Chemistry Chapter-1

V II
Phase ss-
Cla

2 Components of Air
Introduction
We cannot see or smell air but air is everywhere around us. The earth is surrounded by a layer of air which is called
‘atmosphere’. We are all living under an atmosphere containing air. There seems to be an endless supply of air in
atmosphere. All the living things need air to survive. Plants and animals cannot survive without air. For example, we
breathe in air to live. We also need air to burn fuels and get heat energy for cooking food, running motor vehicles
and factories. Fuels cannot burn without air. In this chapter, we will study the role of air and atmosphere in our
daily life. We will also study the atmospheric pressure and its measurement. After that we will discuss about the
properties of two major components of air, Oxygen and Nitrogen.

Atmosphere
Our earth is surrounded by a blanket of air called atmosphere which extends up to a height of several kilometers
(about 1600 km above the surface of the earth).
Composition of Air by Volume
The major constituents of dry air are :
(1) Nitrogen (78%)
(2) Oxygen (21%)
(3) Noble gases (0.93%) [Ar = 0.9%, Ne + He + Kr + Xe = 0.03%]
(4) Carbon dioxide (0.03%)
Air also contains small amounts of water vapours and dust particles.

The Structure of Atmosphere

The composition, temperature and other conditions keep on changing with height in the atmosphere. The
atmosphere is divided into five major layers to study it conveniently. The five major layers of the atmosphere (from
the surface of the earth upwards) are :
(1) Troposphere (2) Stratosphere (3) Mesosphere (4) Thermosphere
(5) Exosphere
1. Troposphere
(a) The first layer of atmosphere is called troposphere which extends upto 10-12 km from the earth’s surface.
(b) Most of the air is concentrated in this layer (80% by mass) and clouds are present in the uppermost region
(Gases present are N2, O2, CO2 and moisture).
(c) In this layer, the temperature decreases as we move up. [For every 1 km height, temperature
drops by about 6°C]
(d) Water vapour content also decreases with height.
(e) Most of the earth’s weather takes place in this layer.

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2. Stratosphere
(a) It is second layer of air in the atmosphere (Gases
Thermosphere
Thermosphere
present are N2, O2, O3 and atomic oxygen). 500 km
(b) It lies between 12 to 50 km above the earth’s surface.
(c) Temperature increases with height. Mesosphere 80 km
(d) Ozone layer is present in this layer. Ozone layer protects
us from harmful Ultra Violet (UV) radiations.
3. Mesosphere Ozone Layer Stratosphere 50 km
(a) It extends from 50 to 80 km above the earth’s surface.
Troposhere 10 km
(b) Temperature is lower than that of troposphere or
Earth
stratosphere.
The structure of atmosphere
(c) In this region, temperature falls with increase in altitude.
4. Thermosphere
(a) It starts just above the mesophere and extends upto 500 km and beyond.
(b) In this region, the temperature generally increases with altitude (due to absorption of intense solar radiations
by limited amount of oxygen). Temperature varies from 92°C to 1200°C.
(c) It is also known as upper atmosphere.
(d) Aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in this layer.
(e) This layer is also known as ionosphere.
5. Exosphere
(a) Outermost layer of atmosphere (700 km and above)
(b) Mainly composed of hydrogen (very low amount), helium, nitrogen, oxygen.
Importance of the Study of Atmosphere
1. Weather plays an important role in our existence on the Earth. By studying atmospheric conditions, we can
predict rain, snow, hurricanes, etc. Thus, we can take appropriate measures to guard ourselves and our property
against the damage caused by heavy rains, floods or drought. The prediction of weather by studying atmospheric
conditions is called weather forecasting. In a way, weather forecast helps us in disaster management.
2. The atmosphere absorbs lethal ultraviolet radiations coming from the Sun. The ultraviolet rays are absorbed
by the molecules of oxygen in the mesosphere and thermosphere. The oxygen molecules change to ozone
molecules and form the ozone layer. The ozone layer then reflects most of the ultraviolet radiations.

Atmospheric Pressure
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that are held near the surface of the earth due to the gravitational force
exerted by the earth.
Naturally, this mixture of gases has some weight. At sea level, every litre of air weighs about 1.3 gram.
Thus, the enormous weight of the atmosphere is exerted in the form of pressure on all the objects on earth.
The force exerted by air perpendicularly on unit area of the surface of earth is known as atmospheric pressure.
Though this pressure is tremendously high, still we do not get crushed because the air and other fluids within our
bodies exert an equal and outward pressure to counterbalance the atmospheric pressure.
Units of Atmospheric Pressure
SI unit of pressure is pascal (Pa) : One pascal is defined as the pressure exerted by a force of one newton
acting over an area of one square meter. 1 Pa is also written as 1 N/m2.
1 Kilopascal (KPa) = 103 Pa
Standard Atmospheric Pressure : The pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level at a temperature of 0°C
is called normal or standard atmospheric pressure. It’s value is taken to be 1 atmosphere.

