energies
Article
Design and Analysis of a DC Solid-State Circuit Breaker for
Residential Energy Router Application
Saeed Rahimpour * , Oleksandr Husev and Dmitri Vinnikov
Citation: Rahimpour, S.; Husev, O.;
Vinnikov, D. Design and Analysis of
a DC Solid-State Circuit Breaker for
Residential Energy Router
Application. Energies 2022, 15, 9434.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249434
Academic Editor: Abu-Siada
Ahmed
Received: 31 October 2022
Accepted: 7 December 2022
Published: 13 December 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 9434. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249434
Department of Electrical Power Engineering and Mechatronics, Tallinn University of Technology,
19086 Tallinn, Estonia
* Correspondence: s.rahimpour@ieee.org
Abstract: Energy routers act as an interface between the distribution network and electrical facilities,
which meet the requirements of clean energy substitution and achieve the energy sharing and
information transmission in the energy network. However, the protection of the dc load side of
residential energy routers including interruption and isolation of short-circuit fault currents is vital
for discussion. Since the traditional mechanical and hybrid circuit breakers for dc fault protection
have the drawback of slow operation, a solid-state circuit breaker (SSCB) is an optimal solution for
fast dc fault interruption. In this paper, a dc SSCB is proposed that uses an RCD + MOV snubber
circuit, which is considered the best and most complete circuit used in common SSCBs. There are
two main contributions in this paper: First, a dc SSCB is designed, which isolates both positive and
negative terminals of a circuit and its working principle and operating modes along with the formulas
for calculation of crucial time intervals, voltages, and currents along with the design procedure are
provided. Second, a soft turn-on auxiliary is designed to prevent a high current surge caused by the
capacitance difference between the source and the load. The experimental results demonstrate the
proper performance of the topology and the validity of the findings.
Keywords: circuit breaker; solid-state; energy router; dc protection; solid-state circuit breaker;
soft turn-on
1. Introduction
In the last decade, the investigation of different aspects of energy routers has become
popular. An energy router is a kind of intelligent power electronics equipment, which can
dispatch distributed energy quantitatively, regularly, and accurately [1]. The structure of
a typical energy router is shown in Figure 1. As it interfaces various sources and converts
the power to ac and dc, an energy router can flexibly manage the dynamic power within
the regional power grid on the premise of ensuring power quality [2]. The architectures,
functionalities, and demonstration of energy routers have been introduced in [3]. Energy
routers play an important role in smart grids since in these grids energy is generated mostly
from distributed energy sources [4]. The local loads are powered by these energy resources;
however, when the supply of the energy resources surpluses the local demand, the energy
flows into the grid through energy routers. The energy router also tracks the variations in
the user’s demands to distribute the energy dynamically [5–7].
As a critical technique to guarantee the safe operation of the dc side in residential
energy routers, a dc circuit breaker is considered as a reliable method of isolating faults in
dc systems quickly and selectively [8]. However, since there is no zero-crossing point in the
dc current along with a high fault current rising rate, the operation of interrupting the fault
current in the dc system is much more difficult compared with the ac system. Therefore, the
design of dc circuit breakers becomes crucial, making it a key technology for dc systems [9].
Different kinds of dc SSCBs have been collected and reviewed in [10–14].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
 tion on the voltage suppression capability. However, there are two major problems asso-
ciated with a pure C snubber (even with a MOV), including the oscillation of the current
because of the system inductance and the high discharge current during the turn-on
process. By using a snubber resistor in series with the capacitor, the discharge current
Energies 2022, 15, 9434
can be reduced and the current will be damped [23]. In addition, using a MOV in2 of 14
paral-
lel with the RC snubber significantly reduces the required capacitance [24,25].

ac ac
grid Inverter Cdc Inverter Load

dc
SSCB
Load

dc-dc Converter dc-dc Converter

PV Battery

Figure
Figure 1. Structure
1. Structure of aoftypical
a typical energy
energy routerfor
router forresidential
residential application.
application

Direct current circuit breakers are mainly divided into three categories: electromechan-
ical, hybrid, and solid-state circuit breakers. Electromechanical breakers typically cause
arcs during the interruption and cannot meet the speed requirements for the protection of
semiconductor-based converters. The arcs also erode the breaker contacts, which increases
the maintenance costs [15]. To provide fast fault isolation without causing arcs, power
electronic switches have been applied. A hybrid dc SSCB scheme, which is a combination
of mechanical and solid-state technology, is now considered as an acceptable solution [16].
However, the mechanical ultrafast disconnector in these dc circuit breakers slows the cur-
rent breaking process and increases their weight, volume, and investment price. With the
development of electronic components, dc SSCBs have been greatly developed. They are
extremely faster than mechanical and hybrid circuit breakers [17].
Solid-state circuit breakers are divided into two categories in terms of using either
semi-controlled switching devices such as SCRs or fully controlled switching devices such
as IGBTs and MOSFETS. Impedance-source SSCBs, which are the most popular solutions
for using half-controlled switching devices, are reviewed in [18]. The SCR-based SSCBs
benefit from smaller conduction losses, larger capacity, and lower price compared with the
ones with fully controlled switches. However, since the turn-off process of SCR requires
reverse voltage, the most important issue when designing an SCR-based SSCB is a reliable
generation of a reverse voltage on the SCR during the turn-off process [19,20]. On the
other hand, in SSCBs with fully controlled switching devices, there is full control of the
breaking process.
When a short-circuit fault occurs in the system, a high di/dt is usually generated
during the turn-off process of the SSCB, which generates serious dv/dt and overvoltage
through the huge inductive energy applied across the main switches due to the transmission
line inductance and current-limiting line inductors. It might exceed the device rating and
cause failure [21]. Also, a high dv/dt can induce gate oscillation, gate-oxide degradation,
and false turn-on, causing reliability and lifetime issues. To reduce this voltage, rise rate,
and voltage spike, snubber circuits must be added. Various snubber configurations have
been reported for SSCBs, which are reviewed in Table 1.
 Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Table 1. Different types of snubbers including the pros and cons of each.

Energies 2022, 15, 9434 Snubber Circuit Pros and Cons 3 of 14

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR
Energies PEER
2022, 15, xREVIEW
FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW  3 of 14
The snubber capacitor absorbs some of the energy stored in the inductanc
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW C system by getting charged. This slows down the voltage rise rate and the 3peak
of 14 v

of the
Table 1. Different types switching
of snubbers devices.the pros and cons of each.
including
C
Table 1. Different
Table 1. Different
types
Table 1.types of snubbers
Different
of
including
types ofincluding
snubbers
the
snubbersthe pros and
including
pros
cons
thecons
and
ofand
prosof each.
cons of each.
each.

Table 1. Different Whenofthe
types switchincluding
snubbers is turningtheoff,
prosthe capacitor
and oscillates with the inductanc
cons of each.
SnubberSnubber Snubber Table
Circuit Circuit 1. Different types of snubbers includingProsthe pros
and and cons of each.
Cons
Circuit Table
S 1. Different types
circuit. of snubbers
In addition, including
during Pros
the the
andpros
turn-onConsandand
Pros consCons
process, of each. a high discharge curre
it causes
Snubber
Snubber Circuit
Circuit Pros and Cons Pros and Cons
Snubber Circuit ✓ 
The through
X Thethe
snubber switching
capacitor
snubber device.
absorbs some
Pros
capacitor ofof
and
absorbs the
Consenergy
some stored
of the in the
energy the inductance
stored of the
the
in the inductanc
Snubber Circuit ✓ The The snubber
snubber capacitor
capacitor absorbs
absorbs some
some
Pros of
and theenergy
the
Cons energy stored
stored in
in the inductance
inductance of
✓ The snubber capacitor absorbs some of the energy stored in the inductance of the
✓
system
Energies 2022, 15,CCx FOR PEER
MOV
system by
The
C REVIEW getting
system
snubber
of the charged.
by getting
capacitor
system by This slows
charged.
absorbs
getting down
This
some
charged. of
This the
slows
slowsvoltage
down
energy
down rise
the
stored
the rate
voltage
in
voltageand
rise
the
rise the
ratepeak
and
inductance
rate and voltage
the
of peak
the v
✓
system by
The
by getting
snubberThe
getting charged.
capacitor
varistor
charged. This slows
absorbs
provides down
some the voltage
of the
overvoltage voltage
energy rise rate
rate
stored
protection and
inand
using the the peak
peak
inductance
voltage voltage
of the
clamping.
C
of Cthe
system
C the switching
by the
switching
of peak voltage of This
the switching
getting the
devices. slows
charged. down
switching devices.
devices.
This slowsrise down thethe voltage
voltage rise rate and the peak voltage
C C C C of
system
of the by
switching getting
When devices.
When charged.
devices.
the the switch
switch This slows
is turningis turning down
off, theoff, thethe
capacitorvoltage
capacitor rise oscillates
oscillates rate
withand the
with
the inductance peakthe voltage
inductanc
C
C C + MOV  the When
of 
switching the switch
When
devices. is
the turning
switch off,
is the
turning capacitor
off, the oscillates
capacitor with
oscillatesthe inductance
with the of the
inductancthe
C 
of theWhen When
switching thecircuit.
of the
circuit. switch
devices.
In isaddition,
Inis
addition, turningduring off, the
during thethe capacitor
turn-on
turn-on oscillates
process,
process, it with the
itcauses
causes the
aa highinductance
high discharge of curre
C  the switch turning off, the capacitor oscillates with inductance of the
S 
circuit.
S
circuit. WhenIn addition,
circuit.
Table the 1. In
switch during
addition,
Different is the
turning
types turn-on
during
of off,
snubbers the
theprocess,
turn-on
capacitor
including it causes
process,
oscillates
the pros aithigh
causes
andwith discharge
cons thea ofhigh current
discharge
inductance
each. of curre
the
S
S 
circuit. WhenIn
In addition,
discharge
the
through
addition, switch theduring
current is
switching
during the
through
turning
the turn-on
device.
turn-on process,
the switching
off, the capacitor
process, it
device.
it causes
oscillates
causes a
a high
highwith discharge
the
discharge current
inductance
current of the
through
circuit. In the switching
through
addition, the device.
switching
during the device.
the turn-on
turn-on process, it
it causes aa high
high discharge
discharge current
S S
Snubber MOV S through
circuit.
Circuit
through the
Inthe switching
addition,
switching device.
during
device. process,Pros causes
and Cons current
MOV through
MOV the
 switching
The device.
resistor damps the oscillations caused by the snubber capacitor and th
✓
through The the switching
varistor providesdevice. overvoltage protection using voltage clamping.
MOV
MOV
Energies 2022, 15,Cx FOR PEER ✓
✓
C C REVIEW
The 
The varistor
X Theprovides
The varistor
varistor
snubber
varistor
provides provides capacitor
provides
overvoltage
overvoltage
overvoltage
absorbs
overvoltage
protection some
protection
protection
of thevoltage
protection
using
using
using
energy
voltage
voltage
using stored
voltage
clamping.
clamping.
clamping.
inclamping.
the inductanc
MOV
 R The
✓ When tem
varistor inductance
theWhen switch provides being
is turning
turning in series.
off,
overvoltage It also
theprotection
capacitor decreases
oscillates
using the
thevoltage turn-on
with the current,
inductance whichof peak
theis div
withclamping.
C
C + MOV C 
✓ C When When 
The system When
the
varistor by
switchthe getting
the
switch
provides is charged.
switch
is isoff,
turning
overvoltage This
turning
off,
the the slows
off, down
the
capacitor
capacitor
protection capacitor
oscillates
oscillates
using voltage
oscillates
with
voltage the
theriseinductance
clamping. rate and
with
inductance the
the inductanc
of the
C + MOVC ++ MOV
MOV C + MOV C 

