a probability distribution

function called the canonical distribution. This distribution assigns probabilities
to the different possible states of the system based on their energy levels and
the system's temperature.
9. What is occupation number?

The “Occupation number” refers to the number of particles occupying a
particular quantum state in a system. It is a concept commonly used in quantum
mechanics and statistical mechanics to describe how particles are distributed
among different energy levels or quantum states. The occupation number can
be specified for each quantum state and represents the number of particles
present in that state.
10. What is zero point energy for particle in one dimensional box?
The zero-point energy for a particle in a one-dimensional box refers to the
minimum energy that the particle possesses even at its lowest possible energy
state, which is the ground state. It arises from the inherent quantum mechanical
nature of the system. In the case of a particle in a one-dimensional box, the zero-
point energy is equal to half the energy of the first excited state, or 𝒉²/(𝟖𝒎𝑳²),
where 𝒉 is Planck's constant, m is the mass of the particle, and 𝑳 is the length of
the box.
11. Give postulates of Quantum mechanics?

1) The state of a quantum system is described by a wave function, which
contains all the information about the system's observable properties.
2) When a measurement is made on a quantum system, the result is one of the
eigenvalues of the corresponding observable. The probability of obtaining a
specific eigenvalue is given by the squared magnitude of the corresponding
coefficient in the wave function.
3) The evolution of a quantum system is governed by the Schrödinger equation,
which describes how the wave function changes over time. This evolution is
continuous and deterministic, except during measurements where it undergoes
a discontinuous change known as wave function collapse.

26 | P a g e
12. How conductivity of dilute solution varies with temperature?

The conductivity of a dilute solution generally increases with temperature. As
the temperature rises, ions gain more thermal energy, leading to increased
mobility and higher conductivity. This behavior is consistent with the Arrhenius
equation, which describes the temperature dependence of reaction rates in
electrolyte solutions.
13. Define electrophoretic effect?

The “Electrophoretic effect” refers to the movement or migration of charged
particles, such as ions or colloidal particles, in a solution or medium under the
influence of an electric field. When an electric field is applied, the charged
particles experience a force that drives them towards the oppositely charged
electrode. This phenomenon is known as electrophoresis.
14. Define probability density?

“Probability density” is a mathematical concept used in probability theory and
statistics that refers to a function that describes the likelihood of finding a
particle in a specific region of space. In quantum mechanics, the probability
density is often represented by the square of the wave function (𝝍𝟐 ), and its
integral over a certain volume gives the probability of finding the particle within
that volume. This concept is fundamental in understanding the distribution of
particles in quantum systems.
15. Quantum mechanics Vs Classical mechanics:

Quantum mechanics Classical mechanics
1) Deals with the behavior of 1) Describes the motion of
particles at the atomic and subatomic macroscopic objects at everyday
level. scales.
2) Incorporates the principles of 2) Treats particles as classical, well-
wave-particle duality, where particles defined objects with definite
can exhibit both wave-like and positions and velocities.
particle-like properties.
3) Governed by Schrödinger's 3) Described by Newton's laws of
equation or the Dirac equation. motion or Hamiltonian mechanics.

27 | P a g e
4) Describes particle interactions 4) Describes interactions through

through exchange of virtual particles classical fields without quantization.
and quantized fields.
5) Does not describe wave-particle 5) Describes wave-particle duality.
duality.
16. Define wave functions, what does (ᵠ^𝟐) represents?

“Wave function”, denoted as 𝜳 (psi), is a mathematical function that describes
the quantum state of a particle or system. It contains information about the
particle's position, momentum, and other observable properties.
The square of the wave function, 𝜳𝟐 , represents the probability density
function. It provides the probability of finding the particle at a specific position
or having a specific value for an observable. The integral of 𝜳𝟐 over a given
range gives the probability of finding the particle within that range.
17. Wave function is recognized as window to quantum mechanics?

Yes, the wave function is often referred to as the "window to quantum
mechanics." It is a central concept in quantum mechanics that encapsulates the
probabilistic nature of quantum systems. The wave function is a mathematical
description of the quantum state, enabling calculations of observables and
predictions of measurement outcomes. It offers insights into the behavior and
properties of particles at the quantum level, serving as a fundamental tool in the
study of quantum mechanics.
18. Define azimuthal quantum number?