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1 atmosphere = 1.013 × 105 pascals = 1.013 bar

or, 1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa
Atmospheric pressure is also expressed in terms of vertical height of a pure Mercury column. Its magnitude is
760 mm or 760 torr.
1 mm of Mercury column = 1 torr

Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument called barometer. There are two kinds of barometer.
(1) Mercury Barometer, (2) Aneroid Barometer
(1) Mercury Barometer
Thumb Torricellian Vacuum
It is also called Torricelli barometer. It was invented by
an Italian Scientist Evangelista Torricelli. Open end
of glass tube Glass Tube
Structure of Mercury Barometer : It consists of a glass
tube about 100 cm long closed at one end. To construct 76 cm
Atmospheric
the barometer, tube is filled completely with Mercury. 100 cm Pressure
Keeping the open end closed with a finger, the tube is
inverted and placed into a trough nearly full of Mercury. Mercury
When the finger is removed, the height of the Mercury Bowl filled with
pure Mercury
column in the tube drops to about 76 cm above the Closed end of glass tube
Mercury level in the trough. This level is measured with Structure of Mercury Barometer
the help of a graduated scale attached to the tube.
Working of Mercury Barometer
The atmospheric pressure is equal to the height of the Mercury
column above the Mercury level in the trough. The empty space
above the Mercury column in the tube is near vacuum. Hence, Vacuum
any increase in atmospheric pressure pushes the Mercury up in [contains traces
of Hg vapour]
the tube.
This causes the Mercury level to increase in the tube end and
vice versa. Atmospheric pressure normally varies between 73.7 76 cm
cm to 77.5 cm of Mercury, with 76 cm of Hg being the normal
pressure at sea level.

Advantages of using Mercury in a Barometer

Air Pressure Air Pressure
The barometer could be built with any liquid. Mercury is used
because it has certain advantages.
1. The density of Mercury is 13.6 g/cm3 which is very high. This
permits a short column. The Mercury column at sea level is only
76 cm. If water is used instead of mercury, the corresponding
water column would be more than 1000 cm.
2. Mercury does not stick to the walls of the glass tube. Mercury
3. Mercury is a shiny dark liquid. It is very easy to read the
mercury level in the glass tube. Working of Mercury Barometer

Separation of the various Components of Air

The gases present in air are called components of air. The various gases present in air are used for many purposes.
The various gases of air are separated from one another by the fractional distillation of liquid air.
Fractional distillation
The process of separating a mixture of two or more liquids having different boiling points by boiling the liquid at
controlled temperature is called fractional distillation.

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The major constituents of air are Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%).
One of the constituents is Carbon dioxide. It has only a miniscule presence, 0.03%. Yet it plays an important role
for the living world.
This separation is based on the property that the different gases of the air have different boiling points. The boiling
points of the various gases of the air are given below :
Boiling Points of the Gases Present in Air
Sublimation Boiling Sublimation Boiling
Gas % Gas %
point, ºC point, ºC point, ºC point, ºC
Carbon dioxide – 78.5 - 0.03 Argon - – 186 0.93
Xenon - – 108 Traces Nitrogen - – 196 78.03
Krypton - – 153 Traces Neon - – 246 Traces
Oxygen - – 183 20.99 Helium - – 249 Traces

Liquid air is an extremely cold liquid. Liquid air contains all its Distilling column
component gases in the liquid form. When liquid air is warmed Nitrogen
gradually during fractional distillation, the various liquefied Compre-
ssor gas
gases present in it boil off at different temperatures (according Refrigeration Argon gas
Feed
to their boiling points) and are collected separately at different unit air
levels in the fractionating column.
Liquid
However, Carbon dioxide does not liquefy. Carbon dioxide Expansion oxygen
changes directly from gas to solid upon cooling and from nozzle
solid to gas upon heating. This property of Carbon dioxide Filter
Liquid air
is called sublimation. Carbon dioxide sublimes at –78.5°C.

Fractional distillation of air

Representation of Separation of Different Components of Air by Fractional Distillation

Compressed Water separates Compressed

Air as ice at
Cooled to slightly Cooled to
below 0ºC below 0ºC –78.5ºC

Oxygen, Argon Compressed Carbon dioxide

and Nitrogen separates as dry
Cooled to –200ºC
get liquefied ice at –78.5ºC

Noble gases
except Argon
go out as gases Fractional
distillation

At –196ºC, At –186ºC, At –183ºC,

Nitrogen gas Argon Oxygen
escapes out and is separated is separated
is separated (0.9%) (20.9%)
(78.1%)

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NITROGEN
Atomic symbol :N
Valency :3
Molecular formula : N2
Atomic Number :7
Atomic Mass : 14 amu
Molecular Mass : 28 amu
Colour : Colourless as gas, liquid is colourless
Nitrogen is an element. Nitrogen exists in the form of diatomic molecules, N2. Nitrogen gas occurs in the atmosphere
to an extent of 78% by volume. In combined state it occurs in many minerals e.g. in nitre (KNO3), Chilli saltpeter
(NaNO3). Also it is an important constituent of proteins in plants and animals. When we breathe in air, nitrogen
also goes inside our body but, being unreactive, it comes out as such without any chemical change. So, nitrogen
does not take any part in respiration. The cheapest source of nitrogen gas is air. The compounds of nitrogen are
of vital importance to plants as they help them to manufacture proteins and nitrate compounds. However, free
nitrogen cannot be absorbed by plants. The free nitrogen is converted into its compounds by various natural
methods. This process of conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into its compounds is known as nitrogen fixation.

