CHAPTER 14

CONTROL OF SCATTER RADIATION

PRODUCTION OF SCATTER RADIATION  Reduced Scatter Radiation: lowers

radiographic optical density
Two Types of X-rays Responsible for the Optical o Effect: increased radiographic
Density & Contrast on a Radiograph technique to increase OD
 X-rays that pass through the patient without
interacting Patient Thickness
 X-rays that are scattered within the patient  Increased Thickness: increases scattered
through Compton interaction radiation
o Rationale: more x-rays undergo
Remnant X-rays multiple scattering
 X-rays that exit from the patient  Compression Paddle: used to reduce scatter
radiation to the image receptor
Image-Forming X-rays
 X-rays that exit & interact with the image Compression of anatomy improves spatial
receptor resolution & contrast resolution & lowers
patient dose!
Proper Collimation
 Effects: Compression is particularly important during
o Less scatter radiation mammography!
o Reduces patient dose
o Improves contrast resolution CONTROL OF SCATTER RADIATION

Three Factors Contribute to Increased Scatter Contrast

Radiation
 kVp, Field Size & Patient Thickness
kVp
 Increased kVp: increases scattered radiation
o Rationale: the relative number that
undergo Compton interaction
increases
o Result: reduced image contrast
 Decreased kVp: decreases scattered
radiation
o Results:
 Minimum scatter radiation
 Improved image contrast
 Increased patient dose
 Due to increased mAs
 One of the most important characteristics of
image quality
 The visible difference between light & dark
areas on an image
 The degree of difference in OD between
areas of a radiographic image
Contrast Resolution
 The ability to image & distinguish soft
tissues
Effect of Scatter Radiation on Image Contrast
 High Contrast: use of only transmitted &
unattenuated x-rays
o Appearance: sharp image
 No Contrast: use of only scattered x-rays
o Appearance: dull gray image
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Approximately 1% of x-rays incident on the  Moderate Contrast: use of both transmitted

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patient reach the image receptor! & scattered x-rays

Field Size Devices That Reduced Scattered Radiation

 Increased Field Size: increases scatter  Beam Restrictors & Grids
radiation

STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO

 CHAPTER 14
CONTROL OF SCATTER RADIATION
Beam Restrictors/ Collimators
 Three Types: aperture diaphragm, cones or
cylinders & variable-aperture collimator
Aperture Diaphragm
 Simplest of all beam-restricting devices
 Fixed-Lead Opening: for fixed IR size &
constant SID
 Applications: trauma & dental radiography
Cones & Cylinders
 Modification of the aperture-diaphragm
 Cylinders: most commonly used
 Restricted Useful Beam: circular shape
 Advantages:
o Reduce scattered radiation
o Improve image contrast
 Disadvantage:
o Difficulty in alignment of tube, cone
& IR
 Causes: cone cutting
Variable-Aperture Collimator
 Most commonly used
Off-Focus Radiation
 X-rays produced in the anode but not at the
focal spot
Collimation reduces patient dose & improves
contrast resolution!
Positive-Beam Limiting (PBL) Devices
 Features of radiographic collimators that
automatically adjusts the radiation field to
the size of the IR
Under no circumstances should the x-ray
beam exceed the size of the IR!
Total Filtration
 Equivalent: 2.5 mm Al
 Inherent (0.5 mm Al) + Added Filtration
(2.0 mm Al)
STEWART C. BUSHONG
Grid
 Device used to reduce the intensity of scatter
radiation in the remnant x-ray beam
 Principal Function: to improve image
contrast
 Position: between the patient & IR
 Grid Strips: radiopaque material
o Size: 50 μm wide
 Interspace: radiolucent material
o Size: 350 μm wide
 Three Important Dimensions:
o Grid Strip Thickness (T)
o Interspace Material Width (D)
o Grid Height (h)
Gustav Bucky (1913)
 He demonstrated the technique for reducing
the amount of scatter radiation that reaches
the IR
Grid Surface X-ray Absorption
 % x-ray absorption: width of grid strip ÷
(width of grid strip + width of interspace) x
100
Grid Ratio
 The height of the grid divided by the
interspace width
 Formula: grid ratio = h/D
o h = the height of the lead strips
o D = the distance between lead strips
 High Ratio Grid:
o Advantage Over Low Ratio Grid:
More effective in cleaning up scatter
radiation
 Rationale: angle of deviation
is smaller
o Disadvantage: increases patient dose
 General Radiography: 8:1 to 10:1
 Mammography: 4:1 to 5:1
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Grid Frequency
 The number of grid strips per centimeter
 High Frequency: less distinct grid lines on a
radiograph
 Range: 25-45 lines/centimeter
SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 CHAPTER 14
CONTROL OF SCATTER RADIATION

