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 INDEX
Sr. Page
Chapter
No. No.
1 Mathematical Logic 1
2 Matrices 35
3 Differentiation 89
4 Applications of Derivatives 103

5 Integration 116

6 Definite Integration 141

7 Application of Definite Integration 152

8 Differential Equation and Applications 160

Answers 174
 1 Mathematical logic

For example:
Let's Study
i) 2 is a prime number.
 Statement ii) Every rectangle is a square.
 Logical connectives iii) The Sun rises in the West.
 Quantifiers and quantified statements iv) Mumbai is the capital of Maharashtra.

 Statement patterns and logical Truth value of a statement:

equivalence
A statement is either true or false. The
 Algebra of statements truth value of a ‘true’ statement is denoted by T
(TRUE) and that of a false statement is denoted
 Venn diagrams by F (FALSE).

Introduction: Example 1: Observe the following sentences.

Mathematics is an exact science. Every i) The Sun rises in the East.
statement must be precise. There has to be
ii) The square of a real number is negative.
proper reasoning in every mathematical proof.
Proper reasoning involves Logic. Logic related iii) Sum of two odd numbers is odd.
to mathematics has been developed over last 100 iv) Sum of opposite angles in a cyclic rectangle
years or so. The axiomatic approach to logic is 180°.
was first propounded by the English philosopher Here, the truth value of statements (i) and
and mathematician George Boole. Hence it is (iv) is T, and that of (ii) and (iii) is F.
known as Boolean logic or mathematical logic Note: The sentences like exclamatory,
or symbolic logic. interrogative, imperative are not considered as
statements.
The word ‘logic’ is derived from the Greek
word ‘Logos’ which means reason. Thus Logic Example 2: Observe the following sentences.
deals with the method of reasoning. Aristotle i) May God bless you!
(382-322 B.C.), the great philosopher and
ii) Why are you so unhappy?
thinker laid down the foundations of study of
logic in a systematic form. The study of logic iii) Remember me when we are parted.
helps in increasing one’s ability of systematic iv) Don’t ever touch my phone.
and logical reasoning and develop the skill of v) I hate you!
understanding validity of statements.
vi) Where do you want to go today?

1.1 Statement: The above sentences cannot be assigned

A statement is a declarative sentence which truth values, so none of them is a statement.
is either true or false but not both simultaneously. The sentences (i) and (v) are exclamatory.
Statements are denoted by letters like p,q,r, .... The sentences (ii) and (vi) are interrogative.
The sentences (iii) and (iv) are imperative.

1
ii) In this sentence ‘or’ is used for indicating
approximate number of students and not
as a connective. Therefore, it is a simple
statement and it is expressed as
p : Four or five students did not attend the
lectures.
Ex. 2: Write the truth values of the following
statements.
i) India is a democratic country or China is a
communist country.
ii) India is a democratic country or China is
not a communist country.
iii) India is not a democratic country or China
is a communist country.
iv) India is not a democratic country or China
is not a communist country.
Solution: p : India is a democratic country.
q : China is a communist country.
p is true; q is true.
i) True (T), since both the sub-statements are
true i.e. both “India is a democratic country”
and “China is a communist country” are
true. (As T ∨ T = T)
ii) True (T), since first sub-statements “India
is a democratic country” is true and second
sub-statement “China is not a communist
country” is false. (As T ∨ F = T)
iii) True (T), since first sub-statements “India
is not a democratic country” is false
and second sub-statement “China is a
communist country” is true. (As F ∨ T = T)
iv) False (F), since both the sub-statements
“India is not a democratic country” and
“China is not a communist country” are
false. (As F ∨ F = F)
6
EXERCISE 1.2
Ex. 1: Express the following statements in
symbolic form.
i) e is a vowel or 2 + 3 = 5
ii) Mango is a fruit but potato is a vegetable.
iii) Milk is white or grass is green.
iv) I like playing but not singing.
v) Even though it is cloudy, it is still raining.
Ex. 2: Write the truth values of following
statements.
i) Earth is a planet and Moon is a star.
ii) 16 is an even number and 8 is a perfect
square.
iii) A quadratic equation has two distinct roots
or 6 has three prime factors.
iv) The Himalayas are the highest mountains
but they are part of India in the North East.
C) Negation (∼):
The denial of an assertion contained in a
statement is called its negation.
The negation of a statement is generally
formed by inserting the word “not” at some
proper place in the statement or by prefixing the
statement with “it is not the case that” or “it is
false that” or “it is not true that”.
The negation of a statement p is written as
∼ p (read as “negation p” or “not p”) in symbolic
form.
For example:
Let p : 2 is an even number
∼ p : 2 is not an even number.
or ∼ p : It is not the case that 2 is an even
number
or ∼ p : It is false that 2 is an even number
 The truth table of negation (∼ p) D) Conditional statement (Implication, →)
Table 1.4 If two simple statements p and q are
p ∼p connected by the group of words “If ... then ...”,
then the resulting compound statement “If p then
T F
q” is called a conditional statement (implication)
F T and is written in symbolic form as “p → q” (read
Note: Negation of a statement is equivalent to as “p implies q”).
the complement of a set in set theory.
For example:
SOLVED EXAMPLES i) Let p : There is rain
q : The match will be cancelled
Ex. 1: Write the negation of the following
statements. then, p → q : If there is rain then the match
will be cancelled.
i) p : He is honest.
ii) Let p : r is a rational number.
ii) q : p is an irrational number.
q : r is a real number.
Solution: then, p → q : If r is a rational number then r
i) ∼ p : He is not honest is a real number.

or ∼ p : It is not the case that he is honest The truth table for conditional statement
or ∼ p : It is false that he is honest. (p → q)
ii) ∼ q : p is not an irrational number. Table 1.5

or ∼ q : p q p→q

or ∼ q : T T T
T F F
F T T
EXERCISE 1.3
F F T
1. Write the negation of each of the following
statements.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
i) All men are animals.
ii) − 3 is a natural number. Ex. 1: Express the following statements in the
iii) It is false that Nagpur is capital of symbolic form.
Maharashtra i) If the train reaches on time, then I can catch
iv) 2 + 3 ≠ 5 the connecting flight.

2. Write the truth value of the negation of each ii) If price increases then demand falls.
of the following statements.
Solution:
i) 5 is an irrational number
i) Let p : The train reaches on time
ii) London is in England
q : I can catch the connecting flight.
iii) For every x ∈ N , x + 3 < 8. Therefore, p → q is symbolic form.

7
 Therefore, p ↔ (∼ q) is the symbolic form. Ex. 3: If p and q are true and r and s are false,
Given statement, p is false F. find the truth value of each of the following.

q is true T. i) (p ↔ ∼ q) ∧ (r ↔ ∼ s)

∴ ∼ q is false F. ii) (p → r) ∨ (q → s)

∴ p ↔ (∼ q) ≡ F ↔ F ≡ T iii) ∼ [(p ∧ ∼ s) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ r)]

∴ the truth value of given statement is T. Solution:

iii) Let p : i is a real number. i) Without truth table : (p ↔ ∼ q) ∧ (r ↔ ∼ s)
∴ ∼ p : It is not true that i is a real number. = (T ↔ ∼ T) ∧ (F ↔ ∼ F)
Therefore, ∼ p : is the symbolic form. = (T ↔ F) ∧ (F ↔ T)
p is false F. =F∧ F
=F
∴ ∼ p : is true T.
∴ the truth value of the given statement is
T.
Construct truth table
Table 1.7
p q r s ∼q ∼s p↔∼q r↔∼s (p ↔ ∼ q) ∧ (r ↔ ∼ s)
T T F F F T F F F

ii) Without truth table : Construct truth table

(p → r) ∨ (q → s) = (T → F) ∨ (T → F) Table 1.9
=F∨F (Note: Construct truth table and complete
=F your solution)

Construct truth table EXERCISE 1.4

Table 1.8
Ex. 1: Write the following statements in
p q r s p → r q → s (p → r) ∨ (q → s) symbolic form.
T T F F F F F i) If triangle is equilateral then it is equiangular.
ii) Without truth table : (Activity) ii) It is not true that “i” is a real number.
∼ [(p ∧ ∼ s) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ r)] iii) Even though it is not cloudy, it is still
raining.
= ∼ [( ∧∼ )∨( ∧ )]
iv) Milk is white if and only if the sky is not
= ∼ [( ∧ T) ∨ (T ∧ T)] blue.
=∼( ∨ ) v) Stock prices are high if and only if stocks
are rising.
=∼( )
vi) If Kutub-Minar is in Delhi then Taj-Mahal
= is in Agra.

10
Ex. 2: Find truth value of each of the following 1.2.1 Quantifiers and Quantified statements:
statements.
i) For every x ∈ R, x2 is non negative. We
i) It is not true that 3 − 7i is a real number. shall now see how to write this statement
ii) If a joint venture is a temporary partnership, using symbols. ‘∀x’ is used to denote “For
then discount on purchase is credited to the all x”.
supplier.
Thus, the above statement may be written
iii) Every accountant is free to apply his own in mathematical notation " z ∈ R, z2 ≥ 0.
accounting rules if and only if machinery is The symbol ‘"’ stands for “For all values
an asset.
of”. This is known as universal quantifier.
iv) Neither 27 is a prime number nor divisible
by 4. ii) Also we can get x ∈ N such that x + 4 = 7.
To write this in symbols we use the symbol
v) 3 is a prime number and an odd number. ∃ x to denote “there exists x”. Thus, we have
∃ x ∈ N such that x + 4 = 7.
Ex. 3: If p and q are true and r and s are false,
find the truth value of each of the following The symbol ∃ stands for “there exists”. This
compound statements. symbol is known as existential quantifier.
i) p ∧ (q ∧ r)
Thus, there are two types of quantifiers.
ii) (p → q) ∨ (r ∧ s)
a) Universal quantifier (")
iii) ∼ [(∼ p ∨ s) ∧ (∼ q ∧ r)]
b) Existential quantifier (∃)
iv) (p → q) ↔ ∼ (p ∨ q)
Quantified statement:
v) [(p ∨ s) → r] ∨ ∼ [∼ (p → q) ∨ s]
An open sentence with a quantifier becomes
vi) ∼ [p ∨ (r ∧ s)] ∧ ∼ [(r ∧ ∼ s) ∧ q]
a statement and is called a quantified statement.
Ex. 4: Assuming that the following statements
are true, SOLVED EXAMPLES
p : Sunday is holiday,
q : Ram does not study on holiday, Ex. 1: Use quantifiers to convert each of the
find the truth values of the following following open sentences defined on N, into a
statements. true statement.
i) Sunday is not holiday or Ram studies on i) 2x + 3 = 11
holiday.
ii) If Sunday is not holiday then Ram studies ii) x3 < 64
on holiday. iii) x + 5 < 9
iii) Sunday is a holiday and Ram studies on
holiday. Solution:

Ex. 5: If p : He swims i) ∃ x ∈ N such that 2x + 3 = 11. It is a true

q : Water is warm statement, since x = 4 ∈ N satisfies 2x + 3 =
11.
Give the verbal statements for the following
symbolic statements. ii) x3 < 64 ∃ x ∈ N such that it is a true
statement, since x = 1 or 2 or 3 ∈ N satisfies
i) p↔∼q
x3 < 64.
ii) ∼ (p ∨ q)
iii) ∃ x ∈ N such that x + 5 < 9. It is a true
iii) q → p statement for x = 1 or 2 or 3 ∈ N satisfies
iv) q ∧ ∼ p x + 5 < 9.