Nitrogen Fixation
Natural fixation of Nitrogen gas of air takes place in two ways :
(i) Atmospheric fixation of Nitrogen
(ii) Biological fixation of Nitrogen
(i) Atmospheric Fixation of Nitrogen : During lightning, a huge electric discharge passes through the air. Due
to this electric discharge, the nitrogen combines with the oxygen to form nitric oxide gas.
Electric
N2 (g) O2(g) 2NO (g)
discharge
Nitrogen Oxygen Nitric oxide
The nitric oxide gas further reacts with oxygen and water vapour present in the air to form nitric acid vapour.
2NO (g) O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)
Nitric oxide Oxygen Nitrogen dioxide

4NO2 (g) O2(g) 2H2O (l) 4HNO3 (aq)

Nitrogen dioxide Oxygen Water Nitric acid

When it rains, the nitric acid in very dilute form is washed down to the earth, where it reacts with the soil carbonates
to form soil nitrates.
CaCO3 2HNO3(dil.) Ca(NO3)2 2H2O 2CO2
Calcium Nitric acid Calcium Water Carbon
carbonate nitrate dioxide

MgCO3 2HNO3(dil.) Mg(NO3)2 2H2O 2CO2

Magnesium Nitric acid Magnesium Water Carbon
carbonate nitrate dioxide
The soil nitrates, so formed, act as excellent food for the growth of plants
(ii) Biological Fixation of Nitrogen : Symbiotic bacteria are present in nodules of pod bearing plants (leguminous
plants) such as peas, grams, sweet peas, etc. the bacteria absorb Nitrogen directly from the air and convert it into
compounds of Nitrogen. These compounds are absorbed by the plants for the manufacture of proteins.
Artificial fixation of Nitrogen (or Industrial fixation of Nitrogen)
The artificial fixation of nitrogen is done by Haber’s process. In industries, Nitrogen gas of air is made to combine
with hydrogen gas under special conditions to produce ammonia gas. This ammonia is then converted into fertilizers
like nitrates (or ammonium salts) which are put in the soil.

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Laboratory preparation of nitrogen

Pure N2 is obtained in the laboratory by heating a concentrated solution
containing equimolar quantities of sodium nitrite (NaNO2) and ammonium
chloride. The round bottomed flask filted with a thistle funnel and a delivery
tube. The end of the thistle funnel is kept under the surface of the solution.
The end of the delivery tube is kept under water in a pneumatic trough.
The flask placed on a wire gauge and is clamped to a stand. Now the NH4Cl N2 Water
solution in the flask is heated for which N2 gas is evolved. The gas is + NaNO2
collected in gas jars by the downward displacement of water.
Reactions : NaNO2 + NH4Cl = NH4NO2 + NaCl
NH4NO2 = N2↑ + 2H2O
[N2 can be obtained by direct heating of NH4NO2. But NH4NO2 is very Laboratory preporation of nitrogen
unstable on heating as its thermal decomposition may cause violent
explosion. Hence this process of preparation of N2 is avoided].
Other methods of Preparation:
1. From ammonium dichromate : On gently heating of orange crystals of (NH4)2Cr2O7, violent reaction takes
place producing flashes of light and N2 is evolved and a green residue of chromic oxide is left behind.
∆
(NH4 )2 Cr2O7 → N2 ↑ + Cr2O3 + 4H2O
Orange solid Green ash

2. From ammonia : When ammonia is passed over heated cupric oxide, ammonia is oxidised to N2.
3CuO + 2NH3 = 3Cu + N2↑ + 3H2O.
3. From nitric acid : When nitric acid vapour is passed over red hot copper, N2 gas is liberated.
5Cu + 2HNO3 = 5CuO + N2↑ + H2O

Physical Properties of Nitrogen

N2 is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas. Slightly lighter than air and insoluble in water. It is not poisonous and
does not support combustion.
It can be liquefied to a colourless liquid at –195.8°C.

Chemical Properties
Two nitrogen atoms are joined by a triple covalent bond. :N ≡ N:
This bond is very strong due to which nitrogen is chemically inert.
1. Action on metals : Metals like calcium, magnesium and aluminium react with N2 when heated, and respective
metal nitrides are formed. These metal nitrides react with warm or boiling water to produce ammonia gas and
metal hydroxides.
(a) 3Mg + N2 = Mg3N2
Mg3N2 + 6H2O = 3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3↑
(b) 3Ca + N2 = Ca3N2
Ca3N2 + 6H2O = 3Ca(OH)2 + 2NH3↑
(c) 2Al + N2 = 2AlN
AlN + 3H2O = Al(OH)3 + NH3↑
2. At about 550°C under a pressure of 200 atmosphere and in presence of finely divided iron catalyst with
Molybdenum (Mo) as promoter, N2 gas directly combines with H2 gas to produce NH3 [Haber’s process].
550°C
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 + 22.4 KCal
220 atm
Fe/Mo