The “Azimuthal quantum number”, denoted as "𝒍," is one of the four quantum
numbers used to describe the energy levels and orbital characteristics of an
electron in an atom. It determines the shape of the electron's orbital.
The allowed values for 𝒍 are integers ranging from 𝟎 to (𝒏 − 𝟏), where 𝒏 is the
principal quantum number.

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19. Define magnetic quantum number?

The “Magnetic quantum number”, denoted as "𝒎," is another quantum
number that describes the orientation of an electron's orbital within a given
subshell. It determines the specific orientation of the orbital in space relative to
an external magnetic field.
The allowed values for m range from −𝒍 to +𝒍, including 𝟎.
20. Define principle quantum number?

The “Principal quantum number”, denoted as "𝒏," is one of the four quantum
numbers that describe the energy levels of electrons in an atom. It represents
the main energy level or shell in which an electron resides. The principal
quantum number determines the overall size and energy of an electron's orbital.
It takes on positive integer values (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝒆𝒕𝒄. ), with larger values
corresponding to higher energy levels that are farther from the nucleus.
21. Give importance of rotational spectra?

Rotational spectra are crucial for determining molecular structure, identifying
substances, and studying molecular dynamics. They provide information on
bond lengths, angles, and geometry, aiding in fields like chemistry and
astronomy. Additionally, rotational spectra reveal energy levels, rotational
motion, and molecular interactions, enhancing our understanding of molecular
behavior.
22. Define Laplacian operator?

The “Laplacian Operator” is a differential operator that represents the sum of
the second partial derivatives of a function with respect to its spatial
coordinates. In Cartesian coordinates, it is given by:
𝟐
𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐
𝛁 = + +
𝜹𝒙𝟐 𝜹𝒚𝟐 𝜹𝒛𝟐
The Laplacian operator measures the spatial variation of a scalar field or
function.

29 | P a g e
23. Give significance of Hamiltonian operator?

The Hamiltonian operator is of utmost importance in quantum mechanics as it
represents the total energy of a quantum system. It operates on the wave
function of the system and yields the corresponding energy eigenvalues. It is a
fundamental tool for solving the Schrödinger equation and understanding the
energy levels, transitions, and properties of quantum systems. It helps in
calculation of observable quantities and the prediction of system evolution over
time.
24. Define Normalized wave function?

A “Normalized wave function” is a mathematical function that describes the
quantum state of a particle or system and satisfies the normalization condition.
The normalization condition requires that the integral of the squared magnitude
of the wave function over all possible values of its variables is equal to 1. In other
words, a normalized wave function ensures that the total probability of finding
the particle or system in any possible state is equal to 1.
25. What is the effect of interactions on mobility of ions in concentrated

solution?
In concentrated solutions, ion interactions increase, leading to a decrease in ion
mobility. The heightened frequency of ion collisions and electrostatic
interactions hinders their movement, resulting in reduced mobility compared to
dilute solutions.
26. Give significance of Schrodinger’s wave equation?

Schrödinger's wave equation is of fundamental significance in quantum
mechanics as it describes the behavior of quantum systems.
It provides a mathematical framework to calculate the probability distribution
of a particle's position and predicts its quantum states, forming the basis for
understanding the wave-particle duality and the behavior of particles at the
microscopic level.

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27. What is the basis of Schrodinger’s wave equation?

Schrödinger's wave equation is based on the postulate that the evolution of a
quantum system can be described by a wave function. The equation itself results
from applying the principles of wave-particle duality and conservation of energy
to particles, providing a mathematical framework to describe their behavior and
predict probabilities of various outcomes.
28. Micro-state Vs Macro-state:

A “Micro-state” refers to a specific arrangement or configuration of particles at
the microscopic level in a system. It represents the detailed state of each
constituent element, including its position, velocity, and energy. i.e., In a gas, a
micro-state describes the positions and momenta of individual molecules.
A “Macro-state”, on the other hand, refers to a collective description of a system
based on macroscopic variables such as temperature, pressure, volume, and
total energy. It represents the average behavior and properties of a large
number of micro-states that are consistent with specific macroscopic
constraints.
29. Define Gibb’s Free Energy?

“Gibbs free energy (𝑮)” is a thermodynamic potential that combines enthalpy
and entropy to predict whether a process will be spontaneous at constant
temperature and pressure.
It is expressed by the equation 𝑮 = 𝑯 − 𝑻𝑺, where 𝑯 is enthalpy, 𝑻 is
temperature, and 𝑺 is entropy.
30. Define phase space?