circuit. the
charged
In circuit.
addition, switch through
duringis turning
power
theduring off,
turn-on the
semiconductor.capacitor
process, oscillates
itprocess,
causes with the inductance of the
When of the
the switch
thecircuit. Inis turning
isaddition, off,
during the capacitor
the turn-on oscillates
process, aaitit
highwith
causes discharge
the
aa high currentof the
inductance
C
C RC 
circuit. WhenIn addition, switching
In during
switch addition, devices.
the
turning off, the
turn-on the turn-on
process,
capacitor it causes
oscillates causes
highwith discharge
the high discharge
current
inductance curre
of the
C
C ++ MOV
MOV C circuit. In addition,
discharge When during
the
current the
switch
through turn-on
istheturning process,
switching off, it
the
device.causes
voltage a high
drop discharge
across the current
snubber resisto
through
circuit.
through In the
 switching
addition,
through
the When
switching the device.
during
the the
switch
switching
device. turn-on
is turning
device. process, off, it
the causes
capacitor a high discharge
oscillates with current
the inductanc
S circuit.
through Inthe addition,
switching during the of turn-on process, it causes a high discharge
of each.current
S S
SS
through
Table
flected
the
1. Different
switching
circuit. on
In thedevice. types
switching
device.
addition, during
snubbers
device, including
which increases
the turn-on
the pros
process,
andpeak
itits
causes
cons
aturn-off
high dischargevoltage requir curre
S
✓
through The the switching
resistor damps device.
the oscillations caused by the snubber capacitor and the the sys-sys-
S
S ✓ The resistor
of the damps
switch.
The resistor the oscillations
damps the caused
oscillations by the
caused snubberby the capacitor
snubber and
capacitor and th
Snubber ✓
Circuit The resistor
through damps
the in the
switching oscillations
theItdevice. caused Prosby the
byand thesnubber
Cons capacitor and the sys-
C
R ✓
tem
tem inductance
The X
resistor being
The resistor damps series.
damps the also decreases
oscillations
oscillations decreases caused
caused the
by turn-on
the snubber
snubber current,capacitor
capacitor which and
and isthe
dis-
the sys-
C
✓
C
Energies 2022, C15, xRR FOR PEER
tem inductance
R The
REVIEW
Rinductance resistor
tem being
inductance
being damps in
in series.
the
being
series. It
in
It also
oscillations
series. caused
It also the
by
decreases turn-on
the snubber
the current,capacitor
turn-on which and
current, is dis-
the
which sys- is di
C tem
C
MOV
charged systemThe
through
inductance power
being snubber
inductance in being
semiconductor.
series. Itinalso
capacitor series.
also decreases
absorbs
It also some
decreases the
decreases
the turn-on
of the
turn-onthe energycurrent,
turn-on
current, stored which
current,
which in is
the
which
is dis-
dis-inductanc
RC C R
R charged
tem
charged
D through
inductance 
charged
is
through The
This
discharged power
being varistor
in semiconductor.
series.
combination
through
power through provides
power It
power
semiconductor. also overvoltage
decreases
eliminates
semiconductor.
semiconductor. the the protection
turn-on
additional drop using
current, of which
voltage clamping.
is dis-
across the resiv
RC RC  C
charged
C When system
through the by getting
switch
power is charged.
turning
semiconductor. off, This
the slows down
voltage drop the voltage
across the rise rateresistor
snubber and theis peak
re-
RC RC
RC RCD 
charged When 
through
well theas
When switch
Whenpower
significantlyissemiconductor.
the
the switch turning
switch
is turning off,
reduces
isoff, the
turning
off,the voltage
the voltage
off, the
voltage drop across
capacitor
oscillations
voltage
drop across drop the
during
the snubber
oscillates
across
snubber with
thethe resistor
turn-off.
snubber
resistor is resisto
the inductanc re-
RC C + MOV S 
flectedWhen
 Whenonof thethe
the switch
switching
switching
switch is
is turning
devices.
device,
turning which
off, the
the voltage
increases
voltage drop
its
drop peak across
acrossturn-off the
the snubber
voltagevoltage
snubber resistor
requirement
resistor is
is re-
re-
C S 
flected
S Whenon isthe
reflected
circuit.
the
flected switching
In
switch
It on
includes
on the the
addition,
is switching
device,
turning
more
switching which
during off, device,
the
components.
device,the which increases
increases
turn-on
voltage
which its
drop peak
process,
increases acrossitsitspeak
turn-off
it causes
the
peak turn-off
voltage
a
snubber high
turn-off requirement
discharge
resistor
voltage is curre
re-
requir
S flected on Table
 the 1.When
Different
switching the types
device,
switch ofwhich
snubbers
is turning including
increasesoff, the its the
peak pros
capacitor and
turn-off cons of each.
voltage
oscillates with requirement
the inductanc
S of Sthe
of the switch.
flected switch.
on the switching
requirement of device,
the switch. which increases its peak turn-off voltage requirement
flected onof through
the switching the switching
device, device.
which increases its peak turn-off
Snubber
S
R of
of
SSthe switch.
Circuit the switch.
the
circuit. switch.
In addition, during the turn-on Pros process,
and Cons it causesvoltage a high requirement
discharge curre
C R of the switch.
MOV R
C R
D ✓ This through
combination the switching
eliminates
resistor damps device.
the additional
theadditional
oscillations dropcaused of voltage
by across
the snubber the resistor
capacitor as th
and
C R
D ✓
C This combinationThe snubbereliminatescapacitor the absorbs some drop of
of of voltage
thevoltage
energy across
stored the
in resistor
the as
inductanc
C R
D ✓ D This  combinationThis combination
eliminates eliminates
the additional the additional
drop drop of
acrossvoltage the across
resistor the as resi
RCD
RCD C D ✓
well
C MOV as
well
R Thissignificantly
Xcombination
tem This combination
In
inductance reduces
addition eliminates
to
beingthe
eliminates
theinvoltage
the the
benefits
series. oscillations
additional
additional
Itof drop
drop
the decreases
also RCD during
of
of voltage
snubber, the the
voltage turn-off.
across
across
the
turn-on the
varistor the resistor
resistor
current, provides
which asover
is div
D C C R as
✓ Thissignificantly
system
combination by reduces
getting
eliminatesthe
charged.voltage
the This oscillations
slows
additional down
drop during
the
of the
voltage
voltage turn-off.
rise
across rate
the and
resistorthe peak
as
RCD RCD well 
well asThe varistor
significantly provides
reduces overvoltage
the voltage protection
oscillations using
during voltage clamping.
the turn-off.
RCD  C Das
well asIt significantly
as well
includes
significantly as
more reduces
significantly
components.
reduces the
the voltage
reduces
voltage the oscillations
voltage
oscillations during
oscillations
during the
during turn-off.
the turn-off.
RCD
RCD RCDRC + MOV 
well
 It
as
It
protection
charged
includes
of

includes the
significantly
It more
switching
When
It
using
through
includes
more
includes the
voltage
power
components.
reduces devices.
switch
more
components.
more
clamping.
semiconductor.
the components.
voltage
components.is turning oscillations
off, the during the
capacitor the turn-off.
turn-off.
oscillates with the inductanc
C S