 Formula: grid frequency = 10,000 μm/cm ÷  Symbol: k

(T+D) μm/linepair
o T = grid strips thickness/width
o D = interspace width
The use of high frequency grids requires high
radiographic technique & results in higher
patient radiation dose!
Interspace Material
 Purpose: to maintain a precise separation
between the delicate lead strip of the grid
 Composition:
o Aluminum (Al)
 Advantages Over Fiber:
 High atomic number
 Produces less visible
grid lines
 Nonhygroscopic: does
not absorb moisture
 Easier to manufacture
 Disadvantages Over Fiber:
 Increases absorption
of primary beam
 Results: higher mAs
& higher patient dose
o Plastic fiber
 More preferred than Al
Grid Strip
 Characteristics: thin & high absorption
properties
 Composition: lead (Pb)
o Advantages:
 Easy to shape
 Inexpensive
 High atomic number
 High mass density
GRID PERFORMANCE
 Formula: k = image contrast with grid ÷
image contrast without grid
 Most Grids: k=1.5-2.5
 k=1: no improvement
 Use of Grid: double the image contrast
The contrast improvement factor is higher for
high-ratio grid!
Bucky/Grid Factor
 Ratio of incident radiation to transmitted
radiation through a grid
 Ratio of patient dose with & without a grid
 Formulas:
o B = incident remnant x-rays ÷
transmitted image-forming x-rays
o B = patient dose with grid ÷ patient
dose without grid
 Purposes:
o To measure how much of an increase
in technique will be required
compared with nongrid exposure
o Indicates how large an increase in
patient dose will accompany the use
of a particular grid
 Higher Grid Ratio: higher Bucky factor
o Rationale: penetration of scatter
radiation becomes less likely
 Increasing kVp: increases Bucky factor
o Rationale: more scatter radiation is
produced & it has more difficult time
of penetration
As the Bucky factor increases, radiographic
technique & patient dose increase
proportionately!
GRID TYPES
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Parallel Grid
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Contrast Improvement Factor  Simplest type

