CELL STR UCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Function of the Cell

Cell metabolism and energy use – chemical
reactions that occur within cells; energy released
during metabolism is used for cell activities
Synthesis of molecules – proteins, nucleic
acids, lipids determined the structure and
functional characteristics of cell
Communication – through chemical and
electrical signals
Reproduction and inheritance – genetic
information is transmitted to the next generation

Cell Structure
Organelles
- specialized structures in cells that perform
specific functions
- Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
Cytoplasm
- jelly-like substance that holds organelles
Cell membrane
- also termed the plasma membrane
- a structure that encloses the cytoplasm
Cell Membrane Structure
- outermost component; encloses the cytoplasm
and forms a boundary between material inside
the cell and material outside
o extracellular substances - substances
outside the cell
o intracellular substances – substances
inside the cell
- supports the cell contents, acts as a selective
barrier that determines what moves into and out
of the cell, and plays a role in communication
between cells
- made up of two major types of molecules:
phospholipids and proteins
- also contains other molecules, such as
cholesterol and carbohydrates.
Cell Membrane Structure
Fluid-mosaic model of the cell membrane
- The membrane is composed of a bilayer of
phospholipids and cholesterol with proteins
“floating” in the membrane. The nonpolar
hydrophobic region of each phospholipid
molecule is directed toward the center of the
membrane, and the polar hydrophilic region is
directed toward the fluid environment either
outside or inside the cell.
Phospholipid Structure
- double layer of phospholipids forms a lipid
barrier between the inside and outside of the cell
• polar head region - hydrophilic faces
the extracellular and intracellular fluids
of the cell; exposed to water around the
membrane
• nonpolar, fatty acid region -
hydrophobic, faces the interior of the
membrane
Movement through the Cell Membrane
• cell membrane has selective permeability, which
allows only certain substances to pass in and out
of the cell.
• substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and K+
are found in higher concentrations inside the
cell
• substances such as Na+, Ca2+ and Cl− are
found in higher concentrations outside the cell
• movement through the cell membrane may be
passive or active
• passive membrane transport does not require
the cell to expend energy
• active membrane transport does require the
cell to expend energy, usually in the form of
ATP
Cell Membrane Passage
• some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass
directly through the cell membrane’s
phospholipid bilayer
• some substances must pass through
transmembrane protein channels, such as Na+
through its channels
• route of transport through the membrane
depends on the size, shape, and charge of the
substance.
Diffusion Through the Cell Membrane
- Non-lipid-soluble molecules (red) diffuse
through membrane channels. Lipid-soluble
molecules (orange) diffuse directly through the
cell membrane

Passive membrane transport mechanisms

- diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion

Active membrane transport mechanisms

- active transport, secondary active transport,
endocytosis, and exocytosis

Diffusion
• solution - composed of solutes and solvent
• solutes - substances dissolved in a predominant
Leak and Gated Channels
liquid or gas, which is called the solvent • with two classes of cell membrane channels
• solutes tend to move from an area of higher • Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass
concentration of a solute to an area of lower through
concentration of that same solute in solution; • Gated channels limit the movement of ions
• this movement from high concentration to a low across the membrane by opening and closing
concentration is called diffusion
• involves movement of substances in a solution
down a concentration gradient - difference in
the concentration of a solute in a solvent
between two points divided by the distance
between the two points