C + MOV S
S
MOV  S It It includes


includes
circuit.
Itmore
When includes
more
In
components.
the more components.
switch
components.
addition, during
is turning off, the voltage
the turn-on capacitor
process, it
drop acrosswith
oscillates
causes a high
the snubber
the inductanc
discharge
resisto
curre
S
MOV
S
MOV SS flected
circuit. on
In the switching
addition, during device,
the which
turn-on increases
process, itits peak
causes aturn-off
high voltage
discharge requir
curre
MOVR S through the switching device.
MOVR ✓MOV S In addition
addition
of the tothe
switch. theswitching
benefits of of the RCD RCD snubber,
snubber, the the varistor
varistor providesprovides overvoltage overvoltage
C ✓ In through to the benefits device.
the
R
✓ R In
In addition to the benefits of the RCD snubber, the varistor provides overvoltage
C D
RCD ++ MOV
MOV R
✓
protection usingThe
addition voltage
to the clamping.
thetobenefits theof the RCD ofsnubber, RCDthe the varistor provides overvoltage
D
C
 Involtage
addition
resistor todamps ofbenefits
thethe the
oscillations snubber, the varistorcapacitorprovidesand overth
RCD ✓
protection using clamping. RC caused by the the snubber
R
C D C MOVR In addition Xusing
In However,
addition to benefits
the
in benefits
an RC the
of
snubber RCD RCD snubber,
(or snubber, + the
MOV), varistor
varistor provides
provides
voltage overvoltage
across the resist
RCD + MOV C D protection

C D
 The voltagevaristor clamping.
provides overvoltage protection using voltage clamping.
RCD + MOV
RCD + MOV D protection
C D It includes
 using
protection more
Thisvoltage components.
using clamping.
combination voltage clamping.
ineliminates theduring
additional drop of voltage across thevoltaresi
RCD + MOV
RCD + MOV 
protection
 C R It
tem using
flected inductance
overvoltage
It includes
includes more
onvoltage
more theprotectionbeingsemiconductors
components.
clamping.
power
components.
using series.
voltage It also decreases
clamping. the
turn-off, turn-on
which current,
causes which
extra is di
RCD  It 