 Ratio of radiographic contrast with a grid to  It cleans up scatter radiation in one direction
that without a grid  Grid Strips: parallel
 Purpose: measures improvement in image  Advantage: easiest to manufacture
quality when grids are used  Disadvantage: grid cutoff
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 CHAPTER 14
CONTROL OF SCATTER RADIATION
o Occur at: short SID & large area IR
 Optical Density: decreases toward the edge
of IR
Grid Cutoff
 The undesirable absorption of primary x-ray
by the grid
 Cause: improper grid position
 Parallel Grid: most common
 Distance To Grid Cutoff: SID ÷ Grid ratio
Crossed Grid
 It is fabricated by sandwiching two parallel
grids together
 Grid Strips: perpendicular
 Advantages:
o Not too difficult to manufacture
o Not excessively expensive
 Disadvantages:
o Grid cutoff
o Critical grid positioning
o Tilt table techniques
 Possible only if x-ray tube &
the table are properly aligned
o Exposure technique required is
substantial
 Result: higher patient dose
 Advantages Over Parallel Grid:
o More efficient in cleaning up scatter
radiation
o Higher contrast improvement factor
than parallel grid with twice grid
ratio
o Advantage increases with increasing
kVp
The main disadvantage of parallel & crossed
grids is grid cutoff!
Focused Grid
 Purpose: to minimize grid cutoff
 Grid Strips: parallel to primary x-ray path
 Disadvantages:
o Difficult to manufacture
o Geometric limitations
 Intended focal distance
STEWART C. BUSHONG
 Side of the grid should face
the x-ray tube
 Characteristics: same with parallel
o Exception: exhibit no grid cut off
Grid Lines
 The images made when primary x-rays are
absorbed within the grid strips
 Visibility: directly related to the width of the
grid strips
Moving Grid
 A Potter-Bucky diaphragm or Bucky
 Grid Used: focused grids
 Two Basic Types: reciprocating &
oscillating
 Disadvantages:
o Requires bulky mechanism
 Result: subject to failure
o Increase distance between the patient
& IR
 Results: unwanted increase in
magnification & image blur
(undetectable)
o Introduce motion into cassette-
holding device
 Result: additional image blur
(undetectable)
Hollis E. Potter (1920)
 Idea: move the grid while the exposure is
being made
o Results:
 Grid lines disappear
 Increased radiographic
technique
Reciprocating Grid
 A moving grid that is motor-driven back &
forth several times during x-ray exposure
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Oscillating Grid
 A moving grid that oscillates in a circular
fashion around the grid frame, coming to
rest after 20-30 seconds
GRID PROBLEMS
SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 CHAPTER 14
CONTROL OF SCATTER RADIATION

Central Ray GRID SELECTION

 The x-ray that travels along the center of the
useful x-ray beam Grid Selection
 Depends of Three Interrelated Factors:
Off-Level Grid o kVp
 Only problem in parallel & crossed grid o Degree of cleanup
 Central Ray: not perpendicular to the grid o Patient dose
 Cause: improperly positioned x-ray tube  Focused Grid: most commonly used
 Results: o Considerations: must have properly
o Grid cutoff across image adjusted
o Underexposed  SID indicator
o Light image (low OD)  STD indicator
 Collimators
Off-Center Grid  Higher Ratio Grid:
 Problem in focused grid o For high kVp technique
 Central Ray: perpendicular to the grid o Increases cleanup
 Causes: o Increases patient dose
o Improperly positioned x-ray tube
o Grid is shifted laterally (lateral In general, grid ratios up to 8:1 are
decentering) satisfactory at tube potentials below 90 kVp.
 Results: Grid ratios above 8:1 are used when kVp
o Partial grid cutoff across image exceeds 90 kVp!
o Underexposed
o Light image (low OD) Patient Dose
 Moving Grid: 15% more radiation to patient
Off-Focus Grid than stationary grid
 Problem in focused grid  High- kVp & High-ratio Grid: lower patient
 Cause: improper focal distance dose than low-kVp & low-grid rati
 Result:
o Grid cutoff toward edge of image Grid Selection Factors
 Proper Focal Distance: more important 1. Patient dose increases with increasing
with high ratio grid ratio
o Rationale: less positioning latitude 2. High-ratio grids are used for high-
than low ratio grid kVp
3. Patient dose at high kVp is less than
Upside-Down Grid that at low kVp
 Problem in focused grid Air-Gap Technique
 Cause: improperly positioned grid  An alternative to the use of radiographic
 Result: severe/complete grid cutoff toward grids
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edge of image
 IR Distance: 10-15 cm from the patient
 Advantages:
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Off-Center, Off Focus Grid

o Reduces scatter radiation
 Most common improper grid position o Enhances image contrast
 Result: grid cutoff on one side of image  Disadvantages:
o Image magnification
o Focal-spot blur
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 CHAPTER 14
CONTROL OF SCATTER RADIATION

 Applications:
o Chest radiography
 From 180 to 300 cm SID
 Results: little magnification
& sharper image
o Cerebral angiography

APPROXIMATE CHANGE IN
RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE FOR
STANDARD GRIDS
Grid Ratio mAs Increase kVp Increase
No grid 1x 0
5:1 2x + 8-10
8:1 4x + 13-15
12:1 5x + 20-25
16:1 6x + 30-40

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STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO