Sociological Perspectives
 Sociologists analyze social phenomena at different levels and
from different perspectives.
 Sociologists today employ three primary sociological/ theoretical
perspectives: the symbolic interactionist perspective, the
functionalist perspective, and the conflict perspective.
Sociological/Theoretical Perspectives
 These perspectives offer sociologists theoretical paradigms for
explaining how society influences people, and vice versa.
 From concrete interpretations to sweeping generalizations of
society and social behavior, sociologists study everything from
specific events (the micro level of analysis of small social
patterns) to the “big picture” (the macro level of analysis of
large social patterns).
 Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society, social forces,
and human behavior (see Table)
Sociological Level of Focus
Perspectives Analysis
1. Symbolic Micro-level Use of symbols; faceto-
Interactionism face interactions
2. Functionalism Macro-level Relationship between the
parts of society are
functional (adaptive)
3. Conflict Theory Macro-level Competition for scarce
resources; how the elite
control the poor and
weak
1. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
 The symbolic interactionist perspective, also known as symbolic
interactionism, directs sociologists to consider the symbols and
details of everyday life, what these symbols mean, and how
people interact with each other.
 According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, people
attach meanings to symbols, and then they act according to
their subjective interpretation of these symbols.
SYBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
The symbolic interaction theory states that the meaning we ascribe
to objects, processes, ideas, concepts, and systems are subjective.
Example: As simple example of symbolic interactionism, the word
“dog” might evoke a fuzzy, heart-warming emotion in someone who
has had mostly friendly experiences with dogs. But another person,
who may have been bitten or attacked by dogs, may feel fear and
revulsion. The meaning ascribed to the concept of “dog” is different
depending on your context.
Explanation:
Symbol- something that represents an objects, emotion, process,
etc, in the real world. E.g. the word “dog” is a symbol for a four-
legged domesticated canine, and “cow” is a symbol for a four-legged
bovine.
Interaction- how the meaning of a symbol is interpreted and
modified through social interaction. The Hindu villager and the
American Christian may lead them to invest the word” cow” with
different meanings.
 Critics claim that symbolic interactionism neglects the macro-
level of social interpretation—the “big picture.”
 In other words, symbolic interactionists may miss the larger
issues of society by focusing too closely on the “trees” (for
example, the size of the diamond in the wedding ring) rather
than the “forest” (for example, the quality of the marriage).
Functionalist Perspective
 According to the functionalist perspective, also called
functionalism, each aspect of society is interdependent and
contributes to society's functioning as a whole.
 The government, or state, provides education for the children of
the family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state depends
to keep itself running.
Functionalist Theory
Each aspect of society depends on each other and each contribution
to the overall stability and functioning of the society.
 That is, the family is dependent upon the school to help children
grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise and support
their own families.
 In the process, the children become law‐abiding, taxpaying
citizens, who in turn support the state.
 If all goes well, the parts of society produce order, stability, and
productivity.
 If all does not go well, the parts of society then must adapt to
recapture a new order, stability, and productivity.
 For example, during a financial recession with its high rates of
unemployment and inflation, social programs are trimmed or
cut. Schools offer fewer programs.
 Families tighten their budgets. And a new social order, stability,
and productivity occur
What is recession?
Example:
Unemployment rate rises
Consumer purchase fall off
Business go bankrupt
People lose their home
Young people can’t get a good job after school
FUNTIONALISM – functionalism in sociology sees the parts o society
as components of a cohesive whole. Each part performs a useful
function.
Explanation:
Functionalism was the predominant theoretical framework for
sociological thinking till the 1960s, after which it began to retreat
following critiques from feminism, postmodernism, and post
colonialism. The functionalist perspective in sociology views the
family as the basic building block of society. It performs several
functions that are critical to the smooth functioning of society.
Key Institutions:
Religion, schools and families are important social institutions
according to functionalists.
The family is the primary agent of socialization for a child
The school is an intermediary between the family and the society at
large
Religion provides a sense of security and belonging much like a
family.
