INTEGRATED TERM PROJECT

(I.T.P.)
SUBJECTS SUMMARY OF THE 1st SEMESTER
FOUNDATION PROGRAM UG TECH-II
DOCUMENT- I

Compiled by:-
Rahul Ranjan
Sunil Kumar

1
2
3
 Elements of Design

Elements of design give us a basic idea about the design and pattern.
It not only makes us aware of the structure or design but also the color
combination and also about how to play around with shapes
and shapes.
It also teaches us to differentiate between a design
and an art.
Earlier we looked at this without appreciating its
creativity, but now we see it in a
With a broad horizon. It has taught us to use our creative mind
to analyze and also to visualize things at a level where we are able to
understand the market and the clients.

This subject is basically a practical based subject where we were to work according to
the instructions and presentations showed in the class and the assignment was to be
brought in the following class so that it could be verified for further improvement.
This kind of teaching was well appreciated as one could point at others work as well as
their own work without any hesitation

OBJECTIVES
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN, PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN,HOW TO MAKE
A BALANCE COLLAGE OR EMPHASIS ON IT, MAKING TEXTURE,
GESTALT LAWS, COLOR WHEELS, COLOR PSCHYCOLOGY,
COLOR REPRESENTATION

NATURE OF ASSIGNMENT

EXPLORATION ON ELEMENT OF DESIGNS AS WELL AS PRINCIPLE

OF DESIGN, MAKING OF ART WORK, COLOR WHEELS, TECHNIQUE
OF MAKING COLLAGE, REPRESENTING COLOR PSCHYCOLOGY,
CREATION OF TEXTILE TEXTURE AND VISUAL TEXTURE

MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUE

4
 BOND SHEET, A3 OR A4 SIZE, IVORY SHEET, POSTER COLORS,
PHOTO COLORS, BRUSHES, PENCILS, DIFFERENT OBJECTS FOR
CREATING TEXTURE AND COLLAGE

LEARNING

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN, WAY

OF REPRESENTING ANY THEME BY USING LINES, TO MAKE A
BALANCE COLLAGE OR EMPHASIS ON A OBJECT IN A
COLLAGE, TO MAKE TEXTURE, COLOR PSCHYCOLOGY,
GESTALT LAWS, COLOR WHEELS, FACTORS FOR MAKING A
DESIGN,
LINE:
A path of a dot through space. It is also a distance between any two points
which gives a sense of direction. A line varies in weight or their size of
thickness. Some may be thick while others are no more than a hairline.
Line can be considered in two ways. The linear marks made with a pen or
brush or the edge created when two shapes meets.
There are many types of lines, but all lines are classified into the categories
below:
¾ Straight line:
• Horizontal line: it denotes about continuity, stability, partition
and end.
• Vertical line: it denotes uplift, pride, straight forward,
confidence, alertness and strength.
• Diagonal line: it denotes movement, motion, casual, royalty,
support, danger, destructive and unbalanced.
Spirituality

¾ Curve line:
It denotes flexibility, smoothness, high-low, flow, variation, delicate and

softness. (A curve line with thickness shows boldness and net curve

shows sophistication.)

¾ Zigzag line :
Pain, Anguish

It denotes resistance, complex, confusion, sudden change,

hills, ups and downs and heartbeat.

5
PROPERTIES OF LINE:

A thick line denotes strong effect, boldness, prominent, dominance,

forcefulness, loudness,.

Thin lines denotes weakness, specific, light.

A broken line denotes discontinuity, irregularity, and barren.

TEXTURES:

It is feel, appearance, quality, grain, tactile, weave or consistency of a

fabrics, substances or fabric.

It also gives the feeling of: ---

• Crease \ Wrinkle.
Spiky.
Layered.
Crumpled.
Crushed.
Fibrous.
Hairy.
Porous.
Pilled facade.
Matt.
Shiny.

Types of texture: --

Visual texture
Actual texture

6
Visual texture:

It Spirituality is what you see or sight. Without feeling an object

you can gather what the texture is.

Actual texture:

It is what you can feel or touch.

RHYTHM:

Rhythm is what makes artwork flow by using

patterns and repetition.
It is regularly recurring sequence of events or
actions. It is also a strong, regular, repeated
pattern of music, sound or movement.
If a piece has good rhythm the work should
flow freely without interruption.

7
 RHYTHM gives:

Sense of movement.

 Sense of continuation.

 Sense of flow.

  Feeling of softness.

 Sense of calmness.

 Sense of saturation.

 Sense of calmness.

 Sense of saturation.

 Sense of stability.

Rhythm gives an inside

peace , it can give a
feeling of satisfaction. It
makes an impact on brain.

Types of rhythm: ---

 Random rhythms
 Regular rhythms

8
Random rhythms:
These are harder to pull of for there is
no set pattern .

Regular rhythm:
These are one where there is an obvious
pattern.

Rhythm
(Created by visualization of’ fusion music.’)

COLLAGE:

Collage is a form of art in which various

material are arranged and stuck to a backing. It
can be a combination of various things.

9
RULES TO BE FOLLOWED WHILE MAKING A COLLAGE :

GRID:
Grid is a network or framework or lattice of lines that cross each
Other to form a series of squares or rectangles.

WHY GRIDS ARE USED IN COLLAGE:

Grids allow for easy reading of

complex data.

Grids provide consistency to a

collection of documents.

Grids bring order to a large collection of visual material.

Grid collage (graphics)

10
BALANCE: It is the arrangement of elements so that all is equalized.
Visually all the weight is equal and no part dominates completely.
It is a state in which different parts are in correct proportion
ensuring that it does not wobble or fall over.

Types of balance in a collage:

Formal balance\ symmetrical balance:

Informal balance \ asymmetrical balance

Formal balance : It is a kind of mirror image , biaxial symmetry

(central a little heavy ) or radial axis of symmetry ( near symmetry
).
It creates visual interest. Radial balance is where everything grows
from a central point.

Informal balance :In this the picture is

equalized and there is the same visual
weight, but there is no mirror image. It
is vice-versa of formal balance.

Asymmetrical (informal) balance

Beautiful chaos

EMPHASIS : Special importance or

value or stress given to an object
in a collage.

11
HOW TO CREATE EMPHASIS:

• Isolation from the group

• Center of attraction
• shape of the image
• size of the image
• color contrast

It has lot of importance in poster aid. It gives a special importance to

an object in a collage.

ALIGNMENT:

Alignment is the technique to place an object in a straight line or

in
the correct position in relation to other. It gives clue to viewer that
all the items are not the same kind of information which is the
part
of the same message.

POSITIVE SPACE:

Positive space is the space to which we pay more attention to

remember better, one or more shapes.

NEGATIVES SPACES:

The field on which the figure rest on or in front of which is not

often remembered.

UNITY:

Unity is the state of forming a whole such that it brings about

sense of uniformity.

12
Color Theory Basics

What is color theory?

Color Theory is a set of principles used to create harmonious color

combinations. Color relationships can be visually represented with a color
wheel — the color spectrum wrapped onto a circle.

The color wheel is a visual representation of color theory:

According to color theory, harmonious

color combinations use any two colors
opposite each other on the color wheel,
any three colors equally spaced around
the color wheel forming a triangle, or any
four colors forming a rectangle (actually,
two pairs of colors opposite each other).
The harmonious color combinations are
called color schemes – sometimes the
term 'color harmonies' is also used. Color
schemes remain harmonious regardless
of the rotation angle.

Color:

Color is an element of art with three properties:

„ Hue is the basic name of a color or the pure form of color – there
are six basic hues: red, yellow, blue, green, orange, and violet

„ Intensity or saturation refers to the relative brightness or dullness

of the color – a color is at full intensity only when pure and
unmixed

„ Value is the lightness or darkness of a hue

Purple: highest tonal value.
Yellow: lowest tonal value

13
Primary & secondary colors

Red, blue and yellow are primary colors for artistic media.
Red, blue and green are primary colors for technology media.
Additive model used by screen, displays mixed color with
light.