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3. At 3000°C (By electric spark) N2 gas combines with oxygen to form nitric oxide.
N2(g) + O2 (g)  2NO (g) – 43.2 KCal (Endothermic reaction)
4. At 1100°C N2 gas reacts with calcium carbide to form calcium cyanamide and carbon. This brown coloured
mixture is known as nitrolim. It is used as an important nitrogenous fertiliser.
CaC2= + N2 CaCN2 + C

nitrolim
Nitrolim slowly liberates ammonia in the soil by the reaction:
CaCN2 + 3H2O = CaCO3↓ + 2NH3↑

Identification of N2
3Mg + N2 = Mg3N2
Mg3N2 + 6H2O = 3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3↑
Smell of amonia confirms the presence of nitrogen.

Uses of Nitrogen
1. Growth : All plants and animals need nitrogen for growth.
2. Fertilizers : Nitrogen combines with hydrogen to form ammonia. Ammonia is used to manufacture nitrogenous
fertilizers such as urea, ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate.
3. Chemicals and explosives : Nitrates are used in manufacture of chemicals such as nitric acid, and explosives
such as TNT (trinitro-toluene), nitro-cellulose and nitroglycerine.
4.  Dyes and drugs : Some nitrogen compounds are used as dyes and drugs.
5. Food packaging : The unreactive nature of nitrogen is used in the food packaging industry. The space in the
packages holding food is filled with nitrogen to keep food fresh. For example, the potato chips packages you
buy in the market are filled with nitrogen.
6. Biological Uses : Liquid nitrogen is used to store living cells and tissues. These can be stored at low
temperatures and revived when required. Upon revival, they function normally. Therefore, liquid nitrogen is
used to preserve skin for skin grafting in burn victims.

Clap 15
1. The components of air can be separated by
(A) simple distillation (B) chromatography (C) fractional distillation (D) centrifugation
2. 1.5 atm pressure equals to
(A) 114 cm of Hg pressure (B) 1140 torr
(C) 1.5195 × 105 Pa (D) all of these
3. The formula of chile saltpeter is
(A) KNO3 (B) NH4NO3 (C) Na3N (D) NaNO3
4. Arrange the following gases in the increasing order of their boiling point.
CO2, N2, O2
(A) N2 < O2 < CO2 (B) CO2 < O2 < N2 (C) O2 < CO2 < N2 (D) O2 < N2 < CO2
5. Among the following gases which can be used to create inert atmosphere in a chemical reaction?
(A) O2 (B) CO2 (C) N2 (D) NH3
6. In which of the following layers of atmosphere ozone layer is found?
(A) Mesosphere (B) Stratosphere (C) Exosphere (D) Troposphere

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7. Which of the following instruments is used to measure pressure of a gas?

(A) Barometer (B) Leucometer (C) Anemometer (D) Manometer
8. The chemical formula of nitric oxide is
(A) NO (B) N2O (C) NO2 (D) N2O3
9. Which of the following compounds will not produces N2 gas on heating?
(A) NH4NO2 (B) (NH4)2Cr2O7 (C) NH4NO3 (D) NaN3
10. The catalyst used in Haber’s process is
(A) Fe-dust (B) MnO2 (C) V2O5 (D) Pd/H2

OXYGEN
Introduction
Atomic symbol :O
Valency :2 Oxygen
Molecular formula : O2 O O
Atomic Number :8
Atomic Mass : 15.9 u
Molecular Mass : 31.9 u
Colour : Colourless as gas, liquid is pale blue
In the gaseous state, oxygen exists as diatomic species, O2. To distinguish it from oxygen atom, the diatomic
oxygen molecule, O2 is also termed as dioxygen.
Oxygen is the gas which we breathe in order to live. Our life on the earth depends on oxygen. In fact, all the
organisms need oxygen to survive. The living organisms take in oxygen from the air and use it in respiration to
release energy from food.
Oxygen normally exists in the atmosphere as oxygen gas in the form of diatomic molecules O2 (containing
2 atoms of oxygen) as shown. In the upper atmosphere (high above the earth’s surface), energy from the sun
enables 3 oxygen atoms to join to form another form of oxygen called ozone. So, ozone molecule consists of 3
oxygen atoms joined together. The formula of ozone is O3. Ozone is formed in stratosphere.

Discovery of Oxygen
Joseph Priestley (1774) discovered oxygen.
Antoine Lavoisier, named this gas as oxygen which means acid producer.

Occurrence of Oxygen
Oxygen occurs both in free and combined state.
In free state in atmosphere oxygen is around 20.9%. Most of the oxygen present in the atmosphere is produced
by photosynthesis in plants. It also occurs in the form of ozone in the upper atmosphere. In combined state, water
constitutes about 88.8% oxygen of its weight. Other good source of oxygen are silica (SiO2), limestone and the
oxides of various metals.