11
Ex. 2: If A = {1, 3, 5, 7} determine the truth For example:
value of each of the following statements.
i) (p ∨ q) → r
i) ∃ x ∈ A, such that x2 < 1.
ii) ∃ x ∈ A, such that x + 5 ≤ 10 ii) p ∧ (q ∧ r)
iii) " x ∈ A, x + 3 < 9 iii) ∼ (p ∨ q) are statement patterns

Solution: Note: While preparing truth tables of the given

statement patterns, the following points should
i) No number in set A satisfies x2 < 1, since be noted.
the square of every natural number is 1 or
greater than 1. i) If a statement pattern involves n component
∴ the given statement is false, hence its statements p, q, r, ..... and each of p, q, r, .....
truth value is F. has 2 possible truth values namely T and F,
then the truth table of the statement pattern
ii) Clearly, x = 1, 3 or 5 satisfies x + 5 ≤ 10.
consists of 2n rows.
So the given statement is true, hence truth
value is T. ii) If a statement pattern contains “m”
iii) Since x = 7 ∈ A does not satisfy x + 3 < 9, connectives and “n” component statements
the given statement is false. Hence its truth then the truth table of the statement pattern
value is F. consists of (m + n) columns.
iii) Parentheses must be introduced whenever
EXERCISE 1.5 necessary.
Ex. 1: Use quantifiers to convert each of the For example:
following open sentences defined on N, into a ∼ (p → q) and ∼ p → q are not the same.
true statement.
i) x2 + 3x − 10 = 0 SOLVED EXAMPLES
ii) 3x − 4 < 9
iii) n2 ≥ 1 Ex. 1: Prepare the truth table for each of the
iv) 2n − 1 = 5 following statement patterns.
v) Y+4>6 i) [(p → q) ∨ p] → p
vi) 3y − 2 ≤ 9 ii) ∼ [p ∨ q] → ∼ (p ∧ q)
Ex. 2: If B = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7} determine the truth iii) (∼ p ∨ q) ∨ ∼ q
value of each of the following.
iv) (p ∧ r) ∨ (q ∧ r)
i) " x ∈ B such that x is prime number.
ii) ∃ n ∈ B, such that n + 6 > 12 Solution:
iii) ∃ n ∈ B, such that 2n + 2 < 4 i) [(p → q) ∨ p) → p
iv) " y ∈ B such that y2 is negative
v) " y ∈ B such that (y − 5) ∈ N Truth table 1.10
p q p → q (p → q) ∨ p [(p → q) ∨ p]
1.3 Statement Patterns and Logical →p
Equivalence:
T T T T T
A) Statement Patterns:
T F F T T
Let p, q, r, ..... be simple statements. F T T T F
A compound statement obtained from these
F F T T F
simple statements by using one or more of the
connectives ∧, ∨, →, ↔, is called a statement ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) → ∼ (p ∧ q)
pattern.
12
 Truth table 1.23 i) q ∨ [∼ (p ∧ q)]
p q ∼q ∼q∧p (∼ q ∧ p) ∧ q ii) (∼ q ∧ p) ∧ (p ∧ ∼ p)
T T F F F iii) (p ∧ ∼ q) → (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
T F T T F iv) ∼ p → (p → ∼ q)
F T F F F
3. Prove that each of the following statement
F F T F F pattern is a tautology.
In the table 1.23, all the entries in the last i) (p ∧ q) → q
column are F.
ii) (p → q) ↔ (∼ q → ∼ p)
Therefore, the given statement pattern is a
contradiction. iii) (∼ p ∧ ∼ q) → (p → q)
iv) The truth table for p → (∼ q ∨ r) iv) (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) ↔ ∼ (p ∧ q)

Truth table 1.24 4. Prove that each of the following statement

p q r ∼q ∼q∨r p → (∼ q ∨ r) pattern is a contradiction.
T T T F T T i) (p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
T T F F F F ii) (p ∧ q) ∧ ∼ p
T F T T T T iii) (p ∧ q) ∧ (∼ p ∨ ∼ q)
T F F T T T iv) (p → q) ∧ (p ∧ ∼ q)
F T T F T T
5. Show that each of the following statement
F T F F F T pattern is a contingency.
F F T T T T i) (p ∧ ∼ q) → (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
F F F T T T ii) (p → q) ↔ (∼ p ∨ q)
In the table 1.24, the entries in the last iii) p ∧ [(p → ∼ q) → q]
column are neither all T nor all F.
iv) (p → q) ∧ (p → r)
Therefore, the given statement pattern is a
contingency.
6. Using the truth table, verify
i) p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
EXERCISE 1.6
ii) p → (p → q) ≡ ∼ q → (p → q)
1. Prepare truth tables for the following iii) ∼ (p → ∼ q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ (∼ q) ≡ p ∧ q
statement patterns.
iv) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p
i) p → (∼ p ∨ q)
ii) (∼ p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) 7. Prove that the following pairs of statement
patterns are equivalent.
iii) (p ∧ r) → (p ∨ ∼ q)
i) p ∨ (q ∧ r) and (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
iv) (p ∧ q) ∨ ∼ r
ii) p ↔ q and (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
2. Examine whether each of the following iii) p → q and ∼ q → ∼ p and ∼ p ∨ q
statement patterns is a tautology, a
contradiction or a contingency iv) ∼ (p ∧ q) and ∼ p ∨ ∼ q.

16
E) Negation of a compound statement: 3) Negation of negation:
We have studied the negation of simple Let p be a simple statement.
statements. Negation of a simple statement is Truth table 1.25
obtained by inserting “not” at the appropriate
p ∼p ∼ (∼ p)
place in the statement e.g. the negation of “Ram
is tall” is “Ram is not tall”. But writing negations T F T
of compound statements involving conjunction., F T F
disjunction, conditional, biconditional etc. is not
straight forward. From the truth table 1.25, we see that
∼ (∼ p) ≡ p
1) Negation of conjunction:
Thus, the negation of negation of a
In section 1.3(B) we have seen that ∼ (p statement is the original statement - ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p.
∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q. It means that negation of the
conjunction of two simple statements is the For example:
disjunction of their negation.
Let p : 5 is an irrational number.
Consider the following conjunction.
The negation of p is given by
“Parth plays cricket and chess.”
∼ p : 5 is not an irrational number.
Let p : Parth plays cricket.
∼ (∼ p) : 5 is an irrational number.
q : Parth plays chess.
Therefore, negation of negation of p is
Given statement is p ∧ q. ∼ (∼ p) i.e. it is not the case that 5 is not an
You know that ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q irrational number.

∴ negation is Parth doesn’t play cricket or OR it is false that 5 is not an irrational

he doesn’t play chess. number.
OR 5 is an irrational number.
2) Negation of disjunction:
In section 1.3(B) we have seen that 4) Negation of Conditional (Implication):
∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q. It means that negation of You know that p → q ≡ ∼ p ∨ q
the disjunction of two simple statements is the
∴ ∼ (p → q) ≡ ∼ (∼ p ∨ q)
conjunction of their negation.
≡ ∼ (∼ p) ∧ ∼ q ... by De-Morgan's law
For ex: The number 2 is an even number or the
number 2 is a prime number. ∴ ∼ (p → q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ q
Let p : The number 2 is an even number. We can also prove this result by truth table.
q : The number 2 is a prime number.
Truth table 1.26
∴ given statement : p ∨ q. p q p → q ∼ (p → q) ∼q p∧∼q
You know that ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q 1 2 3 4 5 6
∴ negation is “The number 2 is not an T T T F F F
even number and the number 2 is not a prime
T F F T T T
number”.
F T T F F F
F F T F F F

18
 All the entries in the columns 4 and 6 of 5) Negation of Biconditional (Double
table 1.26 are identical. implication):
∴ ∼ (p → q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ q Consider the biconditional p ↔ q.
e.g. If every planet moves around the Sun Method 1:
then every Moon of the planet moves around the We have seen that
Sun. (p ↔ q) ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
Negation of the given statement is, Every ∴ ∼ (p ↔ q) ≡ ∼ [(p → q) ∧ (q → p)]
planet moves around the Sun but (and) every ≡ ∼ (p → q) ∨ ∼ (q → p)
Moon of the planet does not move around the ... by De-Morgans law
Sun. ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)
... by negation of the
conditional statement
∴ ∼ (p ↔ q) ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)

Method 2:
We also prove this by using truth table 1.27.
Truth Table 1.27
p q p ↔ q ∼ (p ↔ ∼ q) ∼p ∼q p ∧ ∼ q q ∧ ∼ p (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
T T T F F F F F F
T F F T F T T F T
F T F T T F F T T
F F T F T T F F F
Since all the entries in the columns 4 and 9 of truth table 1.27 are identical.
∴ ∼ (p ↔ q) ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p).

For example: 2n is divisible by 4 if and only if
n is an even integer.
Let p : 2n is divisible by 4
q : n is an even integer.
Therefore, negation of the given statement
is “2n is divisible by 4 and n is not an even integer
or n is an even integer and 2n is not divisible
by 4”.
For example: Consider the statement pattern
(∼ p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ q). Its negation is given by :
i.e. ∼ [(∼ p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ q)]
≡ (p ∨ ∼ q) ∧ (∼ p ∧ q)
6) Negation of a quantified statement:
While forming negation of a quantified
statement, we replace the word ‘all’ by ‘some’,
“for every” by “there exists” and vice versa.

Note: SOLVED EXAMPLES

Negation of a statement pattern involving
Ex. 1: Write negation of each of the following
one or more of the simple statements p, q, r, ...
statements :
and one or more of the three connectives ∧, ∨, ∼
can be obtained by replacing ∧ by ∨, ∨ by ∧ and i) All girls are sincere
replaicng p, q, r ....by ∼p, ∼q, ∼r. ....