Primary colors are:

Red
Blue
Yellow

Secondary colors are:

o Orange
o Green
o Violet

Complimentary colors are:

Red –Green
Blue – orange
 Yellow – violet

14
 Colors on color wheel:

Primary colors on color wheel:

• Red
• Yellow
• Blue

The primary colors on the color wheel can be taken and mixed
differently to create any other color.
With the primary colors, the next sets of colors directly made
are
the secondary colors:

• Orange
• Green
• Violet

Then with the secondary and primary colors, other more specific
colors are produced. Get the combinations between the colors are

• Yellow green
• Yellow orange
• Red orange
• Red violet
• Blue violet
• Blue green

Harmonious color (co-relation, rhythm)

• Lime yellow-
yellowish green
• Light blue-light
yellow

15
Tint:

Tint is mixing of white to make a light color.

Fugitive color does not have identity.

Simultaneous contrast refers to the visual
influence
of one color on another color when placed next
to or upon each other.

Psychology of color

Warm color:
• Purple, red, orange,
yellow and black.

Cool color:
• Blue, green, white.

Neutral color:
• Black and white

Red:
Fire, blood, danger, warm, desire, love, strength, vitality, passion.

Pink:
Romance, friendship, passiveness, feminine.

Orange:
Enthusiasm, attraction, success, appetizing
Yellow:
Joy, optimism, happiness.

16
Green:
Nature, growth, harmony, fertility, sporting.

Blue:
Stability, freedom, confidence, masculine.

White:
Peace, safety, purity, innocence.

Black:
Mystery, formality, boldness.

Technically, black and white are no colors but when thought of as

Colors, they are classified as neutral colors.
The different color categories are used to create moods and depth
In a picture.

17
PRODUCT DESIGN
The basic idea about this idea was that to study the client at a broader
horizon.
To study their requirement and their psychology in order to design a product
for them.

Basically three categories summarized as Story line:

o Defining the problem :
It is basically finding the element of influence among clients and by
creating the feel of excitement and knowing about the feel of the
problem.
o Inspiration sources:
It includes the theme board and the client board which are to be well
defined and specified. We also need to refer the culture, color and
shape and the environment which effect or bring about any form of
influence in the client’s activities.
o Creative process :
It is the process of applying the vertical and lateral thinking and the
design process comes into play.

One can conclude that design is informational and is a kind of a visual

language; it is a process which starts by processing, by being creative from
general information to specific details.

18
 GEOMETRY

We were taught Geometry by Mr. Abid Bilal, the subject was basically to develop the
perception power as will then as the ideas to develop and the skill To draw basic
shapes lines Angles and shapes the had different assignment for it

Format of the sheet

Geometry
Date
Name
Faculty
Topic
Program

In the first assignment we had to draw parallel lines keeping the distance between two
successive lines same without actually measuring the line.

19
Then we had to draw curves over successive parallel lines.

Its purpose was to check the accuracy between distance between the parallel lines.

Bisecting and trisecting a line.

20
We can bisect a line.

1. By perpendicular bisector.

2. By set square.

We can trisect a line.

1. By set square.

To draw certain angles.

We had to draw specific angles such as a 300, 600, 90o, 120o, etc.

Creating an imaginary square.

In this we’re given a square and on the basis of the perception we had to draw other
squares of the same dimension.

Creating a parabola

A parabola is formed by cutting a lateral section of the cone. It is symmetrical about

Y- Axis. The different ways creating a parabola are as follows.

1. Rectangle method

2. Perpendicular method

Creating an ellipse

21
Ellipse is symmetrical along both X-axis and Y-axis. It is a polygon. 5 different ways
to create an ellipse is

1. Campus Method

2. Circle within circle method

3. Rectangle method

4. Four rectangle method

5. Paper strip method

Creating a hyperbola

Hyperbola is symmetrical along X as well as Y-axis. It is broader at the vertex. It is

formed by cutting a section of the cone parallel t the base of the cone.

Basic shapes

We were taught to create some basic figures of regular polygon more than 4 sides.
These were

1. Pentagon
a. Sides-5

b. Angles-108o
2. Hexagon
a. Sides-6

b. Angle-120o

3. Octagon
a. Sides-8

b. Angle-135o

22
Tiling

Tiling is a process of filling a given space in such a way that no space gets wasted.
The process is generally used to decorate floors and lower part of the wall.

Tiling of Square

Tessilation

It is geometry based on illusion in this two figures are repeated in such a way that we
can point out only one figure in one visual. We are able to see only that figure on
which we are able to concentrate.

23
Golden Proportion

It is a very important concept of geometry as well as nature. Any thing which is in the
ratio 1:1.613 is said to be in golden proportion.

The objects in nature e.g. Branches of the tree, dimension of the animals looks
appealing and they are in golden proportion.

Creating a rectangle of different roots.

On the basis of Pythagoras theorem we were taught how to create a rectangle of

1: 2 , 1: 3 , 1: 4

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Develop the skill of perception

2. Maintenance of accuracy
3. Create shapes like parabola, ellipse, etc. that cannot be created by
instruments.
4. Bisecting and trisecting of lines and angle.
5. Effect of golden proportions
6. To create illusion using tessellation

24
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Communication-“The sum of all things a person

does when he wants to create understanding in the
minds of others is called communication.”
It is also defined as the exchange of ideas, opinions,
facts or emotions by two or more persons.
Efficient communication-
• Advances you socially.
• Makes and maintain contacts.
• Is vital for success.
• 4. Helps and leads others.
Importance of good communication-
• The key words: Effectiveness, efficiency
• An organization works best when information moves smoothly through
the organization.
• Accurate and useful information forms a link in the organization’s
information chain
• Medium to keep employees involved to have BRAND LOYALITY.

Forms of business communication-

1. Non-Verbal communication-it
includes
• Gestures
• Expression
• Vocal qualities
• Timing between the words
2. verbal communication- it includes
• Speaking.
• Writing.
• Listening.

Business communication process-

1. Sender or Encoder:-It is the Initiator of the communication.
Encoding is a process of selecting and formulating the information to be sent
or conveyed.
2. Message:-It is information being
transmitted. It includes both verbal and non-verbal
data.
3. Channel:-It is means used to convey the
message.( Telephone, computer, Fax,
Memo, Face to face.)

25
 4. Receiver: - It is the individual to whom the message is directed.
5. The Feed back:-It is the receiver response to a message. It can be
Verbal/ non verbal.

Communication Channels:-
In any organization communication is dived into two major heads.
1. External communication: It is the communication of organization
with any external agency.
2. Internal communication:-It is the communication of organization
within organization between management, employees, and others.
It is defined into two forms.
• Informal communication :-( Grapevine Communication):-It is a
channel of horizontal communication but can flow vertically and
diagonally as well.
(a).Single strand
(b). Gossip.
(c).Random communication.
(d).Cluster communication.
Importance:-
• Fast
• Easier to get feedback.
• Provides emotional relief.
• Helps building of inter personal relation.
• Improve working condition with in an organization.
• Supplements all other communication.
Disadvantages:-
• Distortion of information or information leak out.
• Incomplete information can be circulated.
• Different perception can give different meanings.

Uses:-
• Feedback.
• Rumors can be dealt with effectively.

• Formal Communication:-All communication that flows thru well

formally established channel. It is of four types.
(a). Downward Communication:-Superior to Subordinate. Its
objective is to
• Provide job direction.
• Explain policies and features.
• To give a praise of performance.

Disadvantages:-
• Delayed communication.
• A loss of information.
• Over communication.

26
 (b).Upward Communication:-Flow is from lower to higher official.
The objective is to
• Provide a feedback to the superior.
• Promote harmony.

Disadvantages:-
• The superior may feel insulted.
• Misrepresentation of facts.
• The entire problem may not have been communicated.

(c). Vertical communication:-It is the free flow of information

upward or
downward.

(d).Horizontal or Lateral Communication:-It is flow of information

between people of same level.

Goal of communication:-
• Building of favorable relationship.
• Receiver should understand.
• Building goodwill.

Communication barrier:-It arises due to:

1. Problem caused by the sender:-
• Inadequate information about the subject.
• Over explaining a message making it complex.
• Order of presentation.
• Lack of familiarity with the audience.
• Lack of experience regarding reading and writing.
2. Problem in reception:-
• Physical noise.
• Physiological noise.
• Psychological noise.

Removal of communication barrier:-

1. Know your subject by Sender and Receiver.
2. Focus on your purpose.
3, Know your audiences and receiver.
4. Be organized.