In this example, the K+ leak channel (purple) is

always open, allowing K+ to diffuse across the cell
membrane. The gated Na+ channel (pink) regulates the
movement of Na+ across the membrane by opening and
closing.
 Osmosis
• diffusion of water (a solvent) across a
selectively permeable membrane from a region
of higher water concentration to one of lower
water concentration
• exerts a pressure, termed osmotic pressure,
which is the force required to prevent movement
of water across cell membrane
• important to cells because large volume changes
caused by water movement can disrupt normal
cell functions
• Water moves from the beaker across the
selectively permeable membrane into a tube
containing a solution with a higher salt
concentration
Hypertonic
Osmotic Pressure and the Cell
• Osmotic pressure depends on the difference
of solution concentrations inside a cell
relative to outside the cell
• A cell may be placed in solutions that are
either hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic
compared to the cell cytoplasm
Hypotonic
• solution has a lower concentration of solutes
and a higher concentration of water relative to
the cytoplasm of the cell
• solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than
the cell
• water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it
to swell
• if the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a
process called lysis
Isotonic
• A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the
same solute concentrations inside and outside
the cell
• The cell will neither shrink nor swell
• When a cell is immersed in a hypertonic
solution, the solution has a higher concentration
of solutes and a lower concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell
• Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the
hypertonic solution
Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms
• many nutrient molecules (amino acids and
glucose), cannot enter the cell by diffusion;
many polar molecules produced in cells cannot
leave the cell by diffusion
• carrier molecules, which are proteins within
the cell membrane, are involved in carrier-
mediated transport mechanisms, which move
large, water-soluble molecules or electrically
charged ions across the cell membrane; - exhibit
specificity; only specific molecules are
transported by the carriers
• three kinds of carrier mediated transport:
facilitated diffusion, active transport, and
secondary active transport
Facilitated Diffusion
• carrier molecule transports glucose across the
cell membrane from an area of higher glucose
concentration (outside the cell) to an area of
lower glucose concentration (inside the cell).
• because movement is with the concentration
gradient, metabolic energy in the form of ATP is
not required.
Active Transport
• Active Transport: Sodium-Potassium Pump. The
sodium-potassium pump requires ATP to move a
higher concentration of Na+ out of the cell and a
higher concentration of K+ into the cell.
• a carrier-mediated process, requiring ATP, that
move substances across the cell membrane from
regions of lower concentration to those of
higher concentration against a concentration
gradient
• accumulate necessary substances on one side of
the cell membrane at concentrations many times
greater than those on the other side
2. Na+ move back into the cell by a carrier
molecule that also moves glucose. The
concentration gradient for Na+ provides the
energy required to move glucose, by
cotransport, against its concentration
gradient.
Endocytosis
• uptake of material through the cell membrane
by the formation of a vesicle
• the cell membrane invaginates (folds inward) to
form a vesicle containing the material to be
taken into the cell
• the vesicle then moves into the cytoplasm
• exhibits specificity 25
• requires energy in the form of ATP for the
formation and movement of vesicles
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- occurs when a specific substance binds to
the receptor molecule and is transported
into the cell
Phagocytosis
- used for endocytosis when solid particles
are ingested
Pinocytosis
- has much smaller vesicles formed, and
they contain liquid rather than solid
particles

Secondary Active Transport

• The active transport of Na+ out of the cell (step 1)
maintains a Na+ concentration gradient, which
provides the energy for moving glucose against its
concentration gradient (step 2)
1. A Na+–K+ pump maintains a concentration of
Na+ that is higher outside the cell than inside.
 Exocytosis
• involves the use of membrane-bound sacs called
secretory vesicles that accumulate materials for
release from the cell
• the vesicles move to the cell membrane and
fuse, ultimately releasing the material by
exocytosis.
• examples of exocytosis are the secretion of
digestive enzymes
• allows the release of materials from cell;
requires energy in the form of ATP for the
formation and movement of vesicles
Organelles
• the interior of a cell is composed of the
cytoplasm, which a jelly-like fluid that
surrounds the organelles.
• specialized structures that perform certain
functions
• includes the nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton,
centrioles, cilia, flagella, and microvilli
Cell Nucleus
• a large organelle usually located near the center
of the cell
• bounded by a nuclear envelope, which consists
of outer and inner membranes with a narrow
space between them
• nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores,
through which materials can pass into or out of
the nucleus
• nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes which consist of DNA and
proteins
• during most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes
are loosely coiled and collectively called
chromatin
• when a cell prepares to divide, the chromosomes
become tightly coiled and are visible when
viewed with a microscope
Structure of a Chromosome
- Chromosomes consist
of DNA and proteins.
When loosely coiled,
chromosomes are
collectively referred
to as chromatin.
During cell division,
chromosomes become
tightly coiled and
visible as individual
structures.
• within the nucleus are nucleoli, which are
diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane
that are found within the nucleus
• there are usually one to several nucleoli within
the nucleus
• ribosomes may be attached to other organelles,
such as the endoplasmic reticulum.
• ribosomes that are not attached to any other
organelle are called free ribosomes
• the subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic
organelle, are produced within a nucleolus
 • ribosomes are the organelles where proteins are
produced
• these ribosomal components exit the nucleus
through nuclear pores
Ribosome Production
• Ribosomal subunits are produced in the nucleus
and then move into the cytoplasm, where they
form ribosomes during protein synthesis
Golgi Apparatus
• also called the Golgi complex, consists of
closely packed stacks of curved, membrane-
bound sacs
• collects, modifies, packages, and distributes
proteins and lipids manufactured by the ER
• forms vesicles, some of which are secretory
vesicles, lysosomes, and other vesicles