“Phase space” is a concept in physics and mechanics that represents the set of
all possible states of a system. In classical mechanics, it is a multi-dimensional
space where each point represents a unique combination of positions and
momenta of all particles in a system.

31 | P a g e
31. Why AC is used in measuring conductance of electrolyte?

By applying an alternating current, the direction of the current is constantly
changing, which prevents the buildup of charge at the electrodes and reduces
the effects of polarization, resulting in more accurate measurements of the true
conductance of the electrolyte.
32. What is statistical weight factor in case of statistical thermodynamics?

In statistical thermodynamics, the statistical weight factor often denoted as 𝒈,
also known as the degeneracy factor, represents the number of ways a specific
microstate can be realized or the number of distinct arrangements that
correspond to a particular macrostate.
33. What is cell constant?

The “Cell constant” (𝑲) is a parameter that relates the physical dimensions of a
conductivity cell to its electrical properties. It is the ratio of the distance between
the electrodes to the effective cross-sectional area through which the current
passes. The cell constant is typically expressed in units of reciprocal distance e.g.,
𝒄𝒎−𝟏.
34. Give importance of quantum mechanics?

Quantum mechanics is of utmost importance in understanding the behavior of
matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic scales. Its significance lies in
accurately describing and predicting phenomena such as particle-wave duality,
electron configurations, chemical bonding, and the behavior of fundamental
particles. It forms the foundation for modern technologies like semiconductors,
lasers, and quantum computing, and has revolutionized fields such as physics,
chemistry, and materials science.
35. What is conditions of a well behaved (ᵠ)?

A well-behaved function, denoted as 𝝍, typically satisfies certain conditions to
ensure its smoothness and mathematical properties. These conditions may
include being continuous, differentiable, and bounded within a given interval or

32 | P a g e
domain. Additionally, a well-behaved function should have finite values and

avoid singularities or discontinuities.
36. Define ionic atmosphere?

“Ionic atmosphere” refers to the region surrounding an ion in a solution or solid,
where other ions and solvent molecules are influenced by the electric field
generated by the central ion. It arises due to the attractive or repulsive
interactions between the charged ion and its surrounding environment. The
ionic atmosphere plays a significant role in determining the ion's solvation,
mobility, and overall behavior.
37. How ionic strength affects reaction rate?

Higher ionic strength in a solution can generally increase the reaction rate by
promoting faster collisions between reactant ions. The increased concentration
of ions enhances the likelihood of successful reactant encounters, leading to
more frequent and efficient reaction events.
38. What is efficiency of fuel cell?

The “Efficiency of a fuel cell” refers to the ratio of the electrical energy output
of the cell to the chemical energy input of the fuel. It quantifies the ability of a
fuel cell to convert the energy stored in a fuel into usable electrical energy.
Efficiency is influenced by various factors, including the type of fuel cell,
operating conditions, and the efficiency of the electrochemical reactions
occurring within the cell.
39. How does a microstate differ from macro-state, give example?

A microstate refers to a specific configuration of individual particles in a system,
describing the detailed arrangement of each particle. In contrast, a macrostate
characterizes the overall state of the system based on macroscopic observables
like temperature, pressure, or energy, without specifying the detailed particle
arrangement.

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Example: For a six-sided die, a microstate could be the specific arrangement of

numbers facing up, such as 3, 4, 1, 6, 2, 5. The macrostate would be
characterized by the total number of times each number appears on the die over
many rolls, ignoring the specific order.
40. How does mobility of an ions retarted in solution?

The mobility of ions in a solution can be retarded by factors such as increased
viscosity, higher ion size, and stronger ion-solvent interactions. These
hindrances impede the free movement of ions through the solution, resulting in
decreased mobility.
41. What information can be obtained by solving Schrodinger’s wave

equation for hydrogen?
Solving Schrödinger's wave equation for hydrogen provides information about
the quantized energy levels of electrons in a hydrogen atom, yielding the
allowed electronic states, orbital shapes, and corresponding probabilities of
finding electrons at specific locations.
42. Define potential energy in terms of Schrodinger’s wave equation?

In the context of Schrödinger's wave equation, potential energy (𝑽) represents
the energy associated with the interaction of a particle with an external field or
potential. It is a key component in the total energy operator (𝑯) in the time-
independent Schrödinger equation: 𝑯𝝍 = 𝑬𝝍
where 𝑯 includes the kinetic energy operator and the potential energy
operator. The eigenvalue 𝑬 corresponds to the total energy of the quantum
system.
43.Give two types of linear operators?