Presentation Skills:-Importance should be given to

• Selection of ideas.
• Selection of languages.
• Delivery pattern.
• Ensure that the goal is reached.
• How, What, How much, Whom to say.
Format for presentation:-
• Introduction

27
 • Body.
• Conclusion.
• Question.
• Feedback.
Guidelines for effective intro:-
1. Always prepare your opening.
2. Tell your audience what the presentation is all about.
3. Keep the opening short and simple.
4. Make very careful selection of anecdotes.
Guidelines for effective conclusion:-
1. Always prepare a closing.
2. Restate all the main points.
3. Clarify what happens next.
4. Scope for a sequel.
5. Than the audience.

Ten common mistakes of a presentation:-

1. Accepting an inappropriate invitation.
2. Neglecting to research the audience.
3. Procrastinating.
4. Getting a late start.
5. Assuming that all the technical equipment are same.
6. Failing to head MURPHY’S LAW.
7. Backing on wrong media.
8. Telling a tasteless or offensive joke.
9. Relying on a live internet connection.
10. Having too little to say.

Power point presentation:-

• Always use a title slide.
• The presentation should be in tone with the tone of message.
• Keep the presentation look simple.
• Keep a constant look from slide to slide.
• Create a high contrast between the text and the background.
• Clipart should match the audience sensibility.
• Use complementary colors together.
• Keep it simple and consistent.
Principle of human communication:-
• Interpersonal skills. (One to one communication).
• Presentation skills. (One to many communication).
• Group communication (many to many communication).
Cross culture communication:-
• Problem of cultural differences.
• Problem of languages.
• Solutions.

Thumb rule:-
• Writing or speaking should be as simple and clear as possible.
• Avoid questions.

28
 • Use politically correct statements, does not hurt any one.
Praise principle:-
• Make the praise specific.
• Praise the progress not the perfection.
• Don’t overdo praise.
• Get the timing right.
Dealing with criticism:-
• Always do constructive criticism.
• Try and understand other person’s perspective.
• Avoid sounding judgmental.
• Avoid critical overload.
Responding to criticism:-
• Recognize the value of constructive criticism.
• Understand the perspective of the person offering criticism.
• Acknowledge criticism.
• Communicate clearly how you feel about criticism.
Avoiding conflicts:-
• Avoid conflict or bypass conflict.
• Get fact right.
• Accommodate.
• Collaborate.
Resolving conflict:-
• Restate
• Agree.
• Refocus.
• Compromise.
Resume and Covering letter:-
Resume:-A resume is personal summery of professional history and
qualification. It
Includes information about career goals, education, work
experiences,
Activities, honors and any special skills.
Cover letter:-A cover letter expresses interest and qualification for a position
of a person to a prospective employer.

29
MATERIAL SCIENCE
Material science has been a great treat to all the students as it has taught us the
importance of the material and its importance around in our environment it has helped
us to analyze things around us ,the factors which affect us and also their chemical and
physical properties which go unnoticed by us .but after this module it has broaden our
way of handling things and the material as it has changed our views and our
perception.
We take keen interest in the substance around us and also the purpose and its
drawbacks or also its importance at the area it is being used.

This subject was basically theoretical so we had lectures and presentation on certain
topics by the students so about to bring an awareness about research among students.
Assignments were also given as per the requirement of the topic or the discussion.

Inter Atom Bonds

Interatomic bonds are the one which are formed due to interatomic forces between
two atoms. They are the one which bind the atoms together. They are the interaction
between two isolated atoms as they are brought into close proximity from an infinite
separation. They may be attractive or repulsive and the magnitude of each other is a
function of separation or interatomic distance.
They may be:
¾ Primary
¾ Secondary
Primary bonds can be of three types
1. Ionic --- These bonds are formed in compounds which are composed
of both metallic and non-metallic elements situated at the horizontal
extremities of the periodic table. Atoms of metals easily give up their
valence electrons to the non metallic atoms.
2. Covalent --- These are the ones which exist between two non metallic
elements. They are formed due to the mutual sharing of the outermost
electrons between the non-metals.
3. Metallic --- These bonds are found in, metals and their alloys. The
valence electrons form a sea of electrons or an electron clouds leaving
the non-valence electrons and the nuclei form what are called ion
cores. The electron cloud acts like a glue to hold the ion cores together
which would have otherwise got separated due to the repulsion.

Secondary bonds are much weaker than primary bonds. They often provide a "weak
link" for deformation or fracture. Example for secondary bonds is:

Hydrogen bonds--- These bonds are common in covalently bonded molecules

which contain hydrogen, such as water (H2O). Since the bonds are primarily
covalent, the electrons are shared between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
However, the electrons tend to spend more time around the oxygen atom. This
leads to a small positive charge around the hydrogen atoms, and a negative charge
around the oxygen atom. When other molecules with this type of charge transfer
are nearby, the negatively charged end of one molecule will be weakly attracted to
the positively charged end of the other molecule. The attraction is weak because
the charge transfer is small.

30
 Van der Waals bonds are very weak compared to other types of bonds. These
bonds are especially important in noble gases which are cooled to very low
temperatures. The electrons surrounding an atom are always moving. At any given
point in time, the electrons may be slightly shifted to one side of an atom, giving
that side a very small negative charge. This may cause an attraction to a slightly
positively charged atom nearby, creating a very weak bond. At most temperatures,
thermal energy overwhelms the effects of Van der Waals bonds.

Van Der Waals bonding is a secondary bonding, which exists between virtually all
atoms or molecules, but its presence may be obscured if any of the three primary
bonding types is present. Secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular
dipoles. In essence, an electron dipole exists whenever there is some separation of
positive and negative portions of an atom or molecule. When an electron cloud
density occurs at one side of an atom or molecule during the electron flight about the
nucleus, Van Der Waals forces are generated. This creates a dipole wherein one side
of the atom becomes electrically charged and the other side has deficiency of
electrons and is considerably charged positive

31
 THE PERIODIC TABLE

I II IIIb IVb Vb VIb VIIb VIIIb Ib IIb III IV V VI VII 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

H He

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Fr Ra Ac** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uuq Uuh Uuo

Lanthanides * Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Actinides ** Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

32
Units
Any quantity that is so defined as to be quantifiable is called a physical
quantity. All physical quantities must therefore be measurable. Thus,
numerical values can be assigned to all physical quantities. These numerical
quantities can be experimentally verified. However not all these quantities are
measurable directly (e.g. thermometers work indirectly by measuring some
effect of temperature)

SYMBOL OF MKS ABBREVIATION OF

QUANTITY
QUANTITY UNITS UNITS
length [L] metre (m)
mass [M] kilogram (kg)
time [T] second (s)
temperature [ ] Kelvin (K)
electric current [I] Ampere (A)
quantity of
[mol] mole (mol)
substance
luminous intensity [I] candela (cd)

Density (symbol: ρ - Greek: rho) is a measure of mass per unit of volume. The higher
an

object's density, the higher its mass per volume. The average density of an object
equals

its total mass divided by its total volume. A denser object (such as iron) will have less
volume than an equal mass of some less dense substance (such as water).

The SI unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3)

Where

ρ is the object's density (measured in kilograms per cubic metre)

m is the object's total mass (measured in kilograms)
V is the object's total volume (measured in cubic metres)

33
Relative density (also known as specific gravity) is a measure of the density of a
material. It is dimensionless, equal to the density of the material divided by the
density of water (or, sometimes used for gases, of air).