Isotopes of Oxygen
Oxygen is made up of three isotopes :
Oxygen-16 (O16) : 8 protons + 8 neutrons (also known as light oxygen).
Oxygen-17 (O17) : 8 protons + 9 neutrons.
Oxygen-18 (18O) : 8 protons + 10 neutrons (also known as heavy oxygen).

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Preparation of Oxygen
Though atmosphere is a large reservoir of oxygen there is, yet now, no suitable method developed, to obtain
oxygen from atmosphere in the laboratory.
Application of heat on several chemical compounds containing oxygen KClO3 + MnO2
is found to be a convenient method to produce oxygen :
O2
Laboratory preparation of oxygen from potassium chlorate:
When a mixture of five parts by weight of potassium chlorate and one part
by weight of magnanese dioxide is heated at a temperature of 150°C,
potassium chlorate decomposes to produce potassium chloride and
oxygen.
heat Laboratory preparation of oxygten
2KClO3 + [MnO2]  → 2KCl + 3O2↑ + [MnO2]
In absence of MnO2 this reaction occurs at the temperature of 630°C. Here the presence of manganese dioxide
reduces the reaction temperature to 150°C and acts as a catalyst.

Preparation of Oxygen Gas at room temperature

At room temperature, oxygen can easily be prepared by
(i) the action of hot water on sodium peroxide and
(ii) by allowing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to react with potassium permanganate solution, acidified with sulphuric
acid.
Chemical Reaction :
i) 2Na2O2 + 2H2O = 4NaOH + O2 ↑
ii) 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5H2O2 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 5O2↑

Physical Properties of Oxygen

Oxygen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. In liquid state, it is pale blue. Following are some important
physical properties of oxygen.
i) Solubility : Oxygen dissolves very less in water. However, in nature, it slowly dissolves in water and hence is
used by the aquatic plants and animals for respiration. It is soluble in alkaline pyrogallol.
ii) Vapour density : Oxygen is slightly heavy compared to air. The vapour density of air is 14.4 whereas that of
oxygen is 16.
iii) Liquefaction : Oxygen can be liquefied when it is subjected to high pressure and low temperature.
iv) Boiling point and freezing point : Boiling point of oxygen is –183°C and freezing point is –218.4°C.

Chemical Properties of Oxygen

(1) Action with Non-metals :
(a) Reaction with carbon :
Red hot carbon when introduced into the gas jar of oxygen, burns brightly producing sparkles and cracking
sound. A colourless gas, CO2 is evolved.
C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
(Carbon) (Oxygen) (Carbon dioxide)

Nature of oxide :
(i) CO2 turns blue moist litmus paper red. Hence it is acidic in nature.
(ii) CO2 dissolves in water to form carbonic acid.
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2CO3 (aq)
(Carbon dioxide) (Water) (Carbonic acid)

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(iii) CO2 turns lime water milky. This is due to formation of white insoluble calcium carbonate.
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)
(Lime (Carbon (Calcium (Water)
water) dioxide) carbonate)

(b) Reaction with sulphur :

Burning sulphur, continues to burn with a blue flame, when introduced into the gas jar of oxygen.
S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)
(Sulphur) (Oxygen) (Sulphur dioxide)

Nature of oxide :
(i) SO2 turns moist blue litmus paper red. Hence it is acidic.
(ii) SO2 reacts with water to produce sulphurous acid.
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3
(Sulphur dioxide) (Water) (Sulphurous acid)

(c) Reaction with phosphorus :

After mild heating, when phosphorus is introduced into the gas jar of oxygen, it burns with dazzling white flame.
Dense white fumes of phosphorus pentoxide is evolved.
4P + 5O2 → 2P2O5
(Phosphorus) (Oxygen) (Phosphorus pentoxide)

Nature of oxide :
(i) P2O5 turns moist blue litmus paper red on heating. Hence it is acidic.
(ii) P2O5 + 3H2O → 2H3PO4
(Phosphorus (Water) (Phosphoric acid)
pentoxide)
(2) Action with Metals :
(a) Reaction with sodium :
Burning sodium, when introduced into a gas jar of oxygen, continues to burn with a brilliant golden yellow flame
to form sodium oxide.
4Na + O2 → 2Na2O
(Sodium) (Oxygen) (Sodium oxide)

Nature of oxide :
The sodium oxide, so formed, dissolves in water to form sodium hydroxide, which turns red litmus paper blue.
Hence sodium oxide is basic in character.

Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH

(b) Reaction with potassium :
4K + O2 = 2K2O
on treating with water potassium oxide gives potassium hydroxide.
K2O + H2O = 2KOH.
(c) Reaction with magnesium :
Burning magnesium continues to burn with white flame when introduced into the cylinder of oxygen forming
magnesium oxide.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
(Magnesium) (Oxygen) (Magnesium oxide)

Nature of oxide :
Magnesium oxide is sparingly soluble in water. It forms magnesium hydroxide which turns red litmus paper
blue. Hence, magnesium oxide is basic in character.