includes
well
charged asWhen
It includes
It more
includes the
significantly
through switch
components.
more components.
more
power issemiconductor.
turning
components.
reduces the off, theoscillations
voltage capacitor oscillates during with
the the inductanc
turn-off.
C +RCMOV S S  It includes
and power more components.
shock [26]. Alternatively, a resistor-capacitor-diode (RCD) snubber c
circuit.
 charging It In
When addition,
includes the more
switchduring the turn-on
components.
is turning off, the process, itdrop causes a high discharge resisto curre
S
S
S S rate and discharging paths. ThevoltageMOV-RCD snubber across theis snubber
analyzed in [2
S However, through
flected
analytical in on thethe switching
aninvestigations,
RCswitching
snubber (or device.
(or
device,
where RC ++the MOV),
which the voltage
increases
short-circuit voltage its peak
current across turn-offthe resistor
capability, resistor
voltage
clearanceis re- ti
requir
SS However, in an RC snubber RC MOV), the across the is re-
flected However,
on
However, the
of the in
power
in an
an
switch. RC
RC snubber
semiconductors
snubber (or
(or RC
during
RC ++ MOV),
turn-off,
MOV), the
the voltage
which
voltage across
causes
across the
extra
the resistor
voltage
resistor is re-
stress
is re-
MOV
flected However, transient
on the the power
 However, inThe power
anresistor
RC shock
semiconductors
in an
snubberdamps are
RC(or considered.
snubber
theRCduring (orturn-off,
+ MOV),
oscillations RC caused which
+ MOV),
the voltage by thecauses voltage
theacross
snubber extra voltage
theacross
resistor
capacitor thestress
resist
isandre-th
flected
and power
flected
Reference power on
on
[22] theshock power
power
utilizes [26].a semiconductors
Alternatively,
semiconductors
metal-oxide varistoraduring
during (MOV) turn-off,
resistor-capacitor-diode
turn-off,
with which
which
a capacitor causes
(RCD)
causes to extra
snubber
extra
suppress voltage
voltagethecan stress
sepa-
stress
and
flected R onflected
theshock In
power this
on[26]. paper,
the power a
Alternatively,
semiconductors bidirectional a
semiconductorsduring SSCB is
resistor-capacitor-diode
during
turn-off, designed
turn-off,
which and (RCD)prototyped,
which snubber
causes which
can
extra sepa-isola
volta
C
and
C
R
power
R tem
 shock inductance
In addition
[26]. being
to the
Alternatively, inbenefits
series.
aaThe Itofalso
the decreases
RCD snubber,
resistor-capacitor-diode the causes
turn-on
the
(RCD) extra
current,
varistor
snubber voltage which
provides
can stress
is di
over
sepa-
overvoltagerate
C
and
rate charging
power
DDduring
charging shock
the theand
positive
and This discharging
[26].
turn-off Alternatively,
and process
combination
discharging negativepaths.
and
paths. terminals
eliminates
The MOV-RCD
resistor-capacitor-diode
analyzes the
of
the
MOV-RCD theeffects snubber
system
additional of capacitor
snubber quickly
drop is
is analyzed
(RCD)
of and snubber
variation
voltage
analyzed in [27]
efficiently.
across
in [27]
can
on using
sepa-
A com
the
using resic
RCD + MOV and
rate power
charging and shock
charged power
protection
and [26]. shock
through
using
discharging [26].
Alternatively,
power
voltage Alternatively,
paths. a
semiconductor.
clamping.
The MOV-RCD a resistor-capacitor-diode
resistor-capacitor-diode snubber (RCD)
is analyzed (RCD)
snubber in can
[27]snubber
sepa-
using
RC the voltage
RCD analytical
rate suppression
analyticalcharging ofinvestigations,
well and
formulas
ascapability.
investigations, discharging
to
significantly where
However,
calculate
where the
paths.
reduces
the all short-circuit
there
The
time
the
short-circuitare two
MOV-RCD
intervals,
voltage current
major voltages,
oscillations
current capability,
problems
snubbercapability, is
and
during clearance
associated
analyzed
currents
the
clearance inwith
is
turn-off. time,
[27] and
using
presented.
time,using and
rate charging rate
 and charging
When dischargingand
the discharging
switch paths.
is turningThepaths.MOV-RCD The
off, the MOV-RCD
snubber
voltage drop issnubber
analyzed
across theis snubber
analyzed
in [27] in [2
resisto
a pure Canalytical
transient
snubberpower
analytical
transient
investigations,
power
(even
 awith
Itsoft
shock
investigations,
tion, includes
It includes
shock are
aturn-on
MOV),
are
where
more
considered.
where
more
the
including
the
auxiliary
considered.
short-circuit
components. thedesigned
short-circuit
components. is oscillation current
to of
current the
prevent
capability,
current
capability,a high
clearance
because
clearance
current
time,
of surge
the
time, and
and
cause
analytical analytical
investigations,
flected on investigations,
the where
switching the where
short-circuit
device, the
which short-circuit
current
increases current
capability,
its peak capability,
clearance
turn-off clearance
voltagetime, and
requir ti
system transient S In this
inductance
transient
SS In this
power
power and shock
paper,
capacitance
paper, the
shock a high
a
are
are considered.
bidirectional
discharge
considered.
difference
bidirectional SSCBcurrent
between
SSCB is designed
is designed
during
the source theandturn-on
and prototyped,
and
prototyped,theprocess.
load. which
which The isolates
By using experimenta
isolates both
both
transient In transient
power
thisof paper, shock power
aa with are shock
considered.
bidirectional areSSCB considered.
is designed and prototyped, which
a snubber the resistor
positive
In in the
andseries switch.
negative thetheterminals
capacitor, of thethe
the system
discharge quickly current andcan efficiently.
andbe reduced A isolates
complete
and bothset
the
the MOV In this
positive
positivethis paper,
demonstrate
and
paper,
and this a bidirectional
negative
In negative paper, proper
terminals
bidirectional SSCB
performance
a bidirectional
terminals SSCB of
of the
is designed
system
SSCB
is system
designedof theis and
quickly
designed
and
quickly
prototyped,
topology and
prototyped,
and and the
efficiently. which
prototyped,
efficiently.
validity
which A
A
isolates
of theboth
complete
which
isolates
complete
find
set
isola
both
set
the currentof
the formulas
will
R
positive be to
damped calculate [23]. all
In time
addition, intervals,
using avoltages,
MOV in and
parallel currents
with is
the presented.
RC snubber In addi-
of
the
of formulas
positive
C formulas theandand
to
negative
topositive
calculate
However,
negative
calculate all
andall terminals
in time
an RC
negative
terminals
time
of
of the
intervals,
snubber the system
terminals
intervals, voltages,
(or
systemof RC
voltages,thequickly
quickly and
+system
MOV),
and
and
currents
and
currents
efficiently.
the
quickly isand
voltage
efficiently. A
presented. complete
across
efficiently.
A complete In addi-
theaddi- set
Aresist
com
set
significantly
tion,
of RD
a
formulasreduces
soft 2.turn-on
tothe This
In
Investigationrequired
calculate combination
auxiliary
addition all capacitance
of to is
the
time the eliminates
designed
benefits
Topology
intervals, [24,25].
toof the additional
prevent
voltages, RCD a high
snubber,
and drop
current
currents theofis
is presented.
voltage
surge
varistor
presented. across
caused
provides In
In the
by resi
the
over
addi-
tion,
ofC
tion, a
formulas
D a soft
soft of turn-on
flectedformulas
to
turn-on on
calculate auxiliary
the to
auxiliarypower
calculate
all is
time
is designed
semiconductors
all
intervals,
designed time to
to prevent
during
intervals,
voltages,
prevent a
a high
turn-off,
voltages,
andhigh current
currents and
current which
is surge
currents
presented.
surge caused
causes is
caused extra by
presented.
In by the
volta
addi-
the
RCDRCD + MOV However, capacitance
tion, in an well RC assnubber
difference
protection significantly
using (orvoltage
between RC reduces
+ the
MOV), the the
source
clamping. voltage
voltage
and oscillations
theacrossload. the during
resistor
The the turn-off.
is reflected
experimental results
tion, aa soft
capacitance softand
tion,turn-on
The
difference
power
turn-ona soft auxiliary
topology
shockbetween
turn-on
auxiliary isis
[26]. designed
composed
the
auxiliary
is designed is of
source
Alternatively, to
to twoprevent
designed and
prevent toaa prevent
a back-to-back
the high
load.
resistor-capacitor-diode
high current
MOSFETS,
The
a high
current surge
experimental
current
surge caused
with
(RCD)
caused surge by
ansnubber
RCD
resultsthe
bycause
thesnuc
on the capacitance
power semiconductors
demonstrate
capacitance  difference
the proper
It
difference includes between
during
performance
betweenmore the
turn-off, of
components.
the source
the
source which and
topology
and the
causes
the and load.
extra
the
load. The
voltage
validity
The experimental
ofstress
the
experimental and results
findings. results
demonstrate
capacitance each
rate the
capacitance MOSFET
proper
charging
difference as shown
performance
and
difference
between discharging in of
between
the Figure
the
sourcepaths.
the2.and
On
topologyThe
source the
the andnegative
MOV-RCDand the
load. validity
the
The side,
snubber
load. there
of the
is
The
experimental is a mechanica
findings.
analyzed
experimenta
resultsin [2
power shockdemonstrate the proper
S [26]. Alternatively,
demonstrate performance of
a resistor-capacitor-diode the topology and the
(RCD) validity
snubber of
can the findings.
separate
demonstrate
S thatthe
analyticalgets
demonstrate
the proper
proper turned performance
off
investigations,
the when
proper
performance theof
where
performance the
of current
thethe topology
of thetheand
short-circuit
of
topology circuit
topology
and the
the validity
reaches
currentand the
validity of
almostthe
the findings.
capability,
ofvalidity zero. of In
thetradit
clearance
findings. findti
charging 2.and dischargingofpaths.
Investigation the The MOV-RCD snubber is analyzed in [27] using analytical
Topology
2.
2. Investigation
MOV
Investigation directional
transient of
of the
power
the Topology
SSCBs with
shock
Topology two
are switches,
considered. just the positive terminal gets disconnected
investigations,
2. where the short-circuit current capability, clearance time, and transient
2. Investigation
The
Investigation
The
R
topology
fore,
2.
there
In of
Investigation
topology of
In
However,
is
this
is
the
the willTopology
composed
paper,
composed
addition still
inofan
Topology to
of
of
the
RC
two back-to-back
bebidirectional
athe voltage
Topology
two
benefits
snubber
back-to-back
on of the
SSCB
the
(or
components
RCRCD
MOSFETS,
is MOSFETS,
+designed
snubber,
MOV),
in andthe
the
with
with
the system. an RCD
prototyped,
an
varistor
voltage
RCD
across
snubber
Byprovides
using
which
snubber the for
me
isola
for
over
the resist
power shock C
each Theare
MOSFET considered.
topology as is
shown composed in Figure of two
2. On back-to-back
the negative MOSFETS,
side, there with is aan RCD
mechanical snubber switch for
each The
D
MOSFET
The topology
switch,
the
topology positive
as
The is
safety
shown composed
and
topology
is is
composed inincreased
negative
Figure of
is composedtwo
ofistwo2. and
On back-to-back
terminals the
the
of disturbance
two
back-to-back of the
negative MOSFETS,
system
back-to-back side,
MOSFETS, in the
quickly
there with
system
MOSFETS,
withis aan
and RCD
when
mechanical
withbothsnubber
using
efficiently.an RCDAmore
switch for
com
snu
RCD + MOV In each this paper,
that
each MOSFET
gets
MOSFET
flected
protection
turned as
on
a bidirectional
as off shown
shown
the
using
when
power
in
in
voltage
SSCB
theFigure semiconductors
current
Figure
clamping.
designed
2.
2. On
of
On the
the
the
and during
prototyped,
negative
circuit
negative reaches
turn-off,
side,
side,
which
there
almost
there
which
is
is aaan
zero.
RCD
causes
isolates
mechanical snubber
In traditional
mechanical
extra
traditional switch
switch
for
volta
bi-
that
each gets
MOSFET of
turned
each formulas off
MOSFET
as shownwhen to ascalculate
inthe
showncurrent
Figure all
in
2. time
of
Figure
On the
theintervals,
circuit
2. On
negative the voltages,
reaches negative
side, almost
there and side,
is currents
zero.a thereIn
mechanical isisapresented.
mechanica
switch bi-
the positive
that andturned
gets
directional 
and
negative
SSCBs
power It
offwith shock
includes
terminals
when two
[26].
more
the Alternatively,
components.
of the system
current
switches, of
just the
thecircuit
a
quickly resistor-capacitor-diode
positive and
reaches
terminalefficiently.
almost gets zero. In(RCD)
A complete
disconnected. traditional snubber
There- bi- c
that
that gets
directional
gets turned
tion,
thatSSCBs
turned a off
gets soft
off with when
turn-on
turned
when two the
off
the current
auxiliary
switches,
when
current the of
just
of is the
the
current
the circuit
designed
positive
of
circuit reaches
thetoMOV-RCD
prevent
terminal
circuit
reaches almost agets
reaches
almost highzero. In
current
disconnected.
zero. almostIn traditional
surge
zero.
traditional There-
In bi-
cause
tradit
bi-
set of formulas rate
towill charging
calculate and discharging paths. The snubber is analyzed in [2
directional
fore, S therecapacitance
directional SSCBs
SSCBs stillwith
withbeall twotime
voltage
two
intervals,
switches,
on the just voltages,
componentsthe positive inand the currents
terminal
system. is presented.
gets
By disconnected.
using In There-
the experimenta
mechanical
addition, fore,
directional
a soft
fore, there
there will
directional
turn-onSSCBs
analytical
will still
still withbe
be SSCBstwoisswitches,
difference
voltage
voltage withon
switches,
investigations,
auxiliary designed
on
between
the
two
the
just
components
switches,
just
where
the
the the
the
to prevent
components
positive
source
just
positive in
a the
short-circuit
in the
high
the
terminal
and
system.
positive
terminal the
current
current
system.
gets
By
gets load.
terminal
surge
By
disconnected.
using Thethe
gets
disconnected.
capability,
using caused
the
There-
mechanical
disconnected
by There- ti
clearance
mechanical
switch,
fore,
switch, theresafety will is
demonstrate
safety increased
still
isthere be
increased voltage
thestilland
proper
and onthe
the the disturbance
components
performance
disturbance in
of the
in
in the
thethethesystem
system.
topology
system when
and
when By using
using
the
using more
the
validity
more than
mechanical
of
thanthe one
find
one
fore, there
switch, fore,
willis
transient
safety still be will
power
increased voltageshock
and beon voltage
the
are
the on the components
components
considered.
disturbance in in
the system.
system inwhenthe Bysystem.
using By using
the
more mechanical
than the oneme
SSCB
switch,
SSCB gets
safety
gets suppressed
is increased
However,
suppressed [28].
[28].in This
and
an
This the
RC mechanical
disturbance
snubber
mechanical switch
(or in
RC
switch the + acts
system
MOV),
acts when
when when
the the
the current
using
voltage
current moreof
across
of the
thethan circuit
the one
resist
circuit
switch,
SSCB gets switch,
safety is
In safety
increased
this is
paper, increased
anda the and
disturbance
bidirectional the disturbance
SSCB in the
is system
designed in the when
and system using
prototyped, when more usingthan
which more
one
isola
reaches
SSCB
SSCB gets
very2.suppressed
closeon
suppressed
Investigation
flected tothe [28].
zero.
[28]. ofThis
power This mechanical
mechanical
thesemiconductors
Topology switch
switch acts
acts when
when the
the current
current of
of
of the
the circuit
circuit
reaches
reaches very
gets
verythe close
suppressed
positive
close to
to zero.
[28].
and
zero. This
negative mechanical
terminals switch of during
the systemactsturn-off,
when quickly which
the andcauses
current efficiently. extra
the Avolta
circuitcom
reaches veryand close
power
The to to zero.
shock
topology [26]. Alternatively,
is composed a resistor-capacitor-diode (RCD) snubber c
reaches very close
of formulas zero.
to calculate all timeofintervals,
two back-to-back voltages,MOSFETS, and currents with is an RCD snu
presented.
rate
each charging
tion, aMOSFET
soft turn-on and
as showndischarging
auxiliary in Figureis paths. 2. On
designed Thethe toMOV-RCD
negativea side,
prevent snubber
high there currentis isanalyzed
asurge
mechanica in [2
cause
analytical
capacitance difference between the source and the load. The experimentati
that gets investigations,
turned off when where
the the
current short-circuit
of the circuit current
reaches capability,
almost clearance
zero. In tradit
 Energies 2022, 15, 9434 4 of 14

the capacitance difference between the source and the load. The experimental results
demonstrate the proper performance of the topology and the validity of the findings.