19
ii) If India is playing world cup and Rohit is Converse: q → p i.e. If a man is happy
the captain, then we are sure to win. then he is rich.
iii) Some bureaucrats are efficient. Inverse: ∼ p → ∼ q i.e. If a man is not rich
then he is not happy.
Solution: Contrapositive: ∼ q → ∼ p i.e. If a man is
i) The negation is, not happy then he is not rich.
Some girls are not sincere ii) Let p : The train reaches on time.
OR, There exists a girl, who is not sincere. q : I can catch the connecting flight.
ii) Let p : India is playing world cup Therefore, the symbolic form of the given
q : Rohit is the captain statement is p → q.

r : We win. Converse, q → p i.e.

The given compound statement is Inverse i.e.

(p ∧ q) → r Contrapositive i.e.

Therefore, the negation is, Ex. 3: Using the rules of negation, write the
∼ [(p ∧ q) → r] ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ ∼ r negation of the following :
India is playing world cup and Rohit is the i) (∼ p ∧ r) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ r)
captain and we are not sure to win. ii) (p ∨ ∼ r) ∧ ∼ q

iii) The negation is, all bureaucrats are not iii) The crop will be destroyed if there is a
efficient. flood.

Converse, Inverse and contrapositive: Solution:

Let p and q be simple statements and i) The negation of (∼ p ∧ r) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ r) is
let p → q be the implication of p and q. ∼ [(∼ p ∧ r) ∨ (p ∨ ∼ r)]
Then, i) The converse of p → q is q → p. ≡ ∼ (∼ p ∧ r) ∧ ∼ (p ∨ ∼ r)
ii) Inverse of p → q is ∼ p → ∼ q. ... by De-Morgan's law
iii) Contrapositive of p → q is ∼ q → ∼ p. ≡ (p ∨ ∼ r) ∧ (∼ p ∧ r)

For example: Write the converse, inverse and ... by De-Morgan's law and
contrapositive of the following compound ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p and ∼ (∼ r) = r.
statements.
ii) The negation of (p ∨ ∼ r) ∧ ∼ q is
i) If a man is rich then he is happy.
ii) If the train reaches on time then I can catch ∼ [(p ∨ ∼ r) ∧ ∼ q]
the connecting flight. ≡ ∼ (p ∨ ∼ r) ∨ ∼ (∼ q)
... by De Morgan's law
Solution:
≡ (∼ p ∧ r) ∨ q
i) Let p : A man is rich.
q : He is happy. ... by De Morgan's law and
∼ (∼ q) ≡ q.
Therefore, the symbolic form of the given
statement is p → q.

20
iii) Let p : The crop will be destroyed. 2. Using the rules of negation, write the
q : There is a flood. negations of the following :

Therefore, the given statement is q → p i) (p → r) ∧ q

and its negation is ∼ (q → p) ≡ q ∧ ∼ p ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) → r
i.e. the crop will not be destroyed and there iii) (∼ p ∧ q) ∧ (∼ q ∨ ∼ r)
is a flood.
3. Write the converse, inverse and
contrapositive of the following statements.
EXERCISE 1.8
i) If it snows, then they do not drive the
1. Write negation of each of the following car.
statements. ii) If he studies, then he will go to college.
i) All the stars are shining if it is night.
ii) ∀ n ∈ N, n + 1 > 0 4. With proper justification, state the negation
of each of the following.
iii) ∃ n ∈ N, (n2 + 2) is odd number
i) (p → q) ∨ (p → r)
iv) Some continuous functions are
differentiable. ii) (p ↔ q) ∨ (∼ q → ∼ r)
iii) (p → q) ∧ r

1.4 Algebra of statements:

The statement patterns, under the relation of logical equivalence, satisfy various laws. We have
already proved a majority of them and the rest are obvious. Now, we list these laws for ready reference.
1. p∨p≡p Idempotent laws p∧p≡p
2. p ∨ (q ∨ r) Associative laws p ∧ (q ∧ r)
≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r
≡p∨q∨r ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r
3. (p ∨ q) ≡ q ∨ p Commutative laws p∧q≡q∧p
4. p ∨ (q ∧ r) Distributive laws p ∧ (q ∨ r)
≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)
5. p∨c≡p Identity laws p∧c≡c
p∨t≡t p∧t≡p
6. p∨∼p≡t Complement laws p∧∼p≡c
∼t≡c ∼c≡t
7. ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p Involution law (law of
double negation)
8. ∼ (p ∨ q) DeMorgan’s laws ∼ (p ∧ q)
≡∼p∧∼q ≡∼p∨∼q
9. p→q Contrapositive law
≡∼q→∼p

21
Note: In case of three simple statements p,q,r, ≡ [(p ∧ ∼ p) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)] → q
we note the following : ... by Distributive law
i) p ∧ q ∧ r is true if and only if p, q, r are all ≡ [(c ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)] → q
true and p ∧ q ∧ r is false even if any one of
p, q, r is false. ... by Complement law
ii) p ∨ q ∨ r is false if and only if p, q, r are all ≡ (∼ p ∧ q) → q ... by Commutative law
false, otherwise it is true. ≡ ∼ (∼ p ∧ q) ∨ q
... by ∼ ∼ (p → q) ≡ ∼ (p ∧ ∼ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ q
SOLVED EXAMPLES

Ex. 1: Without using truth table, show that ≡ [(p ∨ ∼ q) ∨ q ... by De Morgan's law
i) p ∨ (q ∧ ∼ q) ≡ p ≡ p ∨ (∼ q ∨ q)] ... by Associative law
ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ≡p∨t
iii) p ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ≡ p ∨ q ≡t

Solution:
EXERCISE 1.9
i) p ∨ (q ∧ ∼ q)
≡p∨c ... by complement law 1. Without using truth table, show that
≡p ... by Identity law i) p ↔ q ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
ii) ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ii) p ∧ [(∼ p ∨ q) ∨ ∼ q] ≡ p
≡ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) iii) ∼ [(p ∧ q) → ∼ q] ≡ p ∧ q
... by De Morgans law iv) ∼ r → ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ [∼ (q → r)] → ∼ p
v) (p ∨ q) → r ≡ (p → r) ∧ (q → r)
≡ ∼ p ∧ (∼ q ∨ q)
... by Distributive law 2. Using the algebra of statement, prove that
≡∼p∧t i) [p ∧ (q ∨ r)] ∨ [∼ r ∧ ∼ q ∧ p] ≡ p
... by Complement law ii) (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q) ≡
≡∼p ... by Identity law p ∨ ∼ q)

iii) p ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) iii) (p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∨ ∼ q) ≡ (p ∨ ∼ q) ∧
(∼ p ∨ q)
≡ (p ∨ ∼ p) ∧ (p ∨ q)
... by Distributive law 1.5 Venn Diagrams:
≡ t ∧ (p ∨ q) ... by Complement law We have already studied Venn Diagrams
while studying set theory. Now we try to
≡p∨q ... by Identity law
investigate the similarly between rules of logical
connectives and those of various operations on
Ex. 2: Without using truth table, prove that
sets.
[(p ∨ q) ∧ ∼ p] → q is a tautology.
The rules of logic and rules of set theory go
Solution: hand in hand.
[(p ∨ q) ∧ ∼ p] → q

22
 The Venn diagram (fig. 1.17) represents the
truth of the given statement.
Ex. 2: Draw the Venn diagram for the truth of
the following statements.
i) There are students who are not scholars.
ii) There are scholars who are students.
iii) There are persons who are students and
scholars.
Solution:
Let us choose the universal set.
U : The set of all human beings.
Let S : The set of all scholars.
T : The set of all students.
i) ii) iii)
Fig. 1.18
We observe that (by Venn diagram) truth
set of statements (ii) and (iii) are equal. Hence,
statements (ii) and (iii) are logically equivalent.
Ex. 3: Using the Venn diagram, examine the
logical equivalence of the following statements.
i) Some politicians are actors.
ii) There are politicians who are actors.
iii) There are politicians who are not actors.
Solution:
Let us choose the universal set.
U : The set of all human beings.
Let P : The set of all politicians.
A : The set of all actors.
i) ii) iii)
Fig. 1.19
27
By Venn diagrams (fig. 1.19), we observe
that truth set of statements (i) and (ii) are equal.
Hence, statements (i) and (ii) are logically
equivalent.
EXERCISE 1.10
1. Represent the truth of each of the following
statements by Venn diagrams.
i) Some hardworking students are
obedient.
ii) No circles are polygons.
iii) All teachers are scholars and scholars
are teachers.
iv) If a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then it
is a parallelogram.
2. Draw a Venn diagram for the truth of each
of the following statements.
i) Some sharebrokers are chartered
accountants.
ii) No wicket keeper is bowler, in a cricket
team.
3. Represent the following statements by Venn
diagrams.
i) Some non resident Indians are not rich.
ii) No circle is rectangle.
iii) If n is a prime number and n ≠ 2, then
it is odd.
Let's Remember
1. Statement: Declarative sentence which
is either true or false, but not both
symultaneously.
∗ Imperative, exclamatory, interrogative
and open sentences are not statements.
∗ The symbol ‘∀’ stands for “all values
of”. It is universal quantifier.
∗ The symbol ‘∃’ stands for “there
exists”. It is known as existential
quantifier.
∗ An open sentence with a quantifier
becomes a quantified statement.
 iv) Kanchanganga is in India and Everest 16. State the dual of each of the following
is in Nepal. statements by applying the principle of
v) If x∈A∩B, then x∈A and x∈B. duality.
i) (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧∼ (p ∧ q)
11. Construct the truth table for each of the ii) p ∨ (q ∨ r) ≡ ∼ [(p ∧ q) ∨ (r ∨ s)]
following statement pattern.
iii) 2 is even number or 9 is a perfect
i) (p ∧ ∼ q) ↔ (q → p) square.
ii) (∼ p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
iii) (p ∧ r) → (p ∨ ∼ q) 17. Rewrite the following statements without
using the connective ‘If ... then’.
iv) (p ∨ r) → ∼ (q ∧ r)
i) If a quadrilateral is rhombus then it is
v) (p ∨ ∼ q) → (r ∧ p) not a square.