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MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2

(Magnesium oxide) (Water) (Magnesium hydroxide)

Rusting of Iron and its Prevention

When iron is exposed to moisture and air, it is slowly converted into its hydrated ferric oxide. The hydrated oxide
of iron is called rust.
4Fe + 3O2 + 2xH2O  → 2Fe2O3 .xH2O
(iron) (Oxygen) (Hydrated ferric oxide)

(x can be any positive whole number)

The rust so formed is flaky and easily crumbles from the metal surface. Successively fresh iron surface are
exposed to moist air to form more rust. Rusting corrodes iron and weakens the iron structures thereby resulting
in a great economic loss.

Prevention of Rusting
Rusting can be prevented by applying metallic or nonmetallic coating over iron materials.

Metallic Coating
(i) Galvanization : This process involves, coating of zinc on iron. Hot iron sheets are dipped in molten zinc
and then passed through heavy rollers, when zinc forms a protective layer over iron.
The galvanized iron is extensively used in making buckets, tubs, roof of sheds etc.
(ii) Tin coat : Tin can form protective layer over iron. Tinned iron sheets are extensively used for making boxes
for edible substances like oils, fruits, vegetables etc.
(iii) Electrolytic coating with chromium or nickel : Electricity is used to deposit chromium or nickel on iron
articles. Products like bumpers of cars, bicycle handles, rim etc. are generally coated with nickel or chromium.
(iv) By formation of alloy : When 12 to 20% of chromium and around 0.1% to 0.06% of carbon are incorporated
in iron, the blend obtained is called stainless steel. Surgical instruments kitchen utensils etc. are made of
stainless steel.

By Non-Metallic Coating
(i) Use of red lead oxide paint or tar : Red lead oxide paint or tar can be used as a protective coat from
metals getting exposed to moisture. The underside of ships, bridges, electric poles etc. are coated by this
coat.
(ii) Use of enamel paints : These paints are used for gloss and better looks. Articles such as bodies of cars,
buses, motor cycles etc. are first given a coating of red lead oxide paint followed by enamel paint.
(iii) By enamelling : This process involves high temperature treatment of iron surface with a mixture of silicates.
Articles like cups, plates wash basins etc. are enamelled.
(iv) Oils and grease : These find application where paints cannot be used. The moving parts of machines
cannot be protected with paint because it wears off fast. These are protected from rusting by coating them
with a thin layer of oil or grease. Oil or grease prevents rusting as well as help in lubrication.

Absorbent of Oxygen
(i) Colourless alkaline pyrogallol solution turns dark brown on absorbing oxygen.
(ii) Ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution turns blue coloured solution on absorbing oxygen.
(iii) Acidified chromous chloride solution turns green coloured solution on absorbing oxygen.

Identification of Oxygen
Oxygen produces reddish brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) when it comes in contact with colourless nitric
oxide (NO).
2NO (g) + O2 (g) = 2NO2 (g)

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Uses of Oxygen
1. Artificial respiration : Artificial respiration is employed in those cases where there is insufficient amount of
oxygen. Following are the cases where artificial respiration is employed :
(i) Deep-sea diving and in submarines.
(ii) High altitude flying, in space ships and high altitude climbing.
(iii) In case of lung failures of persons suffering from asthma, pneumonia, cardiac arrest etc.
2. Explosives : In mining, for blasting of rocks huge amounts of explosives are necessary. Liquid oxygen finds
application in making cartridges. Cartridges are made of one part of coal dust, one part of petroleum jelly and
eight parts of liquid oxygen.
3. Space-ships : Since ‘space’ is devoid of air, liquid oxygen is used for burning fuel in the rockets and space-
ships.
4. Welding : Oxygen is extensively used in welding and cutting metal sheet by oxyhydrogen or by oxyacetylene
flame.
Oxyhydrogen flame can produce a temperature of 2800°C and oxyacctylene flame produces a temperature
of about 3000°C to 3300°C.
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O
5. Chemical industry : Oxygen is used in large amount for preparing several chemicals like sulphuric acid,
nitric acid etc.

Regeneration of Oxygen in the air

Animals consume large amount of oxygen during respiration. Burning of fuels for sustaining life also involve huge
consumption of oxygen. Yet the amount of oxygen in the air remains the same.
Carbon dioxide gas and water vapour produced during respiration or burning are converted to oxygen through
the process of photosynthesis by the plants in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight. As a result, the amount
of oxygen in air remains same.
Chlorophyll
6CO2 + 12H2O 
Sunlight
→ C6H12O6 + 6O2 ↑ + 6H2O
(Carbon (Water ) (Glucos e) (Oxygen)
dioxide)

Significance of Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

1. The green leaves of the plants take up carbon dioxide and convert it into starch with the help of sunlight, using
chlorophyll. This process is called Photosynthesis.
2. It is used in aerated drinks such as soda water, lemon, orange or cola.
3. It is also used in fire extinguishers because it is heavier than air and does not burn.
4. Gaseous carbon dioxide upon cooling to –78.5°C directly becomes a solid and is known as dry ice. It looks
like ice but does not wet. Hence the name ‘dry ice’ is given to it. It is used as a refrigerant.