Lysosomes
• membrane-bound vesicles formed from the
Golgi apparatus
• contain a variety of enzymes that function as
intracellular digestive systems
• vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with
lysosomes in order to breakdown materials in
the endocytosis vesicles.
• one example is
white blood cells
phagocytizing
bacteria; then
enzymes within
lysosomes
destroy the
phagocytized
bacteria

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules
that extends from the outer nuclear membrane
into the cytoplasm
• rough ER - involved in protein synthesis and is
rough due to attached ribosomes
• smooth ER has no attached ribosomes and is a
site for lipid synthesis, cellular detoxification,
and it stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle
cells.
Peroxisomes
• small, membrane-bound vesicles containing
enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino
acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
• H2O2 is a by-product of fatty acid and amino
acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell
• enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen
• cells active in detoxification, such as liver and
kidney cells, have many peroxisomes
Mitochondrion (Mitochondria)
• small organelles responsible for producing
considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic (with
O2) metabolism
• with inner and outer membranes separated by a
space
• outer membranes have a smooth contour;
• inner membranes have numerous folds, called
cristae, which project into the interior of the
mitochondria
• material within the inner membrane is the
mitochondrial matrix and contains enzymes and
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
• major sites of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
production within cells
• carry out aerobic respiration, a series of
chemical reactions that require O2 to break
down food molecules to produce ATP
• ATP is the main energy source for most
chemical reactions within the cell, and cells
Microfilaments
• small fibrils formed from protein subunits that
structurally support the cytoplasm, determining
cell shape
• some are involved with cell movement
• in muscle cells enable the cells to shorten, or
contract
Intermediate Filaments
• formed from protein subunits that are smaller in
diameter than microtubules but larger in
diameter than microfilaments
• provides mechanical support to the cell
• keratin - a specific type of intermediate
filament, a protein associated with skin cells
Centrioles
• a specialized area of cytoplasm close to the
nucleus where microtubule formation occurs
• contain two centrioles, which are normally
oriented perpendicular to each other
• each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle
composed of microtubules
• involved in the process of mitosis

Cytoskeleton
• gives internal framework to the cell
• consists of protein structures that support the
cell, hold organelles in place, and enable the
cell to change shape
• protein structures are microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments

Microtubules
• hollow structures formed from protein subunits
• perform a variety of roles, including helping to
support the cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell
division, and forming essential components of
certain organelles, such as cilia and flagella
Cilium (Cilia)
• cilium – an eyelash
• project from the surface of certain cells
• cylindrical structures that extend from the cell
and are composed of microtubules
• numerous on surface cells that line the
respiratory tract
• responsible for the movement of materials over
the top of cells, such as mucus
Flagella
• similar structure to that of cilia but are much
longer, and they usually occur only one per cell
• sperm cells each have one flagellum, which
propels the sperm cell
Microvilli
• specialized extensions of the cell membrane that
are supported by microfilaments
• do not actively move as cilia and flagella do
• numerous on cells that have them and they
increase the surface area of those cells
• abundant on the surface of cells that line the
intestine, kidney, and other areas in which
absorption is an important function
WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY
• a cell’s characteristics are determined by the
type of proteins it produces
• proteins produced are in turn determined by the
genetic information in the nucleus
• in order to understand how a cell functions, we
must consider the relationship between genes
and proteins
• information in DNA provides the cell with a
code for its cellular processes
• whole-cell activities determine the
characteristics of a functioning cell and the
growth and maintenance of the human body
• understanding how genetic information is used
in the cell and distributed to daughter cells is
important for understanding basic cellular
activity
DNA
• contains the information that directs protein
synthesis; a process called gene expression
• a DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined
together to form two nucleotide strands
• the two strands are connected and resemble a
ladder that is twisted around its long axis
• each nucleotide consists of a 5- carbon sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
• each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a
specific bonding pattern to another nucleotide
on the opposite strand
• a gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides
a chemical set of instructions for making a
specific protein
• serve as structural components inside the cell,
proteins secreted to the outside of the cell, and
enzymes that regulate chemical reactions in the
cell
• influences the structural and functional
characteristics of the entire organism because it
directs protein synthesis
• whether an individual has blue eyes, brown hair,
or other inherited traits is determined ultimately
by DNA
1. The strands of the DNA molecule separate
from each other. One DNA strand serves as
a template for mRNA synthesis.
2. Nucleotides that will form mRNA pair with
DNA nucleotides according to the base-pair
combinations shown in the key at the top of
the figure. Thus, the sequence of nucleotides
in the template DNA strand (purple)
determines the sequence of nucleotides in
mRNA (gray). An enzyme (not shown) joins
the nucleotides
of mRNA
together.
3. As nucleotides
are added, an
mRNA
molecule is
formed
Gene Expression
• Gene expression, which is protein synthesis,
involves transcription and translation
• Transcription involves copying DNA into
messenger RNA (mRNA); takes place in the
nucleus of the cell
• Translation involves mRNA being used to
produce a protein; occurs in the cell cytoplasm
after mRNA has exited the nucleus through the
nuclear pores; mRNA attaches to a ribosome
Overview of Gene Expression
1. DNA contains the information necessary to
produce proteins.
2. Transcription of one DNA strand results in
mRNA, which is a complimentary copy of the
information in the DNA strand needed to make a
protein.
3. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to a
ribosome.
4. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins,
are carried to the ribosome by transfer RNAs
(tRNAs).
5. In the process of translation, the information
contained in mRNA is used to determine the
number, kinds, and arrangement of amino acids
in the polypeptide chain
Translation of mRNA to Produce a Protein
1. To start protein synthesis, a ribosome binds to
mRNA. The ribosome also has two binding sites
for tRNA, one of which is occupied by a tRNA
with its amino acid. Note that the codon of
mRNA and the anticodon of tRNA are aligned
and joined. The other tRNA binding site is open.
2. By occupying the open tRNA binding site, the
next tRNA is properly aligned with mRNA and
with the other tRNA.
3. An enzyme within the ribosome catalyzes a
synthesis reaction to form a peptide bond
between the amino acids. Note that the amino
acids are now associated with only one of the
tRNAs.
4. The ribosome shifts position by three
nucleotides. The tRNA without the amino acid
is released from the ribosome, and the tRNA
with the amino acids takes its position. A tRNA
binding site is left open by the shift. Additional
amino acids can be added by repeating steps 2
through 4. Eventually, a stop codon in the
mRNA ends the addition of amino acids to the
protein (polypeptide), which is released from
the ribosome.
The Cell Cycle
• during growth and development, cell division
occurs to increase the number of cells or replace
damaged or dying ones
• this cell division involves a cell cycle
• includes two major phases: a non-dividing
phase, called interphase, and a cell dividing
phase, termed mitosis

1. Interphase is the time between cell divisions.

DNA is found as thin threads of chromatin in
the nucleus. DNA replication occurs during
interphase.
2. In prophase, the chromatin condenses into
chromosomes. Each chromosome consists of
two chromatids joined at the centromere.
3. In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the
center of the cell
4. In anaphase, the chromatids separate at the
centromere and migrate to opposite poles
5. In telophase, the chromosomes disperse, the
nuclear envelopes and the nucleoli form, and the
cytoplasm continues to divide to form two
daughter cells.
6. Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase
begins. The chromosomes have unraveled to
become chromatin. Cell division has produced
two daughter cells, each with DNA that is
identical to the DNA of the parent cell.

Differentiation
• a sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single
cell, then a great number of mitotic divisions
occur to give the trillions of cells of the body
• the process by which cells develop with
specialized structures and functions is called
differentiation
• during differentiation of a cell, some portions of
DNA are active, but others are inactive
• active and inactive sections of DNA differ with
each cell type
• results from the selective activation and
inactivation of segments of DNA
Apoptosis
• Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a
normal process by which cell numbers within
various tissues are adjusted and controlled
• in the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra
tissue, such as cells between the developing
fingers and toes
• in some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates
excess cells to maintain a constant number of
cells within the tissue
• damaged or potentially dangerous cells, virus-
infected cells, and potential cancer cells are also
eliminated by apoptosis