12. What is tautology? What is contradiction? ii) If 10 − 3 = 7 then 10 × 3 ≠ 30.

Show that the negation of a tautology iii) If it rains then the principal declares a
is a contradiction and the negation of a holiday.
contradiction is a tautology.
18. Write the dual of each of the following.
13. Determine whether following statement i) (∼ p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q)
pattern is a tautology, contradiction, or
contingency. ii) (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r)
i) [(p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ p)] ∨ [p ∧ (∼ q)] iii) p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (q ∨ r)
ii) [(∼ p ∧ q) ∧ (q ∧ r)] ∨ (∼ q) iv) ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q
iii) [∼ (p ∨ q) → p] ↔ [(∼ p) ∧ (∼ q)] 19. Consider the following statements.
iv) [∼ (p ∧ q) → p] ↔ [(∼ p) ∧ (∼ q)] i) If D is dog, then D is very good.
v) [p → (∼ q ∨ r)] ↔ ∼ [p → (q → r)] ii) If D is very good, then D is dog.
14. Using the truth table, prove the following iii) If D is not very good, then D is not a
logical equivalences. dog.
i) p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r) iv) If D is not a dog, then D is not very
good.
ii) [∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (p ∨ q)] ∧ r ≡ r
Identify the pairs of statements having the
iii) p ∧ (∼ p ∨ q) ≡ p ∧ q same meaning. Justify.
iv) p ↔ q ≡ ∼ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∧ ∼ (q ∧ ∼ p)
v) ∼ p ∧ q ≡ (p ∨ q)] ∧ ∼p 20. Express the truth of each of the following
statements by Venn diagrams.
15. Write the converse, inverse, contrapositive i) All men are mortal.
of the following statements. ii) Some persons are not politician.
i) If 2 + 5 = 10, then 4 + 10 = 20. iii) Some members of the present Indian
ii) If a man is bachelor, then he is happy. cricket are not committed.
iii) If I do not work hard, then I do not iv) No child is an adult.
prosper.
33
 2 Matrices

Let's Study

• Types of Matrices
• Algebra of Matrices
• Properties of Matrices
• Elementary Transformation
• Inverse of Matrix
• Application of Matrices
• Determinant of a Matrix

Let's Recall

• Determinant of a Matrix
2.1 Introduction:
The theory of matrices was developed by the mathematician Arthur Cayley. Matrices are useful in
expressing numerical information in a compact form. They are effectively used in expressing different
operations. Hence they are essential in economics, finance, business and statistics.
Definition: A rectangular arrangement of mn numbers in m rows and n columns, enclosed in [ ] or ()
is called a matrix of order m by n. A matrix by itself does not have a value or any special meaning.
The order of a matrix is denoted by m × n, read as m by n.
Each member of a matrix is called an element of the matrix.
Matrices are generally denoted by capital letters like A, B, C, …. and their elements are denoted by
small letters like aij, bij, cij, ….. etc. where aij is the element in ith row and jth column of the matrix A.

 2 3 9 
 
For example: i) A  1 0 7  here a32 = −2
 4 2 1 
A is a matrix having 3 rows and 3 columns. The order of A is 3×3. There are 9 elements in the
matrix A.
 1 5
ii) B 2 6 
 
 0 9 
B is a matrix having 3 rows and 2 columns. The order of B is 3×2. There are 6 elements in the
matrix B.
In general, a matrix of order m × n is represented by
35
 5 5 30   6 9 3  2 6 4 
=  +
   +  
0 10 25  12 21 15 8 12 2 

 5  6  2 5  9  6 30  3  4 
=  
0  12  8 10  21  12 25  15  2 

 1 8 37 
=  
 4 1 42 

1  1 8 37 
∴ X =
4  4 1 42 

1 37 
 4 2 4 
X =  
 1 1  21 
 4 2 

 2 x  1 1  1 6   4 5 
Ex. 4) If  +   =   , find x and y.
 3 4 y   3 0   6 12 

 2 x  1 1  1 6   4 5 
Solution: Given  +   =  
 3 4 y   3 0   6 12 

∴ 2 x 5  4 5 
 6 4 y    6 12 
   

∴ Using definition of equality of matrices, we have 2x = 4, 4y = 12

∴ x = 2, y = 3

 2 a 3
 
Ex. 5) Find a, b, c if the matrix A =  7 4 5  is a symmetric matrix.
 c b 6 

 2 a 3
 
Solution: Given that A =  7 4 5  is a symmetric matrix.
 c b 6 

∴ aij = aji for all i and j

∴ a = −7, b = 5, c = 3

44
  1 5
 
Ex. 6) If A =  2 0  Find (AT)T.
 3 4  32

 1 5
 
Solution: Let A =  2 0 
 3 4  32

 1 2 3 
∴ AT =  
 5 0 4  23

 1 5
 
Now (AT)T =  2 0 
 3 4  32

=A

 2 1  2 1 
   3 1
Ex. 7) If X + Y =  1 3  and X − 2Y =   then find X, Y.
 3 2   4 2 

 2 1  2 1 
   3 1
Solution: Let A =  1 3  and B =  
 3 2   4 2 

X + Y = A ......... (1), X − 2Y = B ......... (2), Solving (1) and (2) for X and Y
Consider (1) − (2), 3Y = A − B,
1
∴ Y= (A − B)
3
  2 1  2 1  
1    
∴ Y =   1 3    3 1 
3 
  3 2   4 2  
 4 2 
1 
=  2 4 
3
 7 0 

 4 2
 3  
3
 
=  
2 4 
 3 3 
 
 7 0 
 3 

45
  3 
1 5 a
 
(7) Find a, b, c if  b 5 7  is a symmetric matrix.
 4 c 0
 
 
 
 0 5i x 
 
(8) Find x, y, z if  y 0 z  is a skew symmetric matrix.
3 
  2 0
2 
(9) For each of the following matrices, find its transpose and state whether it is symmetric, skew-
symmetric or neither.
 1 2 5  2 5 1  0 1  2i i  2 
(i)  2 3 4  (ii)  5 4 6  
(iii) 1  2i 0 7 
    
 5 4 9   1 6 3  2  i 7 0 
(10) Construct the matrix A = [aij]3×3 where aij = i − j. State whether A is symmetric or skew symmetric.
 1 1 0 1
(11) Solve the following equations for X and Y, if 3X − Y =   and X − 3Y = 0 1
 1 1   
 6 6 0  3 2 8
(12) Find matrices A and B, if 2A − B =   and A − 2B =  
 4 2 1   2 1 7 
 2 x  y 1 1   1 6 4   3 5 5 
(13) Find x and y, if   
 3 4 y 4   3 0 3  6 18 7 

 2a  b 3a  b   2 3 
(14) If    , find a, b, c and d.
c  2d 2c  d   4 1

(15) There are two book shops own by Suresh and Ganesh. Their sales ( in Rupees) for books in three
subject - Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics for two months, July and August 2017 are given
by two matrices A and B.
July sales ( in Rupees), Physics Chemistry Mathematics

5600 6750 8500 

A= 6650 First Row Suresh / Second Row Ganesh
 7055 8905
August sales ( in Rupees), Physics Chemistry Mathematics
6650 7055 8905 
B= 7000 10200  First Row Suresh / Second Row Ganesh
 7500
then, (i) Find the increase in sales in Rupees from July to August 2017.
(ii) If both book shops get 10% profit in the month of August 2017, find the profit for each
book seller in each subject in that month.

47
 1 3 3
Ex. 2: If A = 3 1 3 find A2 − 5A. What is your conclusion?
3 3 1

Solution : Let A2 = A.A

1 3 3 1 3 3
= 3 1 3 3 1 3
3 3 1 3 3 1

1  9  9 3  3  9 3  9  3
 
=  3  3  9 9  1  9 9  3  3
3  9  3 9  3  3 9  9  1

19 15 15
 
= 15 19 15
15 15 19 

19 15 15 1 3 3
   3 1 3
∴ A2 − 5A = 15 19 15 − 5  
15 15 19  3 3 1

19 15 15  5 15 15

15 19 15  
=   − 15 5 15
15 15 19  15 15 5 

14 0 0  1 0 0 
   
∴ A2 − 5A =  0 14 0  = 14 0 1 0  = 14 I
 0 0 14  0 0 1 
∴ By definition of scalar matrix, A2 − 5A is a scalar matrix.

 3 2 
Ex. 3: If A =   , find k, so that A2 − kA + 2I = O, where I is a 2×2 the identify matrix and
 4 2 
O is null matrix of order 2.
Solution: Given A2 − kA + 2I = O
∴ Here, A2 = AA
 3 2   3 2 
=    
 4 2   4 2 
 9  8 6  4 
=  
12  8 8  4 
1 2 
=  
 4 4 
53
 ∴ A2 − kA + 2I = O
1 2   3 2  1 0 
∴   − k  4 2  + 2 0 1  = O
 4 4     

1 2   3k 2k   2 0  0 0 
∴   −  + =
 4 4   4k 2k   0 2  0 0 

1  3k  2 2  2k  0 0 
∴  =  
 4  4k 4  2k  2  0 0 
∴ Using definition of equality of matrices, we have
1  3k  2  0  3k  3
2  2k  0  2k  2 
 k=1
4  4k  0  4k  4
4  2k  2  0  2k  2 

  6 3  4 1 
  
Ex. 4: Find x and y, if  2 0 3 3  1 2   2  1 0     x
 y
  5 4  3 4  
  

  6 3  4 1 
  
Solution: Given  2 0 3 3  1 2   2  1 0     x
 y
  5 4  3 4  
  

 18 9   8 2  
∴  2 0 3   3 6    2 0     x y
   
 15 12   6 8 
    

10 7 
∴  2 0 3  1 6    x y
 9 4 

∴  20  27 14  12   x y

∴  47 26   x y
∴ x = 47, y = 26 by definition of equality of matrices.
(A + B) (A − B) = A2 − AB + BA − B2
Let's Note :
Using the distributive laws discussed earlier, we can derive the following results. If A and B are
square matrices of the same order, then
i) (A + B)2 = A2 + AB + BA + B2 ii) (A − B)2 = A2 − AB − BA + B2

54
 1 2
 4 3 2  
6) If A = 
  , B =  1 0  show that matrix AB is non singular.
 1 2 0 
 1 2 

1 2 0 
 
7) If A + I = 5 4 2  , find the product (A + I)(A − I).
0 7 3

1 2 2 
 
8) If A =  2 1 2  , show that A2 – 4A is a scalar matrix.
 2 2 1 

 1 0
9) If A =   , find k so that A2 – 8A – kI = O, where I is a 2×2 unit and O is null matrix of
 1 7 
order 2.
 3 1
10) If A =   , prove that A2 – 5A + 7I = 0, where I is 2×2 unit matrix.
 1 2 
1 2  2 a
11) If A =   ,B=  1 b  and if (A + B)2 = A2 + B2, find value of a and b.
 1 2   

 3 2 
12) Find k, If A =   and A2 = kA – 2I.
 4 2 
2
  2 1 3   3 3 4      x 
13) Find x and y, If 4      1   
 1 0 2  2 1 1    1   y 
 
 2 0  1 1   x  3
   1  
14) Find x, y, z if 3  0 2   4  1 2       y  1
  
 3 1      2 z 
 2 2 2
  

15) Jay and Ram are two friends. Jay wants to buy 4 pens and 8 notebooks, Ram wants to buy 5 pens
and 12 notebooks. The price of One pen and one notebook was Rs. 6 and Rs.10 respectively.
Using matrix multiplication, find the amount each one of them requires for buying the pens and
notebooks.
• Properties of the transpose of a matrix:
(i) If A and B are two matrices of same order, then (A + B)T = AT + BT
(ii) If A is a matrix and k is a constant, then (kA)T = kAT
(iii) If A and B are conformable for the product AB, then (AB)T = BT AT