Relative density is often expressed in forms similar to this:

relative density: or specific gravity:

The superscripts indicate the temperature at which the density of the material is
measured, and the subscripts indicate the temperature of the water to which it is
compared

Metal or alloy kg/cu.m

aluminum - melted 2560 - 2640
aluminum bronze (3-10% Al) 7700 - 8700
aluminum foil 2700 -2750
antifriction metal 9130 -10600
beryllium 1840
beryllium copper 8100 - 8250
brass - casting 8400 - 8700
brass - rolled and drawn 8430 - 8730
bronze - lead 7700 - 8700
bronze - phosphorous 8780 - 8920
bronze (8-14% Sn) 7400 - 8900
cast iron 6800 - 7800
cobalt 8746
copper 8930
delta metal 8600
electrum 8400 - 8900
gold 19320
iron 7850
lead 11340
light alloy based on Al 2560 - 2800
light alloy based on Mg 1760 - 1870
magnesium 1738
mercury 13593
molybdenum 10188
monel 8360 - 8840
nickel 8800
nickel silver 8400 - 8900
platinum 21400
plutonium 19800
silver 10490

34
 steel - rolled
7850

steel - stainless 7480 - 8000

tin 7280
titanium 4500
tungsten 19600
uranium 18900
vanadium 5494
white metal 7100
zinc 7135

Metals, group of chemical elements that exhibit all or most of the following
physical qualities: they are solid at ordinary temperatures; opaque, except in
extremely thin films; good electrical and thermal conductors (see Conductor,
Electrical); lustrous when polished; and have a crystalline structure when in the
solid state. Metals and nonmetals are separated in the periodic table by a
diagonal line of elements. Elements to the left of this diagonal are metals, and
elements to the right are nonmetals. Elements that make up this diagonal—
boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, polonium, and astatine—
have both metallic and nonmetallic properties (see Periodic Law). The common
metallic elements include the following: aluminum, barium, beryllium, bismuth,
cadmium, calcium, cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, gold, iridium, iron, lead,
lithium, magnesium, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, osmium,
palladium, platinum, potassium, radium, rhodium, silver, sodium, tantalum,
thallium, thorium, tin, titanium, tungsten, uranium, vanadium, and zinc. Metallic
elements can combine with one another and with certain other elements, either
as compounds, as solutions, or as intimate mixtures. A substance composed of
two or more metals, or a substance composed of a metal and certain nonmetals
such as carbon are called alloys. Alloys of mercury with other metallic elements
are known as amalgams.

Within the general limits of the definition of a metal, the properties of metals vary
widely. Most metals are grayish in color, but bismuth is pinkish, copper is red,
and gold is yellow. Some metals display more than one color, a phenomenon
called pleochroism. The melting points of metals range from about -39° C (about
-38° F) for mercury to 3410° C (6170° F) for tungsten. Osmium and iridium
(specific gravity 22.6) are the most dense metals, and lithium (specific gravity
0.53) is the least dense. The majority of metals crystallize in the cubic system,
but some crystallize in the hexagonal and tetragonal systems (see Crystal).
Bismuth has the lowest electrical conductivity of the metallic elements, and silver
the highest at ordinary temperatures. (For conductivity at low temperatures, see
Cryogenics; Superconductivity.) The conductivity of most metals can be lowered
by alloying. All metals expand when heated and contract when cooled, but certain
alloys, such as platinum and iridium alloys, have extremely low coefficients of
expansion.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Metals are generally very strong and resistant to different types of stresses.
Though there is considerable variation from one metal to the next, in general
metals are marked by such properties as hardness, the resistance to surface
deformation or abrasion; tensile strength, the resistance to breakage; elasticity,

35
the ability to return to the original shape after deformation; malleability, the
ability to be shaped by hammering; fatigue resistance, the ability to resist
repeated stresses; and ductility, the ability to undergo deformation without
breaking. See Materials Science and Technology.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Metals typically have positive valences in most of their compounds, which means
they tend to donate electrons to the atoms to which they bond. Also, metals tend
to form basic oxides. Typical nonmetallic elements, such as nitrogen, sulfur, and
chlorine, have negative valences in most of their compounds—meaning they tend
to accept electrons—and form acidic oxides Metals typically have low ionization
potentials. This means that metals react easily by loss of electrons to form
positive ions, or cations. Thus, metals can form salts (chlorides, sulfides, and
carbonates, for example) by serving as reducing agents (electron donors).

Alloy, substance composed of two or more metals. Alloys, like pure metals,
possess metallic luster and conduct heat and electricity well, although not
generally as well as do the pure metals of which they are formed. Compounds
that contain both a metal or metals and certain nonmetals, particularly those
containing carbon, are also called alloys. The most important of these is steel.
Simple carbon steels consist of about 0.5 percent manganese and up to 0.8
percent carbon, with the remaining material being iron.

An alloy may consist of an intermetallic compound, a solid solution, an intimate

mixture of minute crystals of the constituent metallic elements, or any
combination of solutions or mixtures of the foregoing. Intermetallic compounds,
such as NaAu2, CuSn, and CuAl2, do not follow the ordinary rules of valency. They
are generally hard and brittle; although they have not been important in the past
where strength is required, many new developments have made such compounds
increasingly important. Alloys consisting of solutions or mixtures of two metals
generally have lower melting points than do the pure constituents. A mixture with
a melting point lower than that of any other mixture of the same constituents is
called a eutectic. The eutectoid, the solid-phase analog of the eutectic, frequently
has better physical characteristics than do alloys of different proportions.

Conductors and Insulators

Conductors

If a material allows free electrons to move easily from one atom to another then we
call that material a conductor. As we said earlier, most metals let their free electrons
roam, so most metals are good conductors.

Silver is the best conductor. Copper is almost as good at conducting as silver, and it
costs a lot less, so copper is the most popular material used in electrical pathways, or
circuits.

Wires are the most familiar component of electrical circuits. Many of the materials
that are good electrical conductors are also good conductors of heat.

36
Insulators

The atoms of some materials have no free electrons in their outer orbits. These
electrons are busy doing other jobs, like being shared in the orbits of two adjacent
atoms. They are so closely held that it is very difficult to pull them away. Most
compounds of carbon and hydrogen are like this.

The hydrogen atom has only one electron, but it naturally wants two electrons for its
outer (and only) orbital shell. Carbon has four electrons spinning in its outer shell, a
shell that is most stable (or most satisfied) with eight electrons. So when hydrogen
and carbon atoms are put close together, they stick together.

Carbon will easily connect with four hydrogen atoms, or many combinations of other
carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms. The adjacent atoms share their outermost electrons
and then each atom has satisfied and stable electron orbits, which means no free
electrons.

Plastics, whose molecules are made from long combinations of carbon and hydrogen
atoms, have few or no free electrons. This means that plastics are poor conductors of
electricity (and they are also poor conductors of heat).

Being a poor conductor is good. We call these materials insulators. Insulating

materials are very useful, they help us keep electricity where we want it. Today, most
indoor electrical insulators are made from plastic, because it is durable and
economical. Outdoors, such as on the utility poles serving your home, glass or
ceramics are often used for insulators.

37
STEEL
Steel is often classified by its carbon content: a high-carbon steel is serviceable
for dies and cutting tools because of its great hardness and brittleness; low- or
medium-carbon steel is used for sheeting and structural forms because of its
amenability to welding and tooling. Alloy steels, now most widely used, contain
one or more other elements to give them specific qualities. Aluminum steel is
smooth and has a high tensile strength. Chromium steel finds wide use in
automobile and airplane parts on account of its hardness, strength, and elasticity,
as does the chromium-vanadium variety. Nickel steel is the most widely used of
the alloys; it is nonmagnetic and has the tensile properties of high-carbon steel
without the brittleness. Nickel-chromium steel possesses a shock resistant quality
that makes it suitable for armor plate. Wolfram (tungsten), molybdenum, and
high-manganese steel are other alloys. Stainless steel, which was developed in
England, has a high tensile strength and resists abrasion and corrosion because
of its high chromium content.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Elasticity
Elasticity is the property of an object or material which causes it to be restored to its
original shape after distortion. It is said to be more elastic if it restores itself more
precisely to its original configuration. A rubber band is easy to stretch, and snaps back
to near its original length when released, but it is not as elastic as a piece of piano
wire. The piano wire is harder to stretch, but would be said to be more elastic than the
rubber band because of the precision of its return to its original length. A real piano
string can be struck hundreds of time without stretching enough to go noticeably out
of tune. A spring is an example of an elastic object - when stretched, it exerts a
restoring force which tends to bring it back to its original length. This restoring force
is generally proportional to the amount of stretch, as described by Hooke's Law. For
wires or columns, the elasticity is generally described in terms of the amount of
deformation (strain) resulting from a given stress (Young's modulus). Bulk elastic
properties of materials describe the response of the materials to changes in pressure.

38
 Malleability
Malleability is the ability of a material to be stretched or shaped in all directions
without breaking or fracturing. Again copper, gold and aluminium have good
Malleability. Generally all metals become more Malleable as their temperature is
increased and this allows Engineers to press or roll metals into quite intricate shapes.

Hardness
Hardness is the ability of a material to withstand scratching or penetration.

Glass is an example of a reasonably hard material. If you try to scratch it with a Scriber you will find that it
takes more effort on your part than if you scratched a piece of plastic.