Significance of Water Vapour

The percentage composition of water vapour in air, by volume, varies from 0.04% to 4%.
1. The presence of water vapour in the air determines climatic conditions. Excessive water vapour causes rain.
2. The presence of water vapour in the air controls the rate of evaporation from the plants and animals cells.
3. The presence of water vapour is very essential for the growth of plants.
4. The presence of water is very essential for the health and comfort of animals. Excess or deficiency of water
vapour in the air can lead to a number of problems related to health.

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Noble Gases
A group of gases which do not react chemically with any substance are called noble gases. They are Helium,
Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Radon. Their percentage composition in air by volume is about 0.937%. Among
these, the most abundant is Argon. These gases are inactive, so they are also called inert gases.

Uses of Noble Gases

1. Argon is used for filling electric bulbs.
2. Argon, along with a small quantity of Mercury, is used in fluorescent lamps.
3. Helium is used along with oxygen for artificial respiration by sea divers.
4. Radon is used in the treatment of cancer.
5. Helium is also used for filling balloons because of its inertness and lightness.
6. Neon is used in special electric tubes called Neon sign tubes or Neon sign boards.

Clap 16
1. Which of the following catalysts is used for the laboratory preparation of O2 ?
(A) KClO3 (B) Mn2O7 (C) Pt (D) MnO2
2. Which of the following oxides is acidic in nature ?
(A) MgO (B) CO2 (C) Na2O (D) Fe2O3
3. Which of the following is/are used in fluorescent lamp ?
(A) Hg (B) Ar (C) Rn (D) Both A and B
4. During laboratory preparation of oxygen gas, it is collected by
(A) downward displacement of water (B) upward displacement of water
(C) upward displacement of air (D) downward displacement of air
5. A non metal ‘X’ when burnt in presence of O2 produces an oxide ‘Y’ which on reaction with water produces
a tribasic acid. The compound Y is
(A) SO2 (B) SO3 (C) P2O5 (D) NO2
6. Sacrificial anode is used
(A) as a catalyst (B) to prevent rusting of ship hull
(C) to purify air (D) to make explosives
7. A substance absorbs O2 gas and turns into green in colour. The substance is
(A) ammoniacal cuprous chloride (B) aqueous solution of Mg(OH)2
(C) acidified chromous chloride (D) alkaline pyrogallol
8. Rust is a mixture of
(A) Fe2O3 and Fe(OH)3 (B) FeO and Fe(OH)2
(C) Fe3O4 and Fe(OH)3 (D) Fe3O4 and Fe(OH)2
9. The coating of Zn on any object is known as
(A) anodising (B) enamelling (C) tinning (D) galvanization
10. Which of the following substances is turned in to blue colour when it comes in contact with water?
(A) Anhydrous ZnSO4 (B) Anhydrous FeSO4
(C) Anhydrous CuSO4 (D) Anhydrous MgSO4

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Illustration-1
How will you detect the presence of oxygen in air?
Solution: When a gas jar full of colourless nitric oxide is exposed in air, it is observed that as soon as the nitric
oxide of the jar comes in contact with air, brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide are produced. This is due to the fact
that colourless nitric oxide combines with the oxygen of air to form brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide.
2NO + O2 = 2NO2 (brown fumes)

Illustration-2
What will be the product formed when nitrogen is passed over calcium carbide at a temperature of 1100°C?
Solution: Cyanamide process : Nitrogen gas is passed over calcium carbide heated to 1100°C when calcium
cyanamide is produced.
CaC2 + N2 = CaNCN + C
The mixture of calcium cyanamide and carbon is known as nitrolim and is used as fertilizer.
Calcium cyanamide when treated with superheated steam ammonia is evolved.
CaCN2 + 3H2O = CaCO3 + 2NH3 ↑

Unsolved Assignment
Level-1
1. Laughing gas is
(A) NO (B) NO2 (C) N2O (D) SO2
2. A colourless gas when comes in contact with air turns brown, the gas may be
(A) N2O (B) NO2 (C) NO (D) None of these
3. Nitrogen of air is converted to nitric acid by
(A) Haber’s process (B) Ostwald’s process (C) Contact process (D) none of these
4. Which of the following is coloured?
(A) NO (B) N2O (C) N2O4 (D) NO2
5. 1 atmosphere pressure is equal to
(A) 1.013 × 105 Pa (B) 760 mm of Hg (C) 760 torr (D) All of these
6. Which of the following is true?
(A) Ozone layer is present in stratosphere
(B) 1 atm = 107 Pa
(C) Aneroid Barometer contains a liquid column of alcohol
(D) ‘LOX’ represent liquefied nitrogen
7. During fractional distillation of air oxygen separates at
(A) –196°C (B) –78.5°C (C) –183°C (D) –186°C
8. An allotrope of oxygen is
(A) CO2 (B) O3 (C) NO2 (D) SO2
9. Rust of iron is chemically
(A) FeO (B) Fe0.98O (C) Fe3O4 (D) Fe2O3.xH2O
10. Percentage of free oxygen in atmosphere is approximately
(A) 21% (B) 79% (C) 60% (D) 30%