56
  2 0 1
 
3) Find the inverse of A =  5 1 0  by using elementary row transformation.
 0 1 3 

 2 0 1
 
Solution: Let A =  5 1 0 
 0 1 3 

2 0 -1
|A| = 5 1 0
0 1 3
= 2(3 − 0) − 0(15 − 0) − 1(5 − 0)
= 6−0−5
= 1≠0
∴ A−1 is exist.
Consider AA−1 = I
 2 0 1 1 0 0 
  0 1 0 
 5 1 0  A−1 =  
 0 1 3  0 0 1 

6 0 3 3 0 0
5 1 0  A−1 = 0 1 0 
By R1 → 3R1  
 
0 1 3  0 0 1 

1 1 3  3 1 0 
5 1 0  A−1 = 0 1 0
By R1 → R1 − R2    
0 1 3  0 0 1 

1 1 3  3 1 0 
 15 6 0 
By R2 → R2 − 5R1 0 6 15  A−1 =  
 
0 1 3   0 0 1 

1 1 3  3 1 0 
By R2 ↔ R3 0 1 3  A−1 =  0 0 1 
   
0 6 16   15 6 0 
1 0 0   3 1 1 
   0 0 1 
By R1 → R1 + R2 and R3 → R3 − 6R2 0 1 3  A−1 = 
0 0 3  15 6 6 

67
 M12 = 4, ∴ A12 = (−1)1+2M12 = −1(4) = −4
M21 = −2, ∴ A21 = (−1)2+1M21 = −1(−2) = 2
M22 = 2, ∴ A22 = (−1)2+2M22 = 1(2) = 2

 3 4 
∴ Cofactor matrix [Aij]2×2 =  
2 2 
 3 2
adj (A) = [Aij]T =  
 4 2 
1
A−1 = adj (A)
A

1  3 2
A−1 =
14  4 2 

 2 1 1 
4) If A =  1 2 1 then find A−1 by the adjoint method.
 1 1 2 

 2 1 1 
Solution: Given A =  1 2 1
 1 1 2 

2 -1 1
|A| = - 1 2 -1 = 2(4 − 1) + 1(−2 + 1) + 1(1 − 2)
1 -1 2

= 6−1−1=4≠0
∴ A−1 exists.
For the given matrix A

2 -1
∴ A11 = (−1)1+1 = 1(4 − 1) = 3
-1 2
-1 -1
∴ A12 = (−1)1+2 = −1(−2 + 1) = 1
1 2

-1 2
∴ A13 = (−1)1+3 = 1(1 − 2) = −1
1 -1
-1 1
∴ A21 = (−1)2+1 = −1(−2 + 1) = 1
-1 2

70
3) Find the cofactor of the following matrices
 5 8 7
1 2 
i)   ii)  1 2 1 
5 8
 2 1 1 

4) Find the adjoint of the following matrices

 1 1 2 
 2 3
i)   ii)  2 3 5 
3 5 
 2 0 1

5) Find the inverse of the following matrices by the adjoint method

1 2 3 
 3 1  2 2   
i)   ii)   iii) 0 2 4 
 2 1 4 5  0 0 5 
6) Find the inverse of the following matrices by the transformation method.
 2 0 1
1 2   
i)   ii)  5 1 0 
 2 1
 0 1 3 

1 0 1
 
7) Find the inverse A = 0 2 3 by elementary column transformation.
1 2 1

1 2 3 
8) Find the inverse 1 1 5  of by the elementary row transformation.
 2 4 7 

1 0 1 1 2 3 
  1 1 5  then find matrix X such that XA = B
9) If A = 0 2 3 and B =  
1 2 1  2 4 7 

 1 2 3 1 
  2
10) Find matrix X, If AX = B where A =  1 1 2  and B =  
 1 2 4   3 

2.7 Applications of Matrices:

To find a solution of simultaneous linear equations.
Consider the following pair of simultaneous linear equations in two variables.
a1 x  b1 y  c1 
 .......... (i)
a2 x  b2 y  c2 

72
2) Express the following equations in matrix form and solve them by the method of reduction
x – y + z = 1, 2x – y = 1, 3x + 3y – 4z = 2.
Solution: The given equations can be write as
x – y + z = 1
2x – y = 1
3x + 3y – 4z = 2
Hence the matrix equation is AX = B
1 1 1   x  1 
   y  
∴  2 1 0    = 1 
 3 3 4   z   2 

1 1 1   x 1
0 1 2   y  1
By R2 → R2 – 2R1     =  
 3 3 4   z   2 

1 1 1   x 1
0 1 2   y  1
By R3→ R3 – 3R1     =  
0 6 7   z   1

1 1 1   x  1
0 1 2     
By R3→ R3 – 6R2    y  =  1
0 0 5   z   5 
We write equations as
x – y + z = 1 --------------------------------- (1)
y – 2z = −1 ----------------------------------- (2)
5z = 5 ----------------------------------------- (3)
From (3), z = 1
Put z = 1 in equation (2) y – 2(1) = −1 ∴y=2–1=1
Put y = 1, z = 1 in equation (1) x – 1 + 1 = 1, ∴x=1
∴ x = 1, y = 1, z = 1

EXERCISE 2.6

1) Solve the following equations by method of inversion.

i) x + 2y = 2, 2x + 3y = 3
ii) 2x + y = 5, 3x + 5y = −3
iii) 2x – y + z = 1, x + 2y + 3z = 8 and 3x + y – 4z = 1
iv) x + y + z = 1, x – y + z = 2 and x + y – z = 3
79
2) Express the following equations in matrix form and solve them by method of reduction.
i) x + 3y = 2, 3x + 5y = 4
ii) 3x – y = 1 , 4x + y = 6
iii) x + 2y + z = 8, 2x + 3y – z = 11 and 3x – y – 2z = 5
iv) x + y + z = 1, 2x + 3y + 2z = 2 and x + y + 2z = 4
3) The total cost of 3 T.V. and 2 V.C.R. is Rs. 35000. The shopkeeper wants profit of Rs. 1000 per
T.V. and Rs. 500 per V.C.R. He sell 2 T.V. and 1 V.C.R. and he gets total revenue as Rs. 21500.
Find the cost and selling price of T.V and V.C.R.
4) The sum of the cost of one Economic book, one Co-operation book and one account book is Rs.
420. The total cost of an Economic book, 2 Co-operation books and an Account book is Rs. 480.
Also the total cost of an Economic book, 3 Co-operation book and 2 Account books is Rs. 600.
Find the cost of each book.

Let's Remember

• Scalar Multiplication of a matrix:

If A = [aij]m×n is a matrix and k is a scalar, then kA = [kaij].
• Addition of two matrices:
Matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to conformable for addition if orders of A and B are same.
Then A + B = [aij + bij]. The order of A + B is the same as the order of A and B.
• Multiplication of two matrices:
A and B are said to be conformable for multiplication if the number of columns of A is equal to
the number of rows of B.
That is, if A = [aik]m×p and B = [bkj]p×n, then AB is defined and AB = [cij]m×n,
p

where cij = a
k 1
ik bkj i = 1, 2, ....., m
j = 1, 2, ....., n.
• If A = [aij]m×n is any matrix, then the transpose of A is denoted by AT = B = [bij]n×m and bij = aji
• If A is a square matrix, then
i) A + AT is a symmetric matrix ii) A − AT is a skew-symmetric matrix.
• Every square matrix A can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric
matrix as
1 1
A = [A + AT] + [A − AT]
2 2
• Elementary Transformations:
a) Interchange of any two rows or any two columns
b) Multiplication of the elements of any row or column by a non zero scalar
c) Adding the scalar multiples of all the elements of any row (column) to the corresponding
elements of any other row (column).

80
IV. Solve the following.

7 3 
1) Find k, if   is singular matrix.
5 k 
 2 x 5
2) Find x,y,z if  3 1 z  is symmetric matrix.
 y 5 8 

 1 5  2 4  2 3 
   1 5  1 5
3) If A = 7 8 , B =   C=   then show that (A+B) + C = A + (B+C)
9 5  8 6   7 8 

2 5  1 7
4) If A =   ,B=  3 0  Find matrix A – 4B + 7I where I is the unit matrix of order 2.
3 7  
 2 3
   3 4 1 
5) If A =  3 2  , B =  Verify
 2 1 3
 1 4 

i) (A + 2BT)T = AT + 2B ii) (3A − 5BT)T = 3AT − 5B

1 2 3  1 1 1 
   3 2 1
6) If A =  2 4 6  , B =   then show that AB and BA are both singular matrices.
1 2 3  2 1 0 

3 1  1 2 
7) If A =  , B = 5 2  , verify |AB| = |A| |B|
1 5  

 2 1
8) If A =   then show that A2 – 4A + 3I = 0
 1 2 
 3 2  1 a 
9) If A =   ,B= b 0  and ( A + B )( A – B ) = A2 – B2, find a and b.
 2 4  

 1 2
10) If A =   , then find A3
 1 3 

 0 1   2 1    x  1
      2  
11) Find x, y, z if 5 1 0    3 2       y  1
 1 1  1 3   1   2z 
      

 2 4 
   1 1 2 
12) If A =  3 2  , B =  2 1 0  then show that (AB) = B A
T T T

 0 1   

84
 3 Differentiation

dy du dv
Let's Study 2. y = u − v then = −
dx dx dx
1. Derivatives of composite functions. dy dv du
3. y = u.v then =u + v
2. Derivatives of inverse functions. dx dx dx

3. Derivatives of logarithmic functions. du dv

u dy v −u
4. y= then = dx dx v ≠ 0
4. Derivatives of implicit function. v dx 2
v
5. Derivatives of parametric functions.
dy du
6. Derivative of second order. 5. y = k . u then = k. , k constant.
dx dx

Let's Recall Introduction:

1. Concept of continuity In Standard XI, we have studied the concept
of differentiation. We have used this concept in
2. Concept of Differentiability.
calculating marginal demand and marginal cost
3. Derivatives of some standard functions. of a commodity.

dy
y = f(x) = f '( x)
dx Let's Learn
1 K(constant) 0
2 x 1 3.1 Derivative of a Composite Function:
3 Sometimes complex looking functions
x 1
can be greatly simplified by expressing
2 x
them as compositions of two or more
4 1 −1 different functions. It is then not possible
x x2 to differentiate them directly is possible
with simple functions.
5 xn n.xn−1
6 ax ax.loga Now, we discuss differentiation of such
composite functions using the chain rule.
7 ex ex
8 logx Result 1: If y = f(u) is a differentiable function
1
of u and u = g(x) is a differentiable function
x of x then
4. Rules of Differentiation: dy
= dy × du
If u and v are differentiable functions of x dx du dx
and if (This is called Chain Rule)
dy du dv
1. y = u + v then = +
dx dx dx