The Hardness of metals can be changed by the use of heat. This is called Heat Treatment, strangely enough.
If you sharpen a Scriber or a Punch you should Heat Treat it in order to bring back its Hardness, otherwise it
will go blunt again quickly.

Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to withstand impact. The larger the impact needed to fracture or
break a piece of a material determines how tough the material is.

Ductility
Ductility is the ability of a material to be stretched out by a force into thin wire. Materials such as
copper, aluminium and gold have excellent Ductility. Steel also has excellent Ductility when it is
heated.

Creep
Creep is the stretching of a material due to a constant force over a period of time. This is an unusual
property because it is difficult to see

Plasticity
Plasticity is the ability of a material to be stretched or formed into another shape and then hold that
shape, without breaking or fracturing.

39
STRESS STRAIN CURVE

We can describe the details of the graph as:

• P is the limit of proportionality, where the linear relationship

between stress and strain finishes.
• E is the elastic limit. Below the elastic limit, the wire will return
to its original shape.
• Y is the yield point, where plastic deformation begins. A large
increase in strain is seen for a small increase in stress.
• UTS is the ultimate tensile stress, the maximum stress that is
applied to a wire without its snapping. It is sometimes called the
breaking stress. Notice that beyond the UTS, the force required
to snap the wire is less.
• S is the point where the wire snaps.

40
FLUIDS
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to deformation under shear stress. It
is commonly perceived as "thickness", or resistance to pouring. Viscosity describes a
fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction.
Thus, water is "thin", having a low viscosity, while vegetable oil is "thick" having a
high viscosity.

The Coefficient of Viscosity

The ratio of the shearing stress to the velocity gradient is a measure of the
viscosity of the fluid and is called the coefficient of viscosity η, or η= Fx / Av. The
cgs unit for measuring the coefficient of viscosity is the poise. Experiments have
shown that the coefficient of viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing
temperature, while the coefficient of viscosity of gases increases with increasing
temperature. In liquids an increase in temperature is associated with the
weakening of bonds between molecules; since these bonds contribute to
viscosity, the coefficient is decreased. On the other hand, intermolecular forces in
gases are not as important a factor in viscosity as collisions between the
molecules, and an increase in temperature increases the number of collisions,
thus increasing the coefficient of viscosity. A striking result of the kinetic theory
of gases is that the viscosity of a gas is independent of the density of a gas.
Viscosity is the principal factor resisting motion in laminar flow. However, when
the velocity has increased to the point at which the flow becomes turbulent,
pressure differences resulting from eddy currents rather than viscosity provide
the major resistance to motion.

lubricant
A lubricant (colloquially, lube) is a substance (usually a liquid) introduced between
two moving surfaces to reduce the friction and wear between them. Worldwide, more
than 50 million tonnes of lubricants are consumed annually. Automotive engine
lubricants comprise approximately 50% and hydraulic fluids with transmission oils
30% of lubricants volume-wise. In developed nations, lubricants contribute to nearly
1/4 of total pollution released to environment.

Typically lubricants contain 90% base oil (most often petroleum fractions, called
mineral oils) and less than 10% additives. Vegetable oils or synthetic liquids such as
hydrogenated polyolefins, esters, silicone, fluorocarbons and many others are
sometimes used as base oils. Additives deliver reduced friction and wear, increased
viscosity, resistance to corrosion, aging or contamination, etc.

Non-liquid lubricants include grease, powders (dry graphite, PTFE, Molybdenum

disulfide, etc.), teflon tape used in plumbing, air cushion and others. An alternative
way to reduce friction and wear is to use bearings such as ball bearings, roller
bearings or air bearings.

41
HARDNESS OF WATER
What is "Hard Water"?

Perhaps you have on occassion noticed mineral deposits on your cooking dishes, or
rings of insoluble soap scum in your bathtub. These are not signs of poor
housekeeping, but are rather signs of hard water from the municipal water supply.
Hard water is water that contains cations with a charge of +2, especially Ca2+ and
Mg2+. These ions do not pose any health threat, but they can engage in reactions that
leave insoluble mineral deposits. These deposits can make hard water unsuitable for
many uses, and so a variety of means have been developed to "soften" hard water;
i.e.,remove the calcium and magnesium ions.

Problems with Hard Water

Mineral deposits are formed by ionic reactions resulting in the formation of an

insoluble precipitate. For example, when hard water is heated, Ca2+ ions react with
bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions to form insoluble calcium carbonate (CaCO3), as shown in
Equation 1.

(1)

This precipitate, known as scale, coats the vessels in which the water is heated,
producing the mineral deposits on your cooking dishes. In small quantities, these
deposits are not harmful, but they may be frustrating to try to clean. As these deposits
build up, however, they reduce the efficiency of heat transfer, so food may not cook
as evenly or quickly in pans with large scale deposits. More serious is the situation in
which industrial-sized water boilers become coated with scale: the cost in heat-
transfer efficiency can have a dramatic effect on your power bill! Furthermore, scale
can accumulate on the inside of appliances, such as dishwashers, and pipes. As scale
builds up, water flow is impeded, and hence appliance parts and pipes must be
replaced more often than if Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions were not present in the water.

Some Strategies to "Soften" Hard Water

For large-scale municipal operations, a process known as the "lime-soda process" is

used to remove Ca2+ and Mg2+ from the water supply. Ion-exchange reactions, similar
to those you performed in this experiment, which result in the formation of an
insoluble precipitate, are the basis of this process. The water is treated with a
combination of slaked lime, Ca(OH)2, and soda ash, Na2CO3. Calcium precipitates as
CaCO3, and magnesium precipitates as Mg(OH)2. These solids can be collected, thus
removing the scale-forming cations from the water supply.

To see this process in more detail, let us consider the reaction for the precipitation of
Mg(OH)2. Consultation of the solubility guidelines in the experiment reveals that the
Ca(OH)2 of slaked lime is moderately soluble in water. Hence, it can dissociate in
water to give one Ca2+ ion and two OH- ions for each unit of Ca(OH)2 that dissolves.

42
The OH- ions react with Mg2+ ions in the water to form the insoluble precipitate. The
Ca2+ ions are unaffected by this reaction, and so we do not include them in the net
ionic reaction (Equation 2). They are removed by the separate reaction with CO32-
ions from the soda ash.

Household water softeners typically use a different process, known as ion exchange.
Ion-exchange devices consist of a bed of plastic (polymer) beads covalently bound to
anion groups, such as -COO-. The negative charge of these anions is balanced by Na+
cations attached to them. When water containing Ca2+ and Mg2+ is passed through the
ion exchanger, the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions are more attracted to the anion groups than the
Na+ ions. Hence, they replace the Na+ ions on the beads, and so the Na+ ions (which
do not form scale) go into the water in their place.

43
COMPUTER APPLICATION
THE BASIC OBJECTIVE BEHIND THIS COURSE WAS TO SPREAD THE
KNOWLEDGE OF COMPUTER AND THE APPLICATION SOFTWARE
SUCH THAT WE ARE ABLE TO USE THIS VITAL APPLICATION
SOFTWARE TO PREPARE A DOCUMENT AND PRESENTATION.
AT THE END OF THE COURSE OF FIRST SEMESTER OUR KNOWLEDGE
OF THIS APPLICATION SOFTWARE HAS INCREASED AND IT HAS
ACTED MORE BENEFICIAL TO ALL OF US. ALSO THE KNOWLEDGE OF
INTERNET HAS BROAD OUR KNOWLEDGE TOWARDS THIS FAST
ADVANCING TECHNOLOGY WORLD.