2. Investigation of the Topology

s 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
The topology is composed of two back-to-back MOSFETS, with an RCD snubber for
each MOSFET as shown in Figure 2. On the negative side, there is a mechanical switch that
gets turned off when the current of the circuit reaches almost zero. In traditional bidirec-
tional SSCBs with two switches, just the positive terminal gets disconnected. Therefore,
there will still be voltage on the components in the system. By using the mechanical switch,
safety is increased and the disturbance in the system when using more than one SSCB gets 4 of 14
suppressed [28]. This mechanical switch acts when the current of the circuit reaches very
close to zero.

SSCB
R1 R2
C1 C1
D1 D2
soft turn-on auxiliary DS1 DS2
K1

S1 S2
RG2 RG1 K
2

RG3 CS

M
Figure 2. Designed dc SSCB with its soft turn-on auxiliary.
Figure 2. Designed dc SSCB with its soft turn-on auxiliary.
Figure 2 also represents an auxiliary circuit for the driver of the MOSFETs facilitating
the turn-on process of the
Figure 2 also represents answitches,
auxiliary which is crucial
circuit for thein the energy
driver ofrouter applications
the MOSFETs that
facilitat-
often face the voltage difference between the source and the load. This part is further
ing the turn-on process of the switches, which is crucial in the energy router applications
discussed in Section 3.
that often faceThethe voltagemodes
operating difference
of the between the source
designed SSCB andinthe
are shown load.
Figure 3. This
In thepart is fur-
normal
ther discussed in Section
operation and even3. when the fault occurs before the reaction of the SSCB, the current flows
The through
operating
bothmodes
MOSFETs of (Figure
the designed
3a). WhenSSCB are shownfault
the short-circuit in Figure
occurs, 3. InMOSFETs
both the normal
operationgetand
turned
evenoff when
but the the
current finds
fault its way
occurs through
before thethereaction
snubber capacitor and thethe
of the SSCB, snubber
current
flows through both MOSFETs (Figure 3a). When the short-circuit fault occurs,the
diode (Figure 3b). However, as the energy and current of the inductor reach zero, both
current is reversed and flows through an RCL circuit, which prevents it from oscillating
MOSFETs get turned off but the current finds its way through the snubber capacitor and
(Figure 3c). Finally, when the current of the circuit reaches zero, the mechanical switch M
the snubber
gets diode
turned (Figure 3b). However,
on and disconnects the dc as the (Figure
source energy3d).and current of the inductor reach
zero, the current is reversed and flows through an RCL circuit, which prevents it from
oscillating (Figure 3c). Finally, when the current of the circuit reaches zero, the mechani-
cal switch M gets turned on and disconnects the dc source (Figure 3d).

R1 R2 R1 R2
C1 C2 C1 C2
D1 D2 D1 D2
DS1 DS2 DS1 DS2
L L

S1 S2 S1 S2
Load
Lo ad

Vd c Vdc
M M
 operation and even when the fault occurs before the reaction of the SSCB, the current
flows through both MOSFETs (Figure 3a). When the short-circuit fault occurs, both
MOSFETs get turned off but the current finds its way through the snubber capacitor and
the snubber diode (Figure 3b). However, as the energy and current of the inductor reach
zero, the current is reversed and flows through an RCL circuit, which prevents it from
Energies 2022, 15, 9434 5 of 14
oscillating (Figure 3c). Finally, when the current of the circuit reaches zero, the mechani-
cal switch M gets turned on and disconnects the dc source (Figure 3d).

R1 R2 R1 R2
C1 C2 C1 C2
D1 D2 D1 D2
DS1 DS2 DS1 DS2
L L

S1 S2 S1 S2

Load
Lo ad
Vd c Vdc
M M

(a) (b)
R1 R2 R1 R2
C1 C2 C1 C2
D1 D2 D1 D2
DS1 DS2 DS1 DS2
L

S1 S2 S1 S2 L

Lo ad
Lo ad
Vd c Vdc
M
M
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW (d) 5 of 14
(c)
Figure
Figure 3.
3.Operating
Operatingmodes
modesofofthe
theSSCB.
SSCB.(a)
(a)stages
stages1 1and
and2,2,(b)
(b)stage
stage3,3,(c)(c)stage 4, 4,
stage (d)(d)
stage 5. 5.
stage
2.1. Stage
2.1. Stage 11
The first
The first stage
stage isis the
the normal
normal mode
mode when
when both both switches
switches are
are turned
turned on,
on, and
and the
thecircuit
cir-
breaker passes the current as shown in Figure 3a through the switches S11 , and 2S2As
cuit breaker passes the current as shown in Figure 3a through the switches 𝑆 , and 𝑆 . . As
shown in
shown in Figure
Figure 4,4, it
it is
is evident
evident that before𝑡1t, 1the
thatbefore , thevoltages
voltagesofof
thethecapacitors and
capacitors andswitches
switches
are zero
are zero and
and the
the current
current of of the
theinductor
inductorisisatatitsitsnominal
nominalvalue.
value.ForFor a simpler
a simplercalculation,
calculation,
assume t𝑡1 =
we assume
we = 0.
0. 1
i L𝑖 == I𝐼N (1)(1)
𝐿 𝑁

iR
0 0
VP
VC Vdc/2
0 0
VP
Fault occurs t1
VS1 Vdc/2 t2
Fault is detected
0 0 Breaking starts t3
IP Capacitor is charged t4
iS Current gets zero t5
IN
0 0 Mechanical switch acts t6
End of the operation t7
Ilimit
iL
IN
0 0

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

t1 t 2 t3 t4 t 5 t6 t7
tdelay tB tC tM
Figure 4. Operating
Figure Operating waveforms
waveformsof
ofthe
theSSCB.
SSCB.

2.2. Stage 2
In the (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) interval, at 𝑡1 a short-circuit fault occurs at the output terminals and
the current of the circuit increases to reach 𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 at 𝑡2 . 𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 is the current that is deter-
mined in the controller at which the SSCB should operate. By assuming 𝑅𝑆𝑊 = 𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0,
Energies 2022, 15, 9434 6 of 14

2.2. Stage 2
In the (t1 − t2 ) interval, at t1 a short-circuit fault occurs at the output terminals and the
current of the circuit increases to reach ilimit at t2 . ilimit is the current that is determined in
the controller at which the SSCB should operate. By assuming RSW = R Line = 0, and initial
value: i L (t = 0) = IN ,
di
L L − Vdc = 0 (2)
dt
By solving the above first-order differential equation, the current is calculated as follows:

Vdc t
iL = + IN (3)
L
By i L = Ilimit ,
L( ILimit − IN )
t2 = (4)
Vdc
However, t2 is not the actual time that the SSCB acts since there is a delay in both the
microcontroller and measurement system, which is named t Delay . Therefore, the actual time
of breaking is t3 .
t3 = t2 + t Delay (5)
By calculating t Delay and consequently t3 by (2), the maximum current of the switches
is obtained as follows:
V t3
IP = dc + IN (6)
L

2.3. Stage 3
During the (t3 − t4 ) interval, the current flows through the snubber C and the inductor
of the line. Therefore, the following equations are derived:

di L
L + VC − Vdc = 0 (7)
dt
dVC
iC = C (8)
dt
iC = i L (9)
The current of the inductor and the voltage of the capacitor can be obtained from the
above equations by considering the initial values: i L (0) = IP and vC (0) = 0:
r
t C t
i L = IP cos √ + Vdc sin √ (10)
LC L LC
r
t L t
vC = Vdc − Vdc cos √ + IP sin √ (11)
LC C LC
t B can be calculated by putting i L = 0.
r !
√ IP L
t B = − LCArctang (12)
Vdc C

The maximum voltage on the switches combined can be obtained by putting t B in the
equation of the capacitor voltage:
r
t L t
VP = Vdc − Vdc cos √ B + IP sin √ B (13)
LC C LC
Energies 2022, 15, 9434 7 of 14

Therefore, the time that the voltage of the switch reaches its maximum is calculated
as follows:
t4 = t B + t3 (14)

2.4. Stage 4
During the (t4 − t5 ) interval, as the inductor’s energy has reached zero, energy now
flows from the charged capacitor to the inductor. However, because of the resistor in
the path, the current of the circuit does not oscillate and reaches zero after tC . Thus, the
equation of the circuit in this stage is as follows:

di L
L + VC − Vdc + RS i L = 0 (15)
dt
dVC
iC = C (16)
dt
iC = i L (17)
By solving the above second-order differential equation, the current is calculated as
follows with the initial value: i L (0) = 0, vC (0) = VP .

i L = A 1 e S1 t + A 2 e S2 t (18)

where: p p
S1 = − α + α2 − ω2 , S2 = −α − α2 − ω2
R 1
α= , ω= √
2L LC
   
A1 = S1 LC2 S2 + L (VP − Vdc ) , A2 = S2 LC2 S1 + L (VP − Vdc )

Since the plot of i L is exponential, the current of the inductor does not reach zero but it
tends to zero, so by considering i L ≤ e, tC will be obtained.
The time when the system is completely out of current is calculated as:

t5 = t C + t4 (19)

2.5. Stage 5
The system is out of current but there is still a dc input voltage connected. The
mechanical switch starts to operate at the time t6 ≥ t5 and the negative terminal of the
circuit will be isolated. Finally, after t M , the negative terminal is isolated, and the circuit is
completely out of current and voltage at the time t7 .