 Functionalists believe that society is held together by social
consensus, or cohesion, in which members of the society agree
upon, and work together to achieve, what is best for society as a
whole.
 Emile Durkheim suggested that social consensus takes one of
two forms: mechanical & organic solidarity
MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY- mechanical solidarity is a type of social EXAMPLES:
cohesion whereby people feel solidarity due to their shared values, 1. Capitalist-worker conflict
beliefs, and customs 2. Clash of civilizations hypothesis
TYPES OF SOLIDARITY 3. Landlords vs tenants
Mechanical Solidarity – a society that derives its sense of solidarity 4. Wars over land and oil
form a homogenous set of values, beliefs, customs, and traditions. 5. Education and the docile workplace
Organic Solidarity – a society that derives its sense of solidarity from 6. Realism in international relations
mutual interdependence but respect for diversity of values &  Unlike functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid social
cultures. change, and believe people cooperate to effect social order,
Mechanical Solidarity Example: conflict theorists challenge the
Tribal Societies status quo,
Durkheim held tribal societies as the ideal example of mechanical  … encourage social change
solidarity. These societies are small enough and homogenous (even when this means social
enough that people feel connection like kinship rather than simply as revolution), and believe rich
a function of mutual economic trade and powerful people force
social order on the poor and
Organic Solidarity – refers to a type of social solidarity that is based
the weak.
on mutual interdependence between the people within a society.
 Conflict theorists, for example,
Organic Solidarity Example: may interpret an “elite” board of regents raising tuition to pay
Each of us dependent upon the postman to bring the mail, the for esoteric new programs that raise the prestige of a local
electrician to maintain the powerlines and the train drive to run the college as self‐serving rather than as beneficial for students.
trains on time. Similarly, others are dependent upon us to do our  Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have
jobs effectively. Modern society relies upon organic solidarity- conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete against
solidarity based on mutual interdependence- to operate one another.
 American functionalist sociologists- Robert Merton (b. 1910),  Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups
who divides human functions into two types: manifest functions in which the potential for inequality exists: racial, gender,
are intentional and obvious, while latent functions are religious, political, economic, and so on.
unintentional and not obvious.  This constant competition between groups forms the basis for
LATENT FUNCTIONS the ever‐changing nature of society.
VERSUS  Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly negative
MANIFEST FUNCTIONS view of society.
LATENT FUNCTIONS MANIFEST FUNCTIONS  The theory ultimately attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism,
Latent functions are positive Manifest functions are the democracy, civil rights, and other positive aspects of society to
effects of an institution or other positive effects of an institution capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent
social phenomena that are or other social phenomena that interests in preserving society and social order.
unintentional and often are intended and immediately
unrecognized recognized
Unconscious, unintended and Conscious, deliberate and
beneficial beneficial
Latent functions of a school: Manifest function of a school:
teaching students to follow the educating children
rules, giving them an
opportunity to socialize,
participate in events, etc.

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
 The conflict perspective, which originated primarily out of Karl
Marx's writings on class struggles, presents society in a different
light than do the functionalist and symbolic interactionist
perspectives.
 While these latter perspectives focus on the positive aspects of
society that contribute to its stability, the conflict perspective
focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever‐changing nature of
society.
Conflict Theory – a term associated with the theories of Karl Marx, in
which different groups in society compete over limited resources.
CONFLICT THEORY
“Conflict theory posits that conflict is a fundamental part of the
social order” (Chernoff, 2013)
ASSUMPTIONS
1. Humans are rational beings acting to maximize their self-interest
2. The resources which humans seek are limited
3. The pursuit of scarce resources by rational self-interested actors
will necessarily lead to conflict
LANDSCAPES OF SECONDARY ACTIVITIES-INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION;
INDUSTRIAL LOCATION
 The Industrial Revolution was a period of major industrialization
and innovation during the late 1700s and early 1800s.