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Level-2
1. H2O2 is a
(A) peroxide (B) mixed oxide (C) super oxide (D) none of these
2. The type of oxide usually formed when oxygen reacts with metals is
(A) neutral oxide (B) acidic oxide (C) basic oxide (D) none of these
3. Oxygen is ______ as gas and ______ in liquid state.
(A) colourless, pale blue (B) pale blue, colourless (C) colourless, yellow (D) colourless, light pink

4. In the reaction 2KNO3  ∆

→ 2KNO2 + a gas, the correct property of the gas is
(A) it is combustible (B) it helps in combustion
(C) it is neither combustible nor helps in combustion (D) it is both combustible & helps in combustion
5. KNO3 is not preferred for preparation of oxygen in laboratory because
(A) it is not readily available
(B) its melting point is high and involves wastage of heat energy
(C) high rate of reaction
(D) none of these
6. Boiling point and freezing point of oxygen are respectively
(A) – 218.4°C and –233°C (B) – 183°C and – 218.4°C
(C) – 40°C and – 120°C (D) none of these
7. Oxygen has high solubility in
(A) H2O (B) alkaline pyrogallol (C) mercury (D) none of these
8. Magnesium oxide, MgO is
(A) highly soluble in water (B) an aqueous solution of it turns red litmus blue
(C) an aqueous solution of it turns blue litmus red (D) none of these
9. What is the atomic number of oxygen? Write its electronic configuration.
10. What is nitrolim? State its use.
11. State with chemical equations what happen when the following are reacted with boiling water :—
(i) Ca3N2 (ii) AlN
12. What happens when (NH4)2Cr2O7 is heated? State with chemical equation of the reaction involved?
13. State with chemical equation what happens when N2 gas is passed over heated Mg-metal and the product
so formed is reacted with boiling water.
14. How does oxygen react with sodium and magnesium? Mention the properties of the oxide obtained.
15. Oxyhydrogen flame or oxyacetylene flame is used in
(A) space-ships (B) artificial respiration
(C) cutting and welding of metals (D) preparation of H2SO4

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Level-3 (Achiever’s Section)

1. Why is N2 chemically inert?
2. Explain :— N2 gas is not prepared in the laboratory by directly heating NH4NO2.
3. State with chemical equation, what happens when superheated steam is passed over calcium cyanamide.
4. Which products are obtained when :
(i) NH3 reacts with large excess of Cl2
(ii) large excess of NH3 reacts with Cl2
5. What is sal ammoniac and sal-volatile. Write down their respective uses.

Glossary
• Atmosphere......................................................................... îyëû%›uþœ
• Atmospheric Pressure......................................................... îyëû%›uþœ#ëû ‰þyþ™
• Fractional distillation............................................................ xy‚!Ÿ„þ þ™y“þ˜
• Sublimation......................................................................... |•¹Åþ™y“þ˜
• Nitrogen Fixation................................................................. ˜y£zöìÝþÆyö싘 xyî!kþ„þîû’
• Wire gauge.......................................................................... “þyîû‹y!œ
• Downward displacement .................................................... !˜Á¬›%…# xþ™¢yîû’
• Combustion......................................................................... ”£˜
• Hydrolysis............................................................................ ‹œ!îöìëûy‹˜
• Toxic.................................................................................... !î¡ìy_«
• Catalyst............................................................................... x’%‡Ýþ„þ
• Solubility.............................................................................. oyîÄ“þy
• Vapour density.................................................................... îyÜ™ ‡˜c
• Liquefaction......................................................................... “þîûœ#„þîû’
• Rust..................................................................................... ›îû#‰þy
• Photosynthesis.................................................................... ¢yöìœy„þ¢‚öìÙÕ¡ì
• Noble gas............................................................................ !˜!Ü;þëû †Äy¢

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FOUNDATION
Level-1
Allotted Time : 45 mins.

Name of the Chapter :

INSTRUCTIONS FOR FILLING IN THE ANSWER SCRIPT (OMR)
Registration No.
1. Each question has Four options, out of which one or more than one option is/are correct.
Students have to identify the correct answer/(s) and darken the bubble/(s) in the OMR
Section.
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2. To answer a question please darken the appropriate bubble/(s) in the answer script (OMR 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Section) using Black / Blue Ball point Pen only. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Correct Method Incorrect Method 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

A B C D A B C D 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5
3. Answers must be given at the appropriate places of the provided ANSWER SCRIPT ONLY 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
(OMR Section). 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

8 8 8 8 8 8 8
4. Dear parent/(s), please overview and share key answer/(s) with your son/daughter,
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
after completion of Home Assignment (Level-1).
5. HomeAssignment is to be completed within 7 days after completion of the chapter.

1. 11. 21. 31.

2. 12. 22. 32.
3. 13. 23. 33.
4. 14. 24. 34.
5. 15. 25. 35.
6. 16. 26. 36.
7. 17. 27. 37.
8. 18. 28. 38.
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10. 20. 30. 40.

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