3. Design Procedure
The design procedure of the SSCB is performed for both the circuit itself and its
auxiliary circuit for the soft turn-on operation.

3.1. Short-Circuit Fault Operation

In order to find the optimized value of snubber capacitor C, the following assumptions
can be considered to simplify the equations:
r
t L t
Vdc − Vdc cos √ C  IP sin √ C (20)
LC C LC
t t
sin √ C ≈ √ C (21)
LC LC
Energies 2022, 15, 9434 8 of 14

Therefore, the peak voltage of the capacitor can be rewritten as follows:

tC
VP ≈ IP (22)
C
Therefore, the value of the capacitor is obtained using Equations (6) and (22):
  
Vdc t B tC
C≈ + IN (23)
L VP

The minimum value of the snubber capacitor can now be obtained by considering
Vclamp of the MOV as VP . Therefore, based on the desired ∆tC , the optimized value of C
can be found.
In order to obtain the optimal size of the snubber resistor, since the circuit forms an
RLC circuit during stage 4, the formula of the inductor’s current (Equation (18)) should
be overdamped. In order to overdamp the current of the inductor, the following equation
must be valid:
α>ω (24)
where:
R 1
α= , ω= √
2L LC
Therefore, the minimum value of the snubber resistance is obtained as follows:
r
L
R>2 (25)
C

3.2. Soft Turn-On Operation

When the fault is cleared and the system is going to run again, there is usually a voltage
difference between the input and output voltage terminals, especially in the energy router
applications in which the dc link is connected to some different energy sources. This voltage
difference can create a huge current passing through the switches and running the SSCB.
Therefore, the turn-on process should be as soft as possible.
The aforementioned problem is addressed using an auxiliary circuit for the switches.
As shown in Figure 5a, it is assumed that there is a voltage difference between Vdc and VO . If
we consider the gate-source voltage of the MOSFET as shown in Figure 5b, for soft turn-on
an RC circuit as demonstrated in Figure 5c is needed. Hence, the gate-source voltage (VGS )
can be calculated by solving the first-order equation of the RC circuit as follows:
−t
 
VGS = VK 1 − e RC (26)

where VK is the voltage of the gate driver. Time t can be considered as the minimum time
needed for equalizing the voltages in the circuit. This depends on the capacitance of the
input and output terminals and the resistance of the line.

t = 5RC (27)
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14
Energies 2022, 15, 9434 9 of 14

D
R
G
G

Vdc Cin CO VO S VK C
- -
- - - S
rgies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5.Figure
Circuits for calculation
5. Circuits of the optimized
for calculation values ofvalues
of the optimized R andof
CR(a)and
TheCgate-source voltage of
(a) The gate-source voltage of
MOSFET, (b) the auxiliary circuit for the gate of the MOSFET, (c) The system with its capacitors of
MOSFET, (b) the auxiliary circuit for the gate of the MOSFET, (c) The system with its capacitors of
input and output.
input and output. D
The minimum gate-source D voltage (V ) that can turn R on the MOSFET can be obtained
DG GS G
D
by testing a MOSFET or using theGdatasheet. K1
Vdc By Cplacing C VGS andGtVin Equation (23), the value VK of C RC can
G be calculated.
in O O S
It nowRG2 seemsRthat
G1 the simplest
S - solution for the soft turn-on is- by placing a capacitor in
RG2 - RG1 K
- parallel to the gate-source
(a) -of the MOSFET and a resistor in seriesSSwith the gate terminal.
2
D
However, placing the capacitor will also affect the turn-off time. Thus, the solution is to
increase(a) the Rresistance R by placing (b) a huge resistor in series (c)with the gate terminal and
G1 G RG3 CG
turn-off
Figure 5. Circuits resistor RG1
for calculation of, the
andoptimized
in parallel withofaRdiode
values and Cin(a)the
Theother structure
gate-source so asofnot to affect
voltage
MOSFET, (b)thetheturn-off
auxiliarytime (Figure
circuit for theS6a).
gate In the MOSFET,
of the other structure, the resistor
(c) The system with itsand diode are
capacitors of placed in
series together
input and output. RG2 D G in parallel with the turn-off resistor R G1 (Figure 6b).
and
(b) (c)
D
Figure 6. The MOSFET
DG D
and its possible auxiliary circuits: (a) parallel approach, (b) series ap-
proach, (c) the main and complete approach. K1
G
G
4. Experimental RG1
RG2Results S RG2 RG1 K S
2
Figure 7 shows (a) the schematicD of the circuits used for the experiment. In the first ex-
periment (Figure 7a), the short-circuit is created using a mechanical relay 𝐾 across the
load. Figure 8 shows RG1 the G laboratory prototype and RG3test operation
CG of the designed SSCB.
The design parameters of the designed SSCB are given in Table 2. In the first part of this
test, the inputRvoltage S
G2 DG is 60 V and the limit current of the SSCB is 10 A. The result as
shown in Figure 9a is a peak current of 44 A while the peak voltage of the switch 𝑆1 is
(b) (c)
270 V. In the second part of the test (Figure 9b), the voltage of the dc source is increased
to 240
Figure VFigure
6. The with a6. 30
MOSFET TheAandlimit
MOSFETits for theits
possible
and circuit’s
possiblecurrent.
auxiliary circuits:The
auxiliary (a) SSCB
parallel
circuits: breaks
(a) the
approach,
parallel circuit after
(b) series
approach, 16 μs
ap-
(b) series approach,
proach,
when (c) the
the
(c)main
current
the andreaches
main complete
and approach.
100
complete A and the voltage of the switch 𝑆1 reaches 420 V. As dis-
approach.
cussed before, in reality there is a time delay that depends on the current sensor and the
speed of theHowever,
4. Experimental Results the aforementioned
microcontroller programming.solution The delay severely
time affects the gatesensor
of the current driver’s performance.
used in
this Therefore,
prototype
Figure 7 shows is thethe
14 μs most complete
and theofdelay
schematic approach is
of the programming
the circuits one using the structure
equals the In
used for the experiment. in
sampling Figure
the first period,
ex- 6c. In the
turn-off
which (Figure
periment is 5 μs. 7a), mode,
These the
thedelays mechanical
do not issum
short-circuit relay
created K 1
up since is
using ON
they and relay K 2 is
occur simultaneously.
a mechanical OFF. This
relay 𝐾 across means
thetime only
This that
load.delay
Figure the
can8be resistor
reduced
shows R G1
the using is in
laboratory the gate
a current auxiliary
sensorand
prototype circuit.
withtesta larger On the other
bandwidth.
operation hand, in
of the designed SSCB. the turn-on mode,
the
However, state of the
afterof relays
reducing K 1 and
the K
time is reversed
2 delay and they are turned OFF and ON, respectively,
The design parameters the designed SSCB are to the sampling
given in Table 2.period, to further
In the first part ofdecrease
this
which puts the calculated RCshould
in the gate auxiliary circuit. In this circuit, the resistor R is
test, the input voltage is 60 V and the limit current of the SSCB is 10 A. The result in
the delay, the sampling frequency be increased. However, as discussed as the G3
in parallel with the capacitor to discharge the capacitor for the next turn-on.
shownprevious
in Figuresection
9a is this raisescurrent
a peak the peak ofvoltage
44 A whileof thethe switch
peakduring
voltagethe of fault-clearing
the switch 𝑆1 oper-is
270 ation
V. In so
the there
second should
part
4. Experimental Resultsbe
of a
the lower
test limit
(Figure for the
9b), delay
the according
voltage of the to
dc the
sourcecomponents’
is increased capa-
bility.
to 240 V with a 30 A limit for the circuit’s current. The SSCB breaks the circuit after 16 μs
Figure 7 shows the schematic of the circuits used for the experiment. In the first
when theIncurrent
the second reaches test 100
as shown
A and in theFigure
voltage 7b,ofthethemain
switchpath 𝑆1 of the circuit
reaches 420 V.isAs connected
dis-
experiment (Figure 7a), the short-circuit is created using a mechanical relay K across the
through
cussed before, a mechanical
in reality there switch. The capacitors
is a time are then on
delay that depends charged to different
the current sensor voltages
and the by
load. Figure 8 shows the laboratory prototype and test operation of the designed SSCB.
speedturning
of theon microcontroller 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 temporarily.
the switches programming. The delayBy timedisconnecting
of the currentthese sensor switches
used inand
The design parameters of the designed SSCB are given in Table 2. In the first part of this
thisconnecting
prototype is 14 μs𝐾,and
switch therethewill
delay now be aprogramming
of the huge current equals spike because of the period,
the sampling input and
test, the input voltage is 60 V and the limit current of the SSCB is 10 A. The result as shown
whichoutput
is 5 μs.capacitors’
These delays voltage do difference
not sum up dropped
since they on occur
the small resistance ofThis
simultaneously. thetime
circuit.
in Figure 9a is a peak current of 44 A while the peak voltage of the switch S1 is 270 V. In
delay can be reduced using a current sensor with a larger bandwidth.
the second part of the test (Figure 9b), the voltage of the dc source is increased to 240 V
However, after reducing the time delay to the sampling period, to further decrease
the delay, the sampling frequency should be increased. However, as discussed in the
previous section this raises the peak voltage of the switch during the fault-clearing oper-
ation so there should be a lower limit for the delay according to the components’ capa-
bility.
 shown in Figure 10b, the voltage difference is 50 V, which is the maximum voltage dif-
ference in an energy router application. In this case, the peak surge current is 25 A,
which is very desirable.
G1 G2
Energies
Energies2022,
2022,15,
15,x9434
FOR PEER REVIEW
Vin L Vin Cin L K CO 1010ofof1414
K R VO - Vin
- -
Therefore,
with a 30 A the auxiliary
limit
(a) for the circuit
circuit’sincurrent.
Figure The
6b isSSCB
usedbreaks
in(b)
thethe
main prototype
circuit after 16 for the soft
µs when the
turn-on.
current reaches 100 A and the voltage of the switch S1 reaches 420 V. As discussed before,
Figure 7. TestAs circuits.
shown (a) Test circuit10a,
for short-circuit experiment. (b) Test circuitbetween
for soft turn-on
in reality
experiment.
thereinis Figure
a time delaytherethat is a 30
depends V onvoltage difference
the current sensor and the thespeed
inputofandthe
output capacitors,
microcontroller which by theThe
programming. benefit
delayoftime
using ofathe
10 current
KΩ resistor
sensoranduseda 100 nF capacitor
in this prototype
asis mentioned
14 µs and the before,
delay thethe
peak of the surgeequals
current theissampling
limited to 15 A.which
In theissecond test
Table 2. Design parameters of theof programming
designed SSCB. period, 5 µs. These
shown
delaysin doFigure
not sum 10b,up the voltage
since theydifference is 50 V, which
occur simultaneously. is the
This timemaximum
delay canvoltage dif-
be reduced
Parameters
ference
using ain an energy
current with Acronym
sensorrouter aapplication. In thisValue
larger bandwidth. case, the peak surge Unitcurrent is 25 A,
which is very
Input Voltage desirable. 𝑉𝑑𝑐 240 V
Snubber Capacitor 𝐶1 & 𝐶2 G1 100 μF G2
Snubber Diode L 𝐷1 & 𝐷2 2 L K AC
Vin Vin Cin
Snubber Resistance K 𝑅1 &R𝑅2 VO 22 Ω O - Vin
Line Inductor 𝐿 10 μH
- -
Clamp voltage of MOV 𝑉𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 675 V
MOSFETs (a) NTHL040N120SC1 (b)
Capacitor
Figureof auxiliary
7. Test circuit
circuits. (a) Test
Figure 7. Test circuits. (a) Test circuit 𝐶
circuit𝐺 for short-circuit
for short-circuit 100
experiment.
experiment. (b) Test nF
circuit
(b) Test for soft
circuit turn-on
for soft turn-
experiment.
Resistance of auxiliary circuit
on experiment. 𝑅𝐺2 10 kΩ