89
 EXERCISE 3.1 SOLVED EXAMPLES

1) Find rate of change of demand (x) of a

dy
Q.1 Find if, commodity with respect to its price (y) if
dx
y = 20 + 15x + x2
1
1) y= x+ Solution: Let y = 20 + 15x + x2
x
Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
2) y= 3
a +x2 2
we get

3) y = (5x3 − 4x2 − 8x)9 dy

∴ = 15 + 2x
dx
dy By derivative of the inverse function
Q.2 Find if,
dx dx 1 dy
∴ = dy , ≠0
1) y = log(logx) dy dx
dx
2) y = log(10x4 + 5x3 − 3x2 + 2)
∴ rate of change of demand with respect
3) y = log(ax2 + bx + c)
dx 1
dy to price = =
Q.3 Find if, dy 15 + 2 x
dx
5x 2 x4 2) Find rate of change of demand (x) of a
y= e
2

1) commodity with respect to its price (y) if

(1+ log x )
2) y= a y = 5 + x2e −x + 2x
( x + log x )
3) y= 5 Solution: Let y = 5 + x2e −x + 2x
Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
3.2 Derivative of an Inverse Function:
we get
Let y = f(x) be a real valued function
dy
defined on an appropriate domain. The ∴ = (−x2e−x + 2xe−x + 2)
inverse of this function exists if and only if dx
the function is one-one and onto. By derivative of the inverse function
dx 1 dy
For example: Let f : R → R be such that ∴ = dy , ≠0
dy dx
f(x) = x +10 then inverse of f is
dx
f −1 : R → R such that f −1(y) = y −10
∴ Rate of change of demand with respect
That is, if y = x +10 then x = y − 10 dx 1
to price = = ( x 2 e  x  2 xe  x  2)
Result 2 : If y = f(x) is a differentiable function dy
of x such that inverse function x = f−1(y)
exists, then x is a differentiable function of 3) Find rate of change of demand (x) of a
y commodity with respect to its price (y) if

dx 1 3x + 7
dy y =
and = dy , ≠0 2x2 + 5
dy dx
dx 3x + 7
Solution: Let y =
2x2 + 5

91
 Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
we get dy (2 x  3)5
3) Find , if y =
dx (3 x  1)3 (5 x  2)
1 dy  1 
∴ =x   + log(3 + x) × 1
 3 x 
y dx (2 x  3)5
Solution: Let y =
dy   1   (3 x  1)3 (5 x  2)
∴ =y  x  3  x   log(3  x) 
dx     1
  2 x  3 2
5

dy  x  y=  
∴ = (3 + x)x   log(3  x)    3 x  13  5 x  2  
dx 3  x   
Taking logarithm of both sides, we get
dy xx
2) Find , if y = x 1    2 x  3
5
 
dx ∴ logy = log  

   3 x  1  5 x  2   
xx 3
Solution: Let y= x 2

Taking logarithm of both sides, we get 1

xx ∴ logy = [5log(2x + 3) − 3log(3x − 1) −
∴ logy = log x 2
log(5x − 2)]
∴ logy = xx log(x)
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we
Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
get
we get
1 dy 1 dx x 1 dy 1  2 3 5 
∴ = x + log(x).
x ∴ = 5
  2 x  3 
3
 3 x  1

 5 x  2 


y dx x dx y dx 2

dy  x1 dx x  dy 1  10  9  5 
∴ = y  x  log( x). .......... (I) ∴ = y  
dx  x dx  dx 2   2 x  3  3 x  1  5 x  2  
Let u = xx
Taking logarithm of both sides, we get dy 1  2 x  3
5
 10 5 
∴ =  
9
 
dx 2  2 x  1  5 x  2  
3
 2 x  3   3 x  1  5 x  2 
∴ logu = x.log(x)
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, dy
4) Find , if y = xx + (logx)x
we get dx
1 du 1 Solution: Let y = xx + (logx)x
∴ = x. + log(x).1
u dx x Let u = xx and v = (logx)x
du ∴ y=u+v
∴ = u [1 + logx]
dx Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
du we get
∴ = xx(1 + logx) .......... (II)
dx dy du dv
Substituting eqn (II) in eqn (I), we get = +
dx dx dx
dy  x1  Now, u = xx
∴ =y x
 x x  log( x).x (1  log x) 
dx
Taking logarithm of both sides, we get
dy xx x 1  ∴ logu = x logx
∴ = x .x   log( x).(1  log x) 
dx x 
93
 Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
we get,
 3x  1
3) y= 3
 2 x  3  5  x 
2

1 du 1
∴ = x + log x.1
u dx x dy
Q.3 Find if,
du dx
∴ = u (1 + log x)
dx 1) y = (logx)x + xlogx
du 2) y = (x)x + (a)x
= xx (1 + log x)............. (II)
∴
dx xx x10 10 x
3) y = 10 + 10 + 10
Now, v = (logx)x
Taking logarithm of both sides, we get 3.4 Derivative of an Implicit Function:
∴ logv = x log(logx) If the variable y can be expressed as
a function of the variable x. that is,
Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
y = f(x) then the function f(x) is called an
we get,
explicit function of x.
1 dv 1 For Example: f(x) = x2 + x−3, y = logx + e
∴ =x + log (logx).1
v dx x.log x
If it is not possible to express y as a function
dv  1  of x or x as a function of y then the function
∴ =v  log x  log(log x)  is called an implicit function.
dx  
For Example: ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 ;
dv  1  xm + yn = (x + y)m+n
∴ = (logx)x   log(log x)  ..... (III)
dx  log x 
The general form of an implicit function of
Substituting eqn (II) and eqn (III) in eqn (I), we two variables x and y is f(x,y)=0
get
Solved Examples:
dy x  1 
∴ = x (1 + log x) + (logx)x   log(log x)  dy
dx  log x  1) Find if y3− 3y2x = x3 + 3x2y
dx
Solution: Given y3− 3y2x = x3 + 3x2y

EXERCISE 3.3 Differentiating both sides with respect

to x, we get
dy dy dy
Q.1 Find if, ∴ 3y2 − 3y2 − 3x(2y)
dx dx dx
x 2x
dy
1) y= x = 3x2 + 3x2 + 3y(2x)
ex dx
2) y= x
x dy dy dy
3) y= e
x
∴ 3y2 − 6xy − 3x2
dx dx dx
dy
Q.2 Find if, = 3x2 + 6xy + 3y2
dx
dy
 1
x ∴ (3y2 − 6xy − 3x2) = (3x2 + 6xy + 3y2)
1) y = 1   dx
 x
dy
∴ (y2 − 2xy − x2) = (x2 +2xy + y2)
2) y = (2x +5)x dx
94
 dy  x 2  2 xy  y 2  ∴
n dy (m  n) dy (m  n) m
  
∴ = 2 y dx  x  y  dx  x  y  x
dx  y  2 xy  x 2 
 n (m  n)  dy  (m  n) m 
∴       
2) Find
dy
if xy = yx  y  x  y   dx   x  y  x
dx
∴  nx  ny  my  ny  dy  mx  nx  mx  my 
Solution: Given xy = yx    
 y  x  y  dx  x x  y 
Taking logarithm of both sides, we get
∴  nx  my  dy  nx  my 
∴ y logx = x logy  y  dx   x 
   
Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
we get dy  nx  my   y 
∴ =   
1 dy 1 dy dx  x   nx  my 
∴ y + logx =x +logy.1
x dx y dx dy y
∴ =
x dy y dx x
dy
∴ logx − = logy −
dx y dx x
EXERCISE 3.4
 x  dy  y
∴  log x     log y   dy
 y  dx  x Q.1 Find if,
dx
 y.log x  x  dy  x.log y  y 
∴     1) x y  a
 y  dx  x 
2) x3 + y3 + 4x3y = 0
dy  x.log y  y   y 
∴ =   3) x3 + x2y + xy2 + y3 = 81
dx  x   y.log x  x 
y  x.log y  y  dy
dy Q.2 Find if,
∴ =   dx
dx x  y.log x  x 
1) y.ex + x.ey = 1
3) If x .y = (x + y)
m n (m+n)
then show that, 2) xy = e(x−y)
dy
= y 3) xy = log(xy)
dx x
Q.3 Solve the following.
Solution: Given xm.yn = (x + y)(m+n)
Taking logarithm of both sides, we get 1) If x5.y7 = (x + y)12 then show that,
dy y
∴ m.logx + n.logy = (m + n) log(x + y) =
dx x
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we
get
2) If log(x+y) = log(xy) + a then show
1 1 dy 1  dy 
∴ m n  ( m  n) 1   dy − y2
x y dx x  y  dx  that, = 2
dx x
m n dy (m  n)  dy 
∴   1   3) If ex+ey = e(x+y) then show that,
x y dx  x  y   dx 
dy
= −ey−x
dx
95
 If f ′′(x) is a differential function of x
EXERCISE 3.5
 d2y 
d 2  d3y
dy then  dx  denoted by or f ′′′(x) is
Q.1 Find if,
dx dx dx 3
1) x = at2, y = 2at called the third order derivative of y with respect
2) x = 2at , y = at
2 4 to x. It is also denoted by y′′′ or y3.
3) x = e3t, y = e(4t + 5)
SOLVED EXAMPLES
dy
Q.2 Find if,
dx
d2y
2 1) Find , if y = x2
 1  1
dx 2
x =  u   , y =  2  u 
u 
1)
 u Solution: Given y = x2

2) x = 1+ u2 , y = log(1 + u2) Differentiate with respect to x

dy
3) Differentiate 5x with respect to log x ∴ = 2x
dx
Q.3 Solve the following. Differentiate with respect to x, again