“Position operator” corresponds to the position of a particle in space. In one
dimension, it is represented as 𝔁 and acts on wave functions to give the position
eigenvalue.

34 | P a g e
“Momentum operator” represents the linear momentum of a particle. In one

dimension, it is denoted as 𝒑 and operates on wave functions to yield the
momentum eigenvalue.
44. Give two examples of hydrocarbon fuel cells?

1) Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC): Uses methanol as fuel, which is directly
oxidized at the anode to produce electricity. It operates at relatively low
temperatures and offers compact size and portability.
2) Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC): Utilizes hydrogen as fuel,
which is obtained from hydrocarbon sources through reforming. The hydrogen
is oxidized at the anode to generate electricity, and it operates at higher
temperatures compared to DMFCs.
45. Give significance of an electrode in electrochemistry?

An electrode in electrochemistry serves as a site for electron transfer during
redox reactions, facilitating the conversion of chemical energy into electrical
energy and vice versa.
46. How can the total energy of a system be calculated from partition
function?
The total energy 𝑼 of a system can be calculated from the partition function 𝑸
using the relation:
𝜹𝒍𝒏(𝑸)
𝑼 = −𝒌𝑻𝟐
𝜹𝑻
Where: 𝒌 is the Boltzmann constant,

T is the temperature.
(NOTE: REPEATED QUESTIONS ARE SOLVED ONCE)

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Pastpaper PhysicalChemistry SQs Solved 6th Sem (2014-24) - by Haseeb Ahmad (Revised Edition)

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Pastpaper PhysicalChemistry SQs Solved 6th Sem (2014-24) - by Haseeb Ahmad (Revised Edition)

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6th Sem PHYSICAL PAST PAPERS

2. Statistical mechanics is believed to be a bridge between quantum mechanics

3. Wave function (ᵠ) alone has no physical significance, comment on?

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

4. Define cell constant, give its dimensions?

5. Define occupation number with an example?

6. Debye Huckel’s law is applicable only to dilute solutions, comment on?

7. Define variance of conductance with dilution of solution?

8. What is Eigen value theorem of quantum mechanics?

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

The “Eigenvalue Theorem” in quantum mechanics states that “Observable

9. Define an operator with two examples?

10. Define statistical weight factor in case of statistical thermodynamics?

11. State selection rule for rotational spectra?

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

Where 𝜟𝑱 represents the change in the rotational quantum number. It states

12. What are conditions for a function to be well behaved?

13. Write down conditions for quantum mechanical tunneling?

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

15. Define electric cells with and without transference?

16. Define a rigid rotor with an example?

18. Write mathematical equation of partition function?

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

Where: 𝜮 represents the summation over all possible states i.

19. Define Debye length with an example?

20. How does statistical mechanics help to explain quantum mechanics?

21. How are Cartesian coordinates converted into polar coordinates?

𝒓 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 For the distance from the origin, and

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

22. What is the effect of temperature on the conductivity of an electrolyte?

24. What is accidental degeneracy?

25. State 'Eigen value' of quantum mechanics?

26. Define orthogonally of a wave function?

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

27. Calculate the value of Hamiltonian operator?

29. What is the effect of temperature on the conductivity of dilute solutions?

30. What is selection rule? Give its applications in rotational spectra?

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

The “Selection rule for rotational spectra” is

32. Define a harmonic oscillator with one example?

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

33. State Boltzmann's distribution law?

35. What is salt bridge? Give an example?

36. Write down the time dependent Schrodinger's wave equation?

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

where: 𝒊 is the imaginary unit

where: 𝒉 is the reduced Planck constant,

38. Write two postulates or Quantum Mechanics?

39. What ` the effect of temperature on Partition Function?

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

The “𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏” (𝒁) in statistical mechanics is influenced by

41. Sterling approximation can provide a distribution of micro slates in given

42. Differentiate between Asymmetric effect and electrophoretic effect?

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

electric field. It is a collective behavior observed in systems where charged

43. Wave function is recognized to be a window is Quantum mechanics?

44. Define activity and coefficient of activity?

45. What are operators? Give description of Hamiltonian operator?

BY: HASEEB AHMAD (1062) (SESSION 2020-24) GOVT. AMGC, SGD

46. What is orthogonal wave function?

47. How conductivity does vary with temperature?

48. What is electrophoresis effect?