COURSE CONTENT:-

1) BASIC OF COMPUTERS

- HARDWARE , SOFTWARE
- OPERATING SYSTEM
- TYPES OF SOFTWARE
- OUTPUT DEVICES
- HISTORY OF COMPUTER & EVOLUTION
- PRESENT DAY ARCHITECTURE
- WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

2) MS WORD

A. CREATING A DOCUMENT AND EDITING

B. MAIL-MERGE
C. USING SPECIAL FEATURES OF WORD PROCESSOR

3) MS EXCEL

A. UNDERSTANDING SPREADSHEETS & USES

B. DATA ENTRY & VALIDATION
C. USING SIMPLE FORMULA COMMANDS
D. INSERTING TABLES & CHARTS

4) MS POWERPOINT

A. CREATING PRESENTATION
B. USING SLIDE TRANSITIONS & ANIMATION
C. USING AND INSERTING HYPERLINKS
5) COREL DRAW

A. UNDERSTANDING BITMAP & VECTOR IMAGES

B. USE OF BASIC SHAPES & TOOLS
C. CREATING LAYOUT
D. USING TEXTURES & OTHER FILL OPTION

44
 E. USING VARIOUS KINDS OF TEXT OPTION I.E.
PARAGRAPH TEXT & ARTISTIC TEXT
F. USING COLORS & EDITING COLOR PALETTES
G. SHAPING TOOLS
H. BLENDING TOOLS

BASICS OF COMPUTERS

• A COMPUTER IS AN ELECTRONIC DEVICE WHICH ACCEPTS DATA

FROM THE USER, PROCESSES IT AND GIVES THE OUTPUT(RESULT)
• NEED FOR COMPUTERS – SPEED
ACCURACY
STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL OF LARGE DATA
REPEATED PROCESSING CAPABILITIES
RELIABILITY
FLEXIBILITY
LOW COST
• WEAKNESSES - THINKING LIMITATION, COMPUTER VIRUS,
BECOMES OBSOLETE TOO OFTEN.
• MAIN COMPONENTS- HARDWARE, PROGRAM, SOFTWARE
HARDWARE
ALL THE PHYSICAL AND TANGIBLE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
THAT WE CAN SEE AND TOUCH.
PROGRAM
SET OF INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN TO A COMPUTER FOR SOLVING A
GIVEN PROBLEM.
SOFTWARE
SET OF PROGRAMS THAT MAKE THE HARDWARE RUN, AND THAT WE
CANNOT TOUCH.

COMPUTER HARDWARE
• CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
- CU, ALU, REGISTERS
• PRIMARY/MAIN MEMORY (RAM)
• SECONDARY MEMORY (FLOPPY, HARD DISK, CD)
• PERIPHERALS
INPUT DEVICES- KEYBOARD, MOUSE, SCANNER, BARCODE READER,
MICR, MICROPHONE
OUTPUT DEVICES- MONITORS, PRINTERS, SPEAKERS, PLOTTERS
PERIPHERAL DEVICES- MODEM, FAX, OVER HEAD PROJECTOR, TAPE
DRIVE, UPS

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
1. SYSTEM SOFTWARE – OPERATING SYSTEM, LANGUAGE
PROCESSORS
2. APPLICATION SOFTWARE- GENERAL PURPOSE, HIGH LEVEL
LANGUAGE
3. UTILITIES
SYSTEM SOFTWARE

45
 • OPERATING SYSTEM
DOS, WINDOWS, UNIX, LINUX
• LANGUAGE PROCESSORS
COMPILER, INTERPRETER & ASSEMBLER
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
GENERAL PURPOSE
• WORD PROCESSING
• DATA ANALYSIS
• GRAPHICS
• DATA BASE MANAGEMENT

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

• C, C++, JAVA, BASIC
OPERATING SYSTEM
A PROGRAM THAT ACTS AS AN INTERFACE BETWEEN THE USER AND
THE COMPUTER HARDWARE AND CONTROLS THE EXECUTION OF ALL
OTHER PROGRAMS.
TASKS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
• MANAGING PROCESSES
• MANAGING PRIMARY MEMORY
• MANAGING INPUT/OUTPUT SYSTEM
• MANAGING FILES AND DIRECTORIES
• MANAGING SECONDARY STORAGE
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
• SINGLE USER, SINGLE TASK OS- MS DOS
• SINGLE USER, MULTITASKING OS- WINDOWS
• MULTI USER, MULTITASKING OS- UNIX
MICROSOFT WINDOWS
• GRAPHICAL ICONS REPRESENT PROGRAMS
• COMMANDS ARE GIVEN BY CLICKING THE MOUSE
• COMMON LOOK AND FEEL OF ALL APPLICATIONS
• MULTITASKING OS
• DATA SHARING BETWEEN APPLICATIONS
FILES
• A COLLECTION OF INFORMATION STORED INTO ONE GROUP ON
A DISK. A FILE NAME HAS A PRIMARY NAME AND AN OPTIONAL
EXTENSION AND DOES NOT HAVE SPACES, SPECIAL
CHARACTERS IN NAME
FOLDER
• A COLLECTION OF FILES AND SUBFOLDERS ORGANIZED BY
THE USER.
NETWORK
ADVANTAGES
• RESOURCE SHARING
• RELIABILITY
• COMMUNICATION
• COST EFFECTIVENESS
TYPES OF NETWORK

46
 • LAN:- LOCAL AREA NETWORK
• WAN:- WIDE AREA NETWORK
WEB TERMINOLOGY
DIRECTORY – A COLLECTION OF LINKS ARRANGED TOPIC WISE E.G.
SPORTS, HEALTH, SCIENCE, COMPUTERS….. (GOOGLE, INDIA TIMES,
YAHOO)
SEARCH ENGINE- A COMPUTER PROGRAM THAT WILL SEARCH THE
WORLD WIDE WEB TO FIND AND LIST ALL THE WEB PAGES WHOSE
TEXT CONTAINS THE WORDS GIVEN TO IT.
ONLINE RESOURCES
DOWNLOADING A FILE ON YOUR COMPUTER HARD DISK & COPYING A
FILE FROM A COMPUTER (SERVER) TO YOUR COMPUTER THROUGH
THE NET.
MS-WORD

WORD PROCESSING IS THE PROCESS OF TRANSFORMING THE

WRITTEN TEXT INTO AN ATTRACTIVE, SYMMETRIC AND EASY TO
READ TEXT.
MS- WORD IS USED WHEN WE WANT TO CREATE LETTERS; BIO-DATA
PROJECT REPORTS, BOOKS, MAILING, AND LABELS
AMONG THE MAIN FEATURES PROVIDED BY MS-WORD ARE
• TYPE AND EDIT TEXT
• INSERT AND DELETE TEXT
• INCREASE/ DECREASE SIZE OF TEXT
• CORRECT SPELLINGS AND GRAMMAR
• ADD DRAWINGS, BORDER, SHADING , BULLETS
• AUTOMATE MAILING LIST & LETTERS
OBJECT EMBEDDING AND LINKING
IT IS THE FEATURE BY WHICH WE ADD OBJECTS AND EMBED LINKS IN
AN DOCUMENT.
MAIL MERGE
PROCESS OF SENDING THE SAME LETTER TO MANY PEOPLE AFTER
BEING PERSONALIZED.
IT INVOLVES LINKING A TEXT FILE WITH A DATABASE FILE.

MS-EXCEL
• IT IS THE SOFTWARE USED FOR ACCOUNTING PURPOSES AND
CREATING CHARTS AND TABLES
• A SPREADSHEET IS SINGLE SHEET CONSISTING OF 256 ROWS
AND 65536 COLUMNS
• A COLLECTION OF SPREADSHEETS IS CALLED A WORKBOOK.
• WE CAN CREATE CHARTS AND GRAPHS CORRESPONDING TO
TABLES.
• USE OF SIMPLE FORMULAS FOR CALCULATION PURPOSES

MS-POWERPOINT
• IT IS THE APPLICATION SOFTWARE USED FOR CREATING
PRESENTATIONS

47
 • IT IS A VERY IMPORTANT TOOL TO GIVE PRESENTATIONS
ESPECIALLY IN THE CURRENT BUSINESS SCENARIO.
• IT INVOLVES CREATING SLIDE SHOW USING SLIDE
TRANSITIONS AND CUSTOM ANIMATION
• THIS INVOLVES SPECIAL FEATURES LIKE CREATING
HYPERLINKS SO AS TO LINK PAGES IN THE SLIDE.
• IT HAS IN BUILT TEMPLATES FOR MANY OFFICE PURPOSES.
• OBJECTS SUCH AS PICTURES CAN BE INSERTED INTO THE
SLIDES
• FILE HAS A EXTENSION OF .PPT