1  1
d2y
1) If x = a 1   , y = a ∴ =2
1   then, dx 2
 t  t
d2y
dy 2) Find , if y = x6
show that = −1 dx 2
dx
Solution: Given y = x6
4t  1 t2  Differentiate with respect to x
2) If x = , y = 3 2  then,
1+ t2  1 t  dy
∴ = 6x5
−9 x dx
dy
show that = Differentiate with respect to x, again
dx 4y
d2y
∴ = 6(5x4)
3) If x = t.logt, y = t t then, show that dx 2

dy
−y=0 d2y
dx ∴ 2
= 30x4
dx
3.6 Second Order Derivative:
Consider a differentiable function y = f(x) d2y
3) Find , if y = log x
dy dx 2
then = f '(x)is the first order derivative of
dx Solution: Given y = log x
y with respect to x. It is also denoted by y′ or y1
Differentiate with respect to x
If f ′(x) is a differentiable function of x
dy 1
∴ =
 dy  d2y dx x
then d  dx  denoted by or f ′′(x) is called
dx 2 Differentiate with respect to x, again
dx
d 2 y 1
the second order derivative of y with respect to ∴ 
dx 2 x 2
x. It is also denoted by y′′ or y2
97
 d2y dy
If y = log  x   then
2
6) = ....... 3) If y = [log(log(logx))]2 , find
dx 2 dx
1 4) Find the rate of change of demand (x) of a
dy
7) If x = y + then = ........ commodity with respect to its price (y)
y dx
if y = 25+30x – x2.
dy
8) If y = eax, then x. = ....... 5) Find the rate of change of demand (x) of a
dx
commodity with respect to its price (y)
dy
9) If x = t.logt , y = tt then = ....... 5x  7
dx if y =
2 x  13
 
m
10) If y = x  x 2  1
dy
6) Find , if y = xx
dy dx
then ( x 2 − 1) = .......
dx dy x
7) Find , if y = 2x
dx
Q.III] State whether each of the following is
 3x  4 
3
True or False: dy
8) Find , if y =
dx ( x  1) 4 ( x  2)
1) If f ′ is the derivative of f, then the derivative
of the inverse of f is the inverse of f’ dy
9) Find , if y = xx + (7x – 1)x
2) The derivative of logax, where a is constant dx
dy
is
1
. 10) If y = x3+3xy2+3x2y Find
x.log a dx
dy
11) If x3+y2+xy = 7 Find
3) The derivative of f(x) = ax, where a is dx
constant is x.ax−1
dy
12) If x3y3 = x2−y2 Find
4) The derivative of polynomial is polynomial. dx
d
5) (10 x )  x.10 x 1 13) If x7.y9 = (x+y)16 then show that
dx
dy 1 dy y
6) If y = log x then = Find =
dx x dx x

dy 14) If xa.yb = (x+y)(a+b) then show that

7) If y = e2 then = 2e
dx
8) The derivative of ax is ax.loga dy y
Find =
dx x
x
9) The derivative of xm.yn = (x+y)(m+n) is dy
y 15) Find if , x = 5t2, y = 10t
dx
Q.IV] Solve the following:
dy dy t
1) If y = (6x3 − 3x2 −9x)10 , find 16) Find if , x = e3t , y = e
dx dx
dy 17) Differentiate log(1+x2) with respective to
2) If y =  3x  8x  5 , find
2 4
5
dx ax

100
18) Differentiate e(4x+5) with respective to 104x Solution : Let y = 30 + 25x + x2

d2y Diff. w.r.to x, we get

19) Find , if y = log(x)
dx 2 dy
∴ = + +
d2y dx
20) Find 2
, if y = 2at, x = at2 dy
dx ∴ = 25 + 2x
dx
d2y
21) Find , if y = x2.ex
dx 2 ∴ By derivation of the inverse function
dx 1 dy
22) If x2+6xy+y2= 10 then show = , ≠0
dy dx
80
d2y Rate of change of demand with respect to
that 2
=  3 x  y 
3
dx 1
price =
+
23) If ax2+2hxy+by2 = 0 then show
dy
(3): find , if y = x(logx)+ 10x
d2y dx
that =0
dx 2
Solution:- Let y = x(logx)+ 10x
Activities
dy Let u = xlogx , v = 10x
(1): y = (6x − 5x + 2x + 3) find
4 3 5

dx y=u+v
Solution:- Given
Now, u = xlogx
y = (6x − 5x + 2x + 3)
4 3 5
Taking log on both sides, we get
Let u = [6x4 − 5x3 + + 3]
logu = logxlogx
∴y=u logu = logx.logx.logx
dy
∴ = 5u4 logu = (logx)2
du
Diff. w.r.to x, we get
du
And = 24x3 − 15( )+2 1 du d
dx ∴  2(log x) 
u dx dx
dx
By chain rule
du  1
dy  ∴  u  2 log x  
dy × dx  x
=
dx  dx
1
∴ du  x log x 22  1×  .........(II)
dx   
dy
∴ = 5(6x4 − 5x3 + 2x + 3)
dx Now, v = 10x

× (24x3 −15x2 + ) Diff.w.r.to x, we get

dv
∴ = 10 x.
(2): The rate of change of demand (x) of a dt
commodity with respect to its price (y).
Substitution equation (II) & (III) in
If y = 30 + 25x + x2 equation (I), we get

101
 4 Applications of Derivatives

Let P (a, f(a)) and Q (a + h, f(a + h)) be two

Let's Study points on the curve. Join the points P and Q.

• Meaning of Derivatives f ( a  h)  f ( a )
The slope of the chord PQ =
h
• Increasing and Decreasing Functions.
Let the point Q move along the curve such
• Maxima and Minima
that Q→P. Then the secant PQ approaches the
• Application of derivatives to Economics. tangent at P as h→0
f ( a  h)  f ( a )
∴ Qlim
→P
(slope of secant PQ) = lim
h 0 h
Introduction
Slope of tangent at P = f ′(a) (if limit exists)
Derivatives have a wide range of Thus, the derivative of a function y = f(x) at
applications in everyday life. In this chapter, any point P(a,b) is the slope of the tangent at the
we shall discuss geometrical and physical point P(a,b) on the curve.
significance of derivatives and some of their
The slope of the tangent at any point P(a,b)
applications such as equation of tangent and
is also called gradient of the curve y = f(x) at
normal at a point on the curve, rate measure in
physical field, approximate values of functions dy
point P and is denoted by f ′(a) or   .
and extreme values of a function.  dx  p
Normal is a line perpendicular to tangent,
Let's Learn passing through the point of tangency.
∴ Slope of the normal is the negative
4.1 Meaning of Derivative:
reciprocal of slope of tangent.
Let y = f(x) be a continuous function of x. −1 1
Thus, slope of normal = =
It represents a curve in XY-plane. (fig. 4.1). f '(a )  dy 
 
 dx  P
Hence,
(i) The equation of tangent to the curve
y = f(x) at the point P(a,b) is given by
(y − b) = f ′(a)(x − a)
(ii) The equation of normal to the curve
y = f(x) at the point P(a,b) is given by
−1
(y − b) = (x − a)
f '(a )

Fig. 4.1

103
 Definition: A function y = f(x) is said to
EXERCISE 4.1
be a decreasing function of x in an interval
(a,b). if f(x2) < f(x1), whenever x2 > x1 for all
Q.1 Find the equation of tangent and normal to
x1, x2 in the interval (a, b).
the curve at the given points on it.
i) y = 3x2 − x + 1 at (1,3)
ii) 2x2 + 3y2 = 5 at (1,1)
iii) x2 + y2 + xy = 3 at (1,1)
Q.2 Find the equation of tangent and normal to
the curve y = x2 + 5 where the tangent is
parallel to the line 4x − y + 1 = 0.
Q.3 Find the equation of tangent and normal to
the curve y = 3x2 − 3x − 5 where the tangent
is parallel to the line 3x − y + 1 = 0.
Fig. 4.3
4.2 Increasing and Decreasing Functions:
Geometrically, as we move from left to
Definition : The function y = f(x) is said
right along the curve y = f(x) in (a,b), then
to be an increasing function of x in the
the curve falls. (see fig.4.3)
interval (a,b) if f(x2) > f(x1), whenever
x2 > x1 in the interval (a,b). ∴ Slope of tangent f ′(x) < 0
∴ The slope of tangent is negative.
If f ′(x) < 0 in (a,b) then f(x) is a decreasing
function in the interval (a,b).
Note: Every function may not be either
increasing or decreasing.

SOLVED EXAMPLES

Fig. 4.2 1) Test whether the following function is

Geometrically, as we move from left to
right along the curve y = f(x) in (a,b), then
the curve rises. (see fig. 4.2)
∴ Slope of tangent at x: f ′(x) > 0
∴ The slope of the tangent is positive.
If f ′(x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a,b) then, y = f(x) is
an increasing function in the interval (a,b)
Note: Sign of the Derivative can be used to
find if the function f(x) is increasing.
increasing or decreasing.
f(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 100, x ∈ R
Solution: Given f(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 100, x ∈ R
∴ f ′(x) = 3x2 − 6x + 3
∴ f ′(x) = 3(x − 1)2
Since (x − 1)2 is always positive, x ≠ 1
∴ f ′(x) > 0, ∀x ∈ R − {1}
Hence, f(x) is an increasing function,
∀ x ∈ R − {1}

105
2) Test whether the following function is Now, f ′(x) < 0
increasing or decreasing. ∴ 6(x − 1)(x − 2) < 0
f(x) = 2 − 3x + 3x − x , ∀x ∈ R
2 3
(if ab < 0 either a < 0 and b > 0 or a > 0 and
Solution: f(x) = 2 − 3x + 3x − x2 3
b < 0)
∴ f ′(x) = −3 + 6x − 3x2 Case I] (x − 1) < 0 and x − 2 > 0
∴ f ′(x)= −3(x2 − 2x + 1) ∴ x < 1 and x > 2 which is contradiction
∴ f ′(x) = −3(x − 1)2 Case II] x − 1 > 0 and x − 2 < 0
Since (x − 1)2 is always positive, x ≠ 1 ∴ x > 1 and x < 2
∴ f ′(x) < 0, ∀ x ∈ R − {1} ∴ 1<x<2
Hence, function f(x) is decreasing function ∴ f(x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x + 2 is decreasing
∀ x ∈ R − {1} function if x ∈ (1,2).

3) Find the value of x, for which the function

EXERCISE 4.2
f(x) = x3 + 12x2 + 36x + 6 is increasing.
Solution: Given f(x) = x3 + 12x2 + 36x + 6 Q.1 Test whether the following fuctions are
∴ f ′(x) = 3x2 + 24x +36 increasing or decreasing

∴ f ′(x) = 3(x + 2) (x + 6) i) f(x) = x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 16, x ∈ R

1
Now, f ′(x) > 0, as f(x) is increasing. ii) f(x) = x − , x ∈ R, x ≠ 0
x
∴ 3(x + 2) (x + 6) > 0
7
(ab > 0 ⇔ a > 0, b > 0 or a < 0, b < 0) iii) f(x) = − 3, x ∈ R, x ≠ 0
x
Case I] x + 2 > 0 and x + 6 > 0 Q.2 Find the values of x, such that f(x) is
∴ x > −2 and x > −6 increasing function.
∴ x > −2 ................. (I) i) f(x) = 2x3 − 15x2 + 36x + 1
Case II] x + 2 < 0 and x + 6 < 0 ii) f(x) = x2 + 2x − 5
∴ x < −2 and x < −6 iii) f(x) = 2x3 − 15x2 − 144x − 7
∴ x < −6 ................. (II) Q.3 Find the values of x such that f(x) is
decreasing function.
From case I and II, f(x) is increasing if
x < −6 or x > −2 i) f(x) = 2x3 − 15x2 − 144x − 7
∴ f(x) = x3 + 12x2 + 36x + 6 is increasing ii) f(x) = x4 − 2x3 + 1
if and only if x < −6 or x > −2 iii) f(x) = 2x3 − 15x2 − 84x − 7
Hence, x ∈ (−∞, −6) or x ∈ (−2, ∞).
4.3 Maxima and Minima:
4) Find the values of x for which the function
a) Maximum value of f(x): A function f(x) is
f(x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x + 2 is decreasing.
said to have a maximum value at a point
Soluction: Given f(x) = 2x2 − 9x2 +12x + 2 x = c if f(x) < f(c) for all x ≠ c.
∴ f ′(x) = 6x2 − 18x + 12 The value f(c) is called the maximum value
∴ f ′(x) = 6(x − 1)(x − 2) of f(x).