Table 2. Design parameters of the designed SSCB.

Parameters Acronym Value Unit

Input Voltage 𝑉𝑑𝑐 240 V
Snubber Capacitor 𝐶1 & 𝐶2 100 μF
Snubber Diode 𝐷1 & 𝐷2 2 A
Snubber Resistance 𝑅1 & 𝑅2 22 Ω
Line Inductor 𝐿 10 μH
Clamp voltage of MOV 𝑉𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 675 V
MOSFETs NTHL040N120SC1
Capacitor of auxiliary circuit 𝐶𝐺 100 nF
Resistance of auxiliary circuit 𝑅𝐺2 10 kΩ

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Figure
Laboratory prototypeprototype
8. Laboratory and test and
of the designed
test SSCB: (a)
of the designed the prototype
SSCB: of the SSCB,
(a) the prototype (b) (b) the
of the SSCB,
the test procedure of the SSCB.
test procedure of the SSCB.

Table 2. Design parameters of the designed SSCB.

Parameters Acronym Value Unit

Input Voltage Vdc 240 V
Snubber Capacitor C1 & C2 100 µF
Snubber Diode D1 & D2 2 A
Snubber Resistance R1 & R2 22 Ω
Line Inductor L 10 µH
Clamp voltage of MOV VClamp 675 V
MOSFETs NTHL040N120SC1
(a) (b)
Capacitor of auxiliary circuit CG 100 nF
Resistance
Figure of auxiliary
8. Laboratory circuit and test ofRthe
prototype 10the prototype of thekΩ
G2 designed SSCB: (a) SSCB, (b)
the test procedure of the SSCB.
Energies 2022,15,
Energies2022, 15,9434
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11
11 of
of 14
14

(a)

(b)
Figure 9.9.Experimental
Figure Experimentalresults
resultsofof
thethe short-circuit
short-circuit test:test: Vin 𝑉=𝑖𝑛60,
(a) (a) = 60, 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
Ilimit = (b)
= 10; 10; V
(b) 𝑉 240,
in =𝑖𝑛 Ilimit𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
= 240, = 30.=
30.
However, after reducing the time delay to the sampling period, to further decrease the
delay, the sampling frequency should be increased. However, as discussed in the previous
section this raises the peak voltage of the switch during the fault-clearing operation so
there should be a lower limit for the delay according to the components’ capability.
In the second test as shown in Figure 7b, the main path of the circuit is connected
through a mechanical switch. The capacitors are then charged to different voltages by
turning on the switches G1 and G2 temporarily. By disconnecting these switches and
connecting switch K, there will now be a huge current spike because of the input and output
capacitors’ voltage difference dropped on the small resistance of the circuit. Therefore, the
auxiliary circuit in Figure 6b is used in the main prototype for the soft turn-on.
As shown in Figure 10a, there is a 30 V voltage difference between the input and
output capacitors, which by the benefit of using a 10 KΩ resistor and a 100 nF capacitor as
mentioned before, the peak of the surge current is limited to 15 A. In the second test shown
in Figure 10b, the voltage difference is 50 V, which is the maximum voltage difference
in an energy router application. In this case, the peak surge current is 25 A, which is
very desirable.

(a)
 (b)
Energies 2022, 15, 9434 12 of 14
Figure 9. Experimental results of the short-circuit test: (a) 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 60, 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 10; (b) 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 240, 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 =
30.

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

(a)

(b)
Figure 10. Experimental results of the soft turn-on test: (a) 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 380, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 350, (b) 𝑉𝑑𝑐 =401, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
Figure 10. Experimental results of the soft turn-on test: (a) Vdc = 380, Vout = 350, (b) Vdc =401, Vout = 350.
350.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
An SSCB An SSCB is designed
is designed for energy
for energy routerrouter applications
applications with awithsoft a soft turn-on
turn-on capability.
capability.
The findings of the working principles of the SSCB and its operating
The findings of the working principles of the SSCB and its operating modes are used to modes are used to
propose an SSCB design procedure. An SSCB prototype is developed
propose an SSCB design procedure. An SSCB prototype is developed and its perfor- and its performance
manceisisevaluated
evaluatedinindifferent
differentoperating
operatingscenarios
scenariosforforboth short-circuit
both short-circuittests and
tests soft
and turn-on
soft
tests. Although, using a relatively large resistor in series with the gate terminal
turn-on tests. Although, using a relatively large resistor in series with the gate terminal and placing
a diode in parallel with it to prevent its effect on the turn-off process reduces the turn-on
and placing a diode in parallel with it to prevent its effect on the turn-off process reduc-
surge current, it severely affects the gate driver’s performance. Although, using a relatively
es the turn-on surge current, it severely affects the gate driver’s performance. Although,
large resistor in series with the gate terminal and placing a diode in parallel with it to
using a relatively large resistor in series with the gate terminal and placing a diode in
prevent its effect on the turn-off process reduces the turn-on surge current, it severely
parallel with it to prevent its effect on the turn-off process reduces the turn-on surge cur-
affects the gate driver’s performance. Therefore, by using two small low-voltage switches,
rent, it severely affects the gate driver’s performance. Therefore, by using two small low-
an auxiliary circuit is obtained that solves the surge currents during the turn-on in the
voltage switches, an auxiliary circuit is obtained that solves the surge currents during
energy routers. The designed bidirectional SSCB uses an RCD+MOV snubber, which as
the turn-on in the energy routers. The designed bidirectional SSCB uses an RCD+MOV
discussed in the paper is the best snubber for circuit breakers switches. The SSCB breaks
snubber, which as discussed in the paper is the best snubber for circuit breakers switch-
the circuit very fast at 16 µs. However, this time delay depends on the current sensor and
es. The SSCB breaks the circuit very fast at 16 μs. However, this time delay depends on
the sampling frequency of the microcontroller programming. In this case, using a current
the current
sensorsensor
with a and thebandwidth
larger sampling can
frequency
reduce of
thethe
timemicrocontroller programming.
delay to some extent, In
which should be
this case, using a current sensor with a larger bandwidth can reduce the time delay to
some extent, which should be taken into consideration in the design procedure to find a
balanced value as it increases the maximum voltage of the switches. On the other hand,
the optimized value of the capacitor snubber is also calculated depending on the clamp
voltage of the MOV and the desired time for discharging the line inductor’s energy. This
Energies 2022, 15, 9434 13 of 14