 The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and quickly
spread throughout the world
 Industrialization is the process by which an economy is
transformed from a primarily agricultural one to one based on
the manufacturing of goods
 Individual manual labor is often replaced by mechanized mass
production, and craftsmen are replaced by assembly lines.
 Characteristics of industrialization include economic growth, the
more efficient division of labor, and the use of technological
innovation to solve problems as opposed to dependency on
conditions outside of human control
 Mass production is the manufacturing of large quantities of
standardized products, often using assembly lines or automation
technology.
 Mass production facilitates the efficient production of a large
number of similar products
 Economic growth is an increase in the production of economic
goods and services, compared from one period of time to
another. ▫ It can be measured in nominal or real (adjusted for
inflation) terms.
 Traditionally, aggregate economic growth is measured in terms
of gross national product (GNP) or gross domestic product
(GDP), although alternative metrics are sometimes used.
 Inflation is the decline of purchasing power of a given currency
over time.
 A quantitative estimate of the rate at which the decline in
purchasing power occurs can be reflected in the increase of an
average price level of a basket of selected goods and services in
an economy over some period of time.
 Purchasing power is the value of a currency expressed in terms
of the number of goods or services that one unit of money can
buy.
 A basket of goods refers to a fixed set of consumer products and
services whose price is evaluated on a regular basis, often
monthly or annually.
 Gross national product (GNP) is an estimate of the total value of
all the final products and services turned out in a given period by
the means of production owned by a country's residents.
 GNP is related to another important economic measure called
gross domestic product (GDP), which takes into account all
output produced within a country's borders regardless of who
owns the means of production.
UNDERSTANDING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
 The factory systems developed during the Industrial Revolution
are responsible for creating capitalism and the modern cities of
today.
 Capitalism is an economic system in which private individuals or
businesses own capital goods.
 The production of goods and services is based on supply and
demand in the general market— known as a market economy—
rather than through central planning—known as a planned
economy or command economy.
 A market economy is an economic system in which economic
decisions and the pricing of goods and services are guided by the
interactions of a country's individual citizens and businesses.
 There may be some government intervention or central
planning, but usually this term refers to an economy that is
more market oriented in general
 A command economy is a key aspect of a political system in
which a central governmental authority dictates the levels of
production that are permissible and the prices that may be
charged for goods and services
 The purest form of capitalism is free market or laissez-faire
capitalism. ▫ Laissez-faire is an economic theory from the 18th
century that opposed any government intervention in business
affairs.
 The driving principle behind laissez-faire, a French term that
translates to "leave alone" (literally, "let you do"), is that the less
the government is involved in the economy, the better off
business will be, and by extension, society as a whole.
 Before the revolution, most Americans made their living farming
and lived in widespread rural communities.
 With the advance of factories, people began working for
companies located in urban areas for the first time. Often the
wages were low, and conditions were harsh.
 However, working for businesses paid a better living than
farming
Inauguration of Labor Day
During the Industrial Revolution in the 1800’s, working conditions
were harsh, exhausting, and because of the low wages women and
children had to work to provide for the family
Thousands went out on strike demanding better pay and shorter
working hours
God’s plan is for man to labor to provide for his family, but more
importantly He calls people to work in His vineyard with the
motivation of heaven in the context of Matthew 20:1-16.
 The Industrial Revolution shifted from an agrarian economy to a
manufacturing economy where products were no longer made
solely by hand but by machines.
 This led to increased production and efficiency, lower prices,
more goods, improved wages, and migration from rural areas to
urban areas
What 3 Things Played a Role in the Industrial Revolution?
 Technological changes, such as the use of iron and steel, new
energy sources such as coal and steam, and the factory system,
led to a division of labor and specialization, which increased
efficiency

What Were the 3 Most Important Inventions of the Industrial

Revolution?
 The three most important inventions of the first Industrial
Revolution include the steam engine, the spinning jenny, and
the telegraph