COREL DRAW
COREL DRAW IS A COMPREHENSIVE VECTOR-BASED DRAWING AND
GRAPHIC DESIGN PROGRAM FOR THE GRAPHICS PROFESSIONAL.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A VECTOR IMAGE AND A BITMAP IMAGE
IS THAT A VECTOR IMAGE HAS DIRECTED LINE SEGMENTS.
AMONG THE MAJOR FEATURES THAT WE HAVE IN CORELDRAW THE
FOLLOWING ARE THE IMPORTANT ONES
• RULERS, GRIDS AND GUIDELINES
THESE HELP US TO DRAW AND ARRANGE OBJECTS WITH PRECISION.
THE RULERS ARE ADJUSTABLE AND GIVE US A SENSE OF LOCATION
AND SIZE IN THE DRAWING WINDOW. GUIDELINES ARE THE LINES
WHICH HELP US TO ALIGN OBJECTS.
• DRAWING BASIC OBJECTS
IT PROVIDES DRAWING TOOLS FOR DRAWING BASIC SHAPES, SUCH
AS RECTANGLES, ELLIPSES, POLYGONS, AND SPIRALS.
• SHAPING LINES CURVES AND CURVE OBJECTS.
THE SHAPE TOOL ENABLES US TO CHANGE THE SHAPE OF ALL
CURVE OBJECTS BY EDITING THEIR NODES AND SEGMENTS. A
SEGMENT IS THE PART OF A CURVE LYING BETWEEN TWO NODES.
• NODES
A NODE IS A SMALL SQUARE ON A LINE, CURVE, OR OBJECT OUTLINE
THAT IS USED TO EDIT THE OBJECT.
THERE ARE CONTROL POINTS ATTACHED TO EACH NODE.
CONTROL POINTS DETERMINE THE CURVE OF A SEGMENT AS IT
PASSES THROUGH A NODE. THE CURVE OF A SEGMENT CAN BE
CONTROLLED BY VARYING THE CONTROL POINT’S ANGLE AND ITS
DISTANCE FROM THE NODE.
• CHANGING OBJECTS TO CURVES
IT IS USED TO SHAPE AN OBJECT WHERE IT MUST BE CONVERTED TO
A CURVE FIRST. THEN USING THE NODES AND SEGMENTS OF THIS
CURVE WE CAN EDIT ITS SHAPE.
• DRAWING WITH THE ARTISTIC MEDIA TOOL
IT LETS US APPLY VARIOUS EFFECTS TO A CURVE. LIKE A CURVE
MAY BE MADE TO LOOK LIKE STROKES FROM A CALLIGRAPHIC PEN
OR A PRESSURE SENSITIVE PEN.
• COLOR PALETTES

48
THE CMYK COLOR PALETTE IS THE DEFAULT ONE WHICH CAN BE
ADJUSTED
• COMBINING AND BREAKING APART OBJECTS
IN CORELDRAW, WE CAN FUSE MULTIPLE CURVES, LINES AND
SHAPES TO CREATE A NEW SHAPE WITH COMMON FILL AND OUTLINE
ATTRIBUTES. IF THE ORIGINAL OBJECTS OVERLAP, THE
OVERLAPPING AREAS ARE REMOVED TO CREATE CLIPPING HOLES
TO ALLOW YOU TO SEE WHAT LIES UNDERNEATH.

WE CAN ALSO BREAK APART COMBINED OBJECTS. THIS FEATURE IS

PARTICULARLY USEFUL FOR MODIFYING CLIPART CREATED BY
COMBINING SEVERAL INDEPENDENT OBJECTS.
• WORKING WITH PATTERN FILLS
WE CAN CHOOSE FROM TWO COLORS, FULL COLOR OR BITMAP
PATTERN FILLS. A BITMAP PATTERN IS A REGULAR COLOR PICTURE.
THESE BITMAPS VARY IN COMPLEXITY AND IT IS BEST TO USE LESS
COMPLEX BITMAPS FOR FILL PATTERNS
• SHAPING TOOLS
AMONG THESE WE HAVE THE WELD, TRIM AND INTERSECT OPTIONS
WHICH HELP US TO CREATE OBJECT SHAPES BY USING TWO OR
MORE SHAPES.

49
 OVERVIEW OF THE FASHION INDUSTRY

MORE THAN JUST A DESIGNER’S WHIM, FASHION IS A SUBTLE

REFLECTION OF THE SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND ARTISTIC
FORCES OF ANY GIVEN TIME. THE CHANGING STYLES THAT EVOLVE
FROM THESE FORCES TELL OF HISTORICAL EVENTS AS POIGNANTLY
AS TEXTBOOKS, JOURNALS OR PERIODICALS. DRESSING ROOM
MIRRORS THROUGHOUT THE AGES HAVE REFLECTED THE TRENDS
IN HOW PEOPLE THINK, LIVE AND LOVE.

THE ART OF DRESSMAKING WAS KNOWN AS COUTURE. CHARLES

WORTH IS CONSIDERED THE FATHER OF THE COUTURE BECAUSE HE
WAS THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL INDEPENDENT DESIGNER.
HE BROUGHT ELEGANCE TO THE EXISTING FASHION TRENDS OF
THOSE TIMES. HE CHANGED HOOP TO BUSTLE, WHICH WAS THE
GARMENT AT THE BACK.
FASHION CHANGES DURING THE LAST 2 CENTURIES HAVE BEEN
MOSTLY INFLUENCED BY:
• TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS
• CHANGING LIFESTYLES
• IDOLS

AMONG THE FIRST MAJOR INFLUENCES WAS THE INDUSTRIAL

REVOLUTION. IT INFLUENCED IN THE FOLLOWING WAYS:
• MECHANIZATION OF LOOMS
• DEVELOPMENT OF MIDDLE CLASS
• MORE DISPOSABLE INCOME
• MORE LEISURE TIME
• FINER FABRIC PRODUCED
• MORE JOBS

AS THE MIDDLE CLASS GREW, THE BUSINESSMEN WANTED TO

ESTABLISH AN IMAGE OF RESPECTABILITY AND DEPENDABILITY. MEN
ADOPTED THE CONSERVATIVE, DIGNIFIED BUSINESS SUIT WITH
LONG TROUSERS, JACKET, VEST, SHIRT AND NECKTIE. MEN’S
BUSINESS ATTIRE HAS REMAINED BASICALLY CONSERVATIVE WITH
VERY FEW CHANGES SINCE.

THE INVENTION OF THE SEWING MACHINE IN 1830’S

• CLOTHING CHANGES WERE FREQUENT
• LEAD TO MASS PRODUCTION OF GARMENTS

THE GOLD RUSH IN U.S.A

• DEVELOPMENT OF WORK WEAR
• MOST IMPORTANTLY DENIM
• DEVELOPMENT IN AMERICA – SEPARATES FOR WOMEN
• DEVELOPED THE CONCEPT OF MIX AND MATCH

NEXT MAJOR INFLUENCE WAS THE WORLD WAR I

50
 • WOMEN REPLACED MEN IN MOST OF THE JOBS AS MEN WERE
BUSY FIGHTING ON THE FRONTIER. THEY DID MOST OF THE
JOBS THAT MEN DID. THIS INTRODUCED MASCULINE FEATURES
IN WOMEN’S CLOTHING. E.G. REMOVAL OF CORSETTES,
CHANGE FROM AN HOURGLASS FIGURE TO TUBULAR FIGURE
• SKIRTS BECAME SHORTER
• FLARE OF SKIRTS DECREASED
AFTER WORLD WAR I, WOMEN’S LIBERATION MOVEMENTS GAINED
GROUND. THIS INFLUENCED FASHION A LOT.
NEXT MAJOR INFLUENCE WAS THE GREAT DEPRESSION OF THE
1930’S
• THERE WAS RATIONING OF FABRIC TOO LEADING TO TRIMMER
CLOTHES.

AFTER THIS CAME THE SECOND WORLD WAR

• BROUGHT FASHION INDUSTRY TO A STANDSTILL.
• DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN FASHION INDUSTRY WITH NO
INFLUENCE FROM EUROPEANS
• INCREASED USE OF MILITARY ADORNMENTS IN FASHION
AFTER WWII, WOMEN RETURNED BACK TO TYPICAL FEMININE
FASHION
• 60’S -70’S WAS THE EVOLVEMENT OF HIPPIES AND THE WAY OF
DRESSING
• 70’S ALSO SAW SPORTSWEAR BECOMING VERY POPULAR.