taken into consideration in the design procedure to find a balanced value as it increases
the maximum voltage of the switches. On the other hand, the optimized value of the
capacitor snubber is also calculated depending on the clamp voltage of the MOV and the
desired time for discharging the line inductor’s energy. This SSCB, unlike the traditional
bidirectional SSCBs, benefits from isolating both terminals, which allows the circuit breaker
to disconnect the voltage and the current, further increasing the safety and omitting the
disturbance in the system when using more than one SSCB.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology software and validation: S.R.; supervision:

O.H. and D.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This project was supported in part by the Estonian Research Council under Grant PRG675
and in part by the Estonian Centre of Excellence in Zero Energy and Resource Efficient Smart
Buildings and Districts (ZEBE).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Wang, R.; Jiang, S.; Ma, D.; Sun, Q.; Zhang, H.; Wang, P. The Energy Management of Multi-port Energy Router in Smart Home.
IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron. 2022, 68, 344–353. [CrossRef]
2. Roasto, I.; Husev, O.; Najafzadeh, M.; Jalakas, T.; Rodriguez, J. Voltage source operation of the energy-router based on model
predictive control. Energies 2019, 12, 1892. [CrossRef]
3. Wang, K.; Hu, X.; Li, H.; Li, P.; Zeng, D.; Guo, S. A Survey on Energy Internet Communications for Sustainability. IEEE Trans.
Sustain. Comput. 2017, 2, 231–254. [CrossRef]
4. Chen, M.; Xia, M.; Chen, Q. A two-stage planning method of the energy router considering the optimal operation in distribution
network. CSEE J. Power Energy Syst. 2022, 1–13. [CrossRef]
5. Liang, H.; Hua, H.; Qin, Y.; Ye, M.; Zhang, S.; Cao, J. Stochastic Optimal Energy Storage Management for Energy Routers Via
Compressive Sensing. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 2022, 18, 2192–2202. [CrossRef]
6. Gu, B.; Mao, C.; Liu, B.; Wang, D.; Fan, H.; Zhu, J.; Sang, Z. Optimal Charge/Discharge Scheduling for Batteries in Energy
Router-Based Microgrids of Prosumers via Peer-to-Peer Trading. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 2022, 13, 1315–1328. [CrossRef]
7. Sun, C.; Sun, Q.; Wang, R.; Li, Y.; Ma, D. Adaptive dead-time modulation scheme for a bidirectional LLC resonant converter in
energy router. CSEE J. Power Energy Syst. 2022, 1–10. [CrossRef]
8. Rahimpour, S.; Tarzamni, H.; Kurdkandi, N.V.; Husev, O.; Vinnikov, D.; Tahami, F.; Wang, X.; Sima, W.; Yuan, T.; Sun, P.; et al. An
Overview of Lifetime Management of Power Electronic Converters. IEEE Access. 2022, 10, 109688–109711. [CrossRef]
9. Ajmal, C.N.M.; Raghavendra, I.V.; Naik, S.; Ray, A.; Krishnamoorthy, H.S. A Modified Hybrid DC Circuit Breaker with Reduced
Arc for Low Voltage DC Grids. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 132267–132277. [CrossRef]
10. Barnes, M.; Vilchis-Rodriguez, D.S.; Pei, X.; Shuttleworth, R.; Cwikowski, O.; Smith, A.C. HVDC Circuit Breakers–A Review.
IEEE Access 2020, 8, 211829–211848. [CrossRef]
11. Mohammadi, F.; Rouzbehi, K.; Hajian, M.; Niayesh, K.; Gharehpetian, G.B.; Saad, H.; Ali, M.H.; Sood, V.K. HVDC circuit breakers:
A comprehensive review. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2021, 36, 13726–13739. [CrossRef]
12. Muniappan, M. A comprehensive review of DC fault protection methods in HVDC transmission systems. Prot. Control. Mod.
Power Syst. 2021, 6, 1–20. [CrossRef]
13. Raza, A.; Mustafa, A.; Alqasemi, U.; Rouzbehi, K.; Muzzammel, R.; Guobing, S.; Abbas, G. HVdc Circuit Breakers: Prospects and
Challenges. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5047. [CrossRef]
14. Mokhberdoran, A.; Carvalho, A.; Leite, H.; Silva, N. A review on HVDC circuit breakers. In Proceedings of the 3rd Renewable
Power Generation Conference (RPG 2014), Naples, Italy, 24–25 September 2014; IET: London, UK, 2014; pp. 1–6.
15. Marroqui, D.; Garrigo, A.; Blanes, J.M. LVDC SiC MOSFET Analog Electronic Fuse with Self-Adjusting Tripping Time Depending
on Overcurrent Condition. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2022, 69, 8472–8480. [CrossRef]
16. Li, D.; Ukil, A. Adaptive Solid-State Circuit Breaker Without Varistors in VSC-Interfaced DC System. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.
2022, 69, 4824–4835. [CrossRef]
17. Yaqobi, M.; Matayoshi, H.; Danish, M.; Lotfy, M.; Howlader, A.; Tomonobu, S. Low-Voltage Solid-State DC Breaker for Fault
Protection Applications in Isolated DC Microgrid Cluster. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 723. [CrossRef]
18. Rahimpour, S.; Husev, O.; Vinnikov, D. Impedance-Source DC Solid-State Circuit Breakers: An Overview. In Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives, Automation and Motion (SPEEDAM), Sorrento, Italy, 22–24
June 2022; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2022; pp. 186–191.
19. Shu, J.; Wang, S.; Ma, J.; Liu, T.; He, Z. An Active Z-Source DC Circuit Breaker Combined with SCR and IGBT. IEEE Trans. Power
Electron. 2020, 35, 10003–10007. [CrossRef]
Energies 2022, 15, 9434 14 of 14

20. Xu, X.; Chen, W.; Liu, C.; Sun, R.; Wang, F.; Li, Z.; Zhang, B. A Novel Thyristor-Based Bidirectional SSCB With Controllable
Current Breaking Capability. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2022, 37, 4526–4534. [CrossRef]
21. Magnusson, J.; Saers, R.; Liljestrand, L.; Engdahl, G. Separation of the Energy Absorption and Overvoltage Protection in
Solid-State Breakers by the Use of Parallel Varistors. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2014, 29, 2715–2722. [CrossRef]
22. Dongye, Z.; Qi, L.; Liu, K.; Wei, X.; Cui, X. Coupled Inductance Model of Full-Bridge Modules in Hybrid High Voltage Direct
Current Circuit Breakers. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2020, 67, 10315–10324. [CrossRef]
23. Komatsu, M. A solid-state current limiting switch for the application of DC power network. In Proceedings of the International
Telecommunications Energy Conference (INTELEC), Torino, Italy, 7–11 October 2018; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2019; pp. 1–7.
24. Mehrotra, U.; Ballard, B.; Cheng, T.-H.; Baliga, B.J.; Bhattacharya, S.; Hopkins, D.C. Optimized highly efficient SSCB using organic
substrate packaging for electric vehicle applications. In Proceedings of the Transportation Electrification Conference & Expo
(ITEC), Chicago, IL, USA, 23–26 June 2020; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2020; pp. 128–133.
25. Mehrotra, U.; Ballard, B.; Hopkins, D.C. High current medium voltage bidirectional solid state circuit breaker using SiC JFET
super cascode. In Proceedings of the Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Detroit, MI, USA, 11–15 October 2020;
IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2020; pp. 6049–6056.
26. Wu, Y.; Yi, Q.; Wu, Y.; Yang, F.; Zhang, Z.; Wen, J. Research on snubber circuits for power electronic switch in DC current breaking.
In Proceedings of the 14th Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications (ICIEA), Xi’an, China, 19–21 June 2019; IEEE:
New York, NY, USA, 2019; pp. 2082–2086.
27. Berg, S.J.; Giannakis, A.; Peftitsis, D. Analytical design considerations for MVDC solid-state circuit breakers. In Proceedings of
the 21st European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE’19 ECCE Europe), Genova, Italy, 3–5 September 2019;
IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2019; pp. 1–10.
28. Maqsood, A.; Corzine, K.A. The Z-source breaker for ship power system protection. In Proceedings of the Electric Ship
Technologies Symposium (ESTS), Old Town Alexandria, VA, USA, 21–24 June 2015; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2015; pp. 293–298.