TEXTILE INDUSTRY
• ALSO CALLED TAKE OFF INDUSTRY AS IT IS ONE OF THE
EARLIEST INDUSTRY TO BE ESTABLISHED. IT ALSO PROMOTES
FURTHER INDUSTRIALIZATION
• IT PLAYED A BIG ROLE IN DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH
ECONOMY:-
1. BY CREATING JOBS
2. BY SELLING TEXTILES IN THEIR COLONIES, EARNED
FURTHER MONEY.
• EXPANSION OF BRITISH TEXTILE INDUSTRY STARTED FROM
1757. BY 1770 EXPORTS MULTIPLIED BY 10 TIMES.
• 1790’S 90% OF THE PRODUCTION WAS EXPORTED.
• MANCHESTER DEVELOPED AS A BIG CENTER FOR TEXTILE
PRODUCTION
• NEXT WAS LANCASHIRE
• IT WAS THE TIME WHEN POWER LOOM WAS DEVELOPED.
• DEMAND OF YARN CREATED JOBS FOR SPINNERS, WEAVERS,
DYES AND BLEACHERS.
• DEVELOPMENTS OF ANCILLARY UNITS LEAD TO MONEY
CIRCULATION THUS FUELLING ECONOMIC GROWTH.

STAGES OF GROWTH OF TEXTILE AND APPAREL INDUSTRY.

• EMBRYONIC STAGE

51
 FOUND IN LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES WHERE TEXTILE AND
APPAREL INDUSTRY IS COTTAGE INDUSTRY. DEPENDANT ON
NATURAL FIBRE FOR DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION. ATTEMPT
SMALL EXPORTS.
• EXPORT OF NATIVE PRODUCT
• GOLDEN AGE- REACHING A PINNACLE.
• MATURITY
• DECLINE

MAJOR LANDMARKS OF INDIAN INDUSTRY

1818: BOWARIA COTTON TEXTILE MILL

1828: MILL IN SOUTHERN INDIA
1854: COMPOSITE MILL (IN BOMBAY)
(INTEGRATION OF ACTIVITIES)
1861: AHMEDABAD MILL
1879: BOMBAY DYEING & CO.
1890: 136 MILLS
1930: 261 MILLS

BUYING OFFICE
• FEEDBACK MECHANISM GETS STRONG
• GET PRICE COMPETITIVELY
• CHECK PRODUCTION AND QUALITY
• WORK ON A COMMISSION BASIS
LIAISON OFFICE
• BUYER’S OWN OFFICE IN SOURCING COUNTRY.
• EMPLOYEES GET SALARY AND NO COMMISSION.

BENEFITS OF BUYING AGENCY

1. TO AN EXPORTER:
• ESTABLISH LINK WITH MARKETS OUTSIDE HIS
COUNTRY.
• GARMENT SOURCING IS ECONOMICALLY MORE
EFFICIENT
• CREATE HEALTHY COMPETITION
• REDUCES TIME WASTAGE
2. TO A RETAILER/ BUYER:
• QUALITY CONTROL
• TIMELY ACTION
• EASY LINKAGE
• BETTER COSTING
• FEEDBACK FROM THE RETAILER.

EFFICIENCY IS DECIDED BY:

• PRODUCTION COSTS
• LEAD TIME
• QUALITY

52
 FASHION CYCLES
THE WAY IN WHICH FASHION CHANGES IS USUALLY DESCRIBED AS
FASHION CYCLE
IT HAS THE FOLLOWING FIVE STAGES.
• INTRODUCTION: NEW STYLES INTRODUCED AT A HIGH PRICE
LEVEL
• INCREASE IN POPULARITY: BY LOOKING AT OTHERS/ COPYING,
ADAPTATION
• PEAK: MANY MANUFACTURERS COPY OR ADAPTATIONS OF IT
AT MANY PRICE LEVELS.
• DECLINE IN POPULARITY:
• REJECTION OF A STYLE:
LENGTH OF CYCLES
• CLASSICS: - SUCH STYLES WHICH NEVER BECOME
COMPLETELY OBSOLETE SIMPLE IN DESIGN.
• FADS : SHORT LIVED FASHIONS COME AND GO IN A SINGLE
SEASON
1. THEY LACK DESIGN STRENGTH.
2. BEGIN IN LOW PRICE RANGES.
• CYCLE WITHIN CYCLES- DESIGN ELEMENTS (COLOR, TEXTURE,
SILHOUETTE, DETAILS) MAY CHANGE EVEN THOUGH THE
STYLE REMAINS POPULAR.
• INTERRUPTED CYCLES: PRIMARY DUE TO MANUFACTURERS
NO LONGER WISHING TO TAKE RISK. OTHER SOCIAL FACTORS
MAY ALSO AFFECT IT.
• RECURRING CYCLES: AFTER A LATENT PERIOD A FASHION MAY
RESURFACE THOUGH IN LINE WITH THE CURRENT TRENDS.
CONSUMER GROUPS:
• FASHION LEADERS- THEY ARE A SMALL PERCENTAGE OF THE
POPULATION, BUY AND WEAR NEW STYLES AT THE BEGINNING
OF THE CYCLE. OTHER CONSUMERS IMITATE.
• FASHION FOLLOWERS- GENERAL PEOPLE WHO SEEK
ACCEPTANCE THROUGH CONFORMITY AND FOLLOW WORLD,
NATIONAL OR COMMUNITY FASHION LEADERS BECAUSE
1. THEY LACK TIME AND MONEY AND INTEREST TO DEVOTE
TO FASHION LEADERSHIP.
2. THEY NEED A PERIOD OF EXPOSURE.
3. THEY ARE INSECURE ABOUT THEIR TASTES.
4. THEY TEND TO IMITATE PEOPLE THEY ADMIRE.
3 VARIATIONS OF FASHION ADOPTION PROCESS-
1. TRADITIONAL- MOST HIGH FASHION IS EXPENSIVE. HENCE
ADAPTATIONS AND IMITATIONS OCCUR FOR THE COMMON
PEOPLE.
2. REVERSE ADOPTION- FASHION BEGINNING WITH THE
CONSUMER E.G. - HIPPIE CULTURE OF THE 1970’S WAS
ADOPTED BIG TIME IN THE FASHION OF THAT TIME.
3. MASS DISSEMINATION- IN THIS THE SPEED OF PRODUCTION IS
OF GREATEST IMPORTANCE.

53
 MAJOR TYPES OF RETAIL STORES

DEPARTMENT STORES:
• CHARACTERIZED AS HAVING A WIDE PRODUCT MIX.
• DIVIDED INTO SEPARATE DEPARTMENTS LIKE- COSMETICS,
HOUSE WARE, HOME FURNISHINGS, APPLIANCES AND
APPAREL
• TOTAL PRODUCT INCLUDES CREDIT, DELIVERY, PERSONAL
ASSISTANCE, MERCHANDISE RETURNS AND A PLEASANT
ATMOSPHERE
• EXAMPLE: - BLOOMINGDALE’S, MACY’S, HUDSON’S.

MASS MERCHANDISING
• OFFER FEWER CUSTOMER SERVICES THAN DEPARTMENT
STORES
• APPEAL TO LARGE HETEROGENEOUS TARGET MARKETS.

DISCOUNT STORES
• SELF SERVICE, GENERAL MERCHANDISE OUTLETS
• WIDE ASSORTMENT OF PRODUCTS
• MOVING TOWARDS BLENDING OF FEATURES OF A
DEPARTMENT STORE.

WARE HOUSE SHOWROOM

• LARGE LOW COST BUILDING
• USE OF WAREHOUSE MATERIALS HANDLING TECHNOLOGY
• USE OF VERTICAL MERCHANDISE DISPLAY SPACE.
• LARGE ON PREMISES INVENTORY.
• MINIMUM SERVICES.

SUPERMARKETS
• LARGE SELF SERVICE STORES THAT CARRY A BROAD AND
COMPLETE LINE OF FOOD PRODUCTS AND USUALLY SOME
NON FOOD PRODUCTS AS WELL.
• LOW PRICES, WIDE VARIETY, GOOD SELECTION OF QUALITY
PRODUCE AND CONVENIENCE OF LOCATION.

SUPERSTORES
• COMBINATION OF FEATURES OF DISCOUNT HOUSES AND
SUPERMARKETS.
• HOUSE WARES, HARDWARE, PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS,
GARDEN PRODUCTS, COMPLETE FOOD LINE.
• LOWER PRICES.

SPECIALTY RETAILERS
• ARE STORES CARRYING A NARROW PRODUCT MIX WITH DEEP
PRODUCT LINES.
• TWO TYPES- SINGLE LINE AND LIMITED LINE SPECIALTY
STORES

54