106
 In this figure the function has a local 2) Divide the number 84 into two parts such
maximum at x = a and a local minimum at x = b that the product of one part and square of
and still f(b) > f(a). the other is maximum.
Solution: Let one part be x then other part will
SOLVED EXAMPLES be 84 - x
1) Find the maximum and minimum value of f(x) = x2 (84 − x)
the function f(x) = 84x2 − x3
f(x) = 3x3 − 9x2 − 27x + 15 f ′(x) = 168(x) − 3x2
Solution: Given f(x) = 3x3 − 9x2 − 27x + 15 f ′′(x) = 168 − 6x
∴ f ′(x) = 9x2 − 18x − 27 For extream value f ′(x) = 0
∴ f ′′(x) = 18x − 18 ∴ 168x − 3x2 = 0

For the extreme values f ′(x) = 0 ∴ 3x (56 − x) = 0

x = 0 or x = 56
∴ 9x2 − 18x − 27 = 0
If x = 0, f ′′(x) = 168 − 6x
∴ 9(x2 − 2x − 3) = 0
f ′′(0) = 168 − 6(0)
∴ (x + 1)(x − 3) = 0
= 168 > 0
∴ x = −1 or x = 3 ∴ f(x) attains minimum at x = 0
For x = −1, f ′′(x) = 18x − 18 If x = 56, f ′′(x) = 168 − 6x

f ′′(−1) = 18(−1) − 18 f ′′(x) = 168 − 6(56)

= −168 < 0
= −18 − 18
∴ f(x) attains maximum at x = 56
= −36 < 0 ∴ Two parts of 84 are 56 and 28
∴ f(x) attains maximum at x = −1
3) A rod of 108 meter long is bent to form a
Maximum value is rectangle. Find it's dimensions if the area is
maximum.
f(−1) = 3 (−1)3 − 9(−1)2 − 27(−1) + 15 = 30
Solution: Let x be the length and y be the breadth
For x = 3, f ′′(x) = 18x − 18 of the rectangle.
f ′′(3) = 18(3) − 18 ∴ 2x + 2y = 108

= 54 − 18 ∴ 2y = 108 − 2x
∴ 2y = 2(54 − x)
= 36 > 0
∴ y = 54 − x ................. (1)
∴ f(x) attains minimum at x = 3
Now, area of the rectangle = xy
Minimum value is, = x (54 − x)
f(3) = 3(3)3 − 9(3)2 − 27(3) + 15 = −66 f(x) = 54x − x2
∴ The function f(x) has maximum value f ′(x) = 54 − 2x
30 at x = −1 and minimum value − 66 f ′′(x) = −2
at x = 3
108
 For extreme value, f ′(x) = 0 3. Total cost function C = f(x), where x is
∴ 54 − 2x = 0 number of items produced,

∴ 2x = 54 dC
Marginal cost = Cm =
dx
∴ x = 27
C
f ′′(27) = −2 < 0 Average cost = CA =
x
∴ Area is maximum when x = 27, y = 27
4. Total Revenue R = P.D where P is price and
∴ The dimension of rectangle are D is demand.
27m × 27m. R PD
Average Revenue RA = = =P
∴ It is a square. D D
Total profit = R − C
With this knowledge, we are now in a
EXERCISE 4.3 position to discuss price elasticity of demand;
which is usually referred as 'elasticity of demand'
Q.1 Determine the maximum and minimum denoted by 'η'.
values of the following functions. _P dD
i) f(x) = 2x3 − 21x2 + 36x − 20 Elasticity of demand   .
D dP
ii) f(x) = x. logx
We observe the following situations in the
16 formula for elasticity of demand.
iii) f(x) = x2 +
x i) Demand is a decreasing function of price.
Q.2 Divide the number 20 in to two parts such
dD
that their product is maximum. ∴ <0
dP
Q.3 A metal wire of 36cm long is bent to form
a rectangle. Find it's dimensions when it's Also, price P and the demand D are always
area is maximum. positive.
_P dD
Q.4 The total cost of producing x units is ∴  . >0
Rs. (x2 + 60x + 50) and the price is D dP
Rs. (180 − x) per unit. For what units is the ii) If η = 0, it means the demand D is constant
profit maximum? function of price P.
4.4 Applications of derivative in Economics: dD
∴ <0
We ave discussed the following functions dP
in XIth standard. In this situation demand is perfectly
1. Demand Function D = f(P). inelastic.
iii) If 0 < η < 1, the demand is relatively
dD inelastic.
Marginal demand = Dm =
dP
iv) If η = 1, the demand is exactly proportional
to the price and demand is said to be unitary
2. Supply function S = g (P)
elastic.
dS
Marginal supply =
dP

109
5) If the average revenue RA is 50 and
EXERCISE 4.4
elasticity of demand η is 5, find marginal
revenue Rm.
1) The demand function of a commodity at
Solution: Given RA = 50 and η = 5, 5P
price is given as, D = 40 − . Check
 1 8
Rm = R A  1   whether it is increasing or decreasing
 
function.
 1
= 50 1   2) The price P for demand D is given as
 5
P = 183 + 120D − 3D2; find D for which
4 price is increasing.
= 50  
5
Rm = 40 3) The total cost function for production of
6) The consumption expenditure EC of a articles is given as C = 100 + 600x − 3x2.
person with income x, is given by Find the values of x for which total cost is
decreasing.
EC = 0.0006x2 + 0.003x. Find average
propensity to consume, marginal propensity 4) The manufacturing company produces
to consume when his income is Rs. 200/- x items at the total cost of Rs. 180 + 4x.
Also find his marginal propensity to save. The demand function for this product is
P = (240 − x). Find x for which (i) revenue
Solution: Given EC = 0.006x2 + 0.003x
is increasing, (ii) profit is increasing.
Ec
∴ APC = 5) For manufacturing x units, labour cost is
x
150 − 54x and processing cost is x2. Price
= 0.0006x + 0.003 of each unit is p = 10800 − 4x2. Find the
At x = 200, values of x for which.
APC = 0.0006 × 200 + 0.003 i) Total cost is decreasing
= 0.12 + 0.003 ii) Revenue is increasing
= 0.123 6) The total cost of manufacturing x articles
dE c C = 47x + 300x2 − x4. Find x, for which
MPC =
dx average cost is (i) increasing (ii) decreasing.
d 7) i) Find the marginal revenue, if the
= (0.0006x2 + 0.003x)
dx average revenue is 45 and elasticity of
= 0.0006 (2x) + 0.003 demand is 5.
At x = 200, ii) Find the price, if the marginal revenue
is 28 and elasticity of demand is 3.
MPC = 0.0006 × 400 +0.003
= 0.24 + 0.003 iii) Find the elasticity of demand, if the
marginal revenue is 50 and price is
= 0.243 Rs. 75/-.
As MPC + MPS = 1  p6
8) If the demand function is D =  ,
∴ MPS = 1 − MPC  p 3
find the elasticity of demand at p = 4.
= 1 − 0.243
= 0.757
112
9) Find the price for the demand function • A function y = f(x) is said to have local
2p 3 minimum at x = c, if f '(c) = 0 and f ''(c) > 0.
D= , when elasticity of demand is
3 p 1
11
. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 4
14
I) Choose the correct alternative.
10) If the demand function is D = 50 − 3p −p2.
Find the elasticity of demand at (i) p = 5 1) The equation of tangent to the curve
(ii) p = 2. Comment on the result. y = x2 + 4x + 1 at (−1, −2) is
p2 (a) 2x − y = 0 (b) 2x + y − 5 = 0
11) For the demand function D = 100 − .
2
Find the elasticity of demand at (i) p = 10 (c) 2x − y − 1 = 0 (d) x + y − 1 = 0
(ii) p = 6 and comment on the results. 2) The equation of tangent to the curve
12) A manufacturing company produces x2 + y2 = 5 where the tangent is parallel to
x items at a total cost of Rs. 40 + 2x. Their the line 2x − y + 1 = 0 are
price is given as p = 120 − x. Find the value (a) 2x − y + 5 = 0; 2x − y − 5 = 0
of x for which (i) revenue is increasing.
(ii) profit is increasing. (iii) Also find (b) 2x + y + 5 = 0; 2x + y − 5 = 0
elasticity of demand for price 80. (c) x − 2y + 5 = 0; x − 2y − 5 = 0
13) Find MPC, MPS, APC and APS, if the (d) x + 2y + 5; x + 2y − 5 = 0
expenditure Ec of a person with income I is
3) If elasticity of demand η = 1 then demand
given as
is
EC = (0.0003)I2 + (0.075)I
(a) constant (b) in elastic
when I = 1000.
(c) unitary elastic (d) elastic
4) If 0 < η < 1, then the demand is
Let's Remember
(a) constant (b) in elastic
• A function f is said to be increasing at a (c) unitary elastic (d) elastic
point c if f '(c) > 0.
5) The function f(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 100,
• A function f is said to be decreasing at a x ∈ R is
point c if f '(c) < 0. _P dD (a) Increasing for all x ∈ R, x ≠ 1
• Elasticity of demand   .
D dP (b) decreasing
 1  1 (c) Neither, increasing nor decreasing
• Rm = P 1   = RA 1  
    (d) Decreasing for all x ∈ R, x ≠ 1
• For a person with income x, consumption 6) If f(x) = 3x3 − 9x2 − 27x + 15 then
or expenditure Ec and saving S,
(a) f has maximum value 66
(i) x = Ec + S
(b) f has minimum value 30
(ii) MPC + MPS = 1
(c) f has maxima at x = −1
(iii) APC + APS = 1
(d) f has minima at x = −1
• A function y = f(x) is said to have local
maximum at x = c, if f '(c) = 0 and f''(c) < 0.

113
 5 Integration

function is logx. Using the integral sign, we

Let's Study 1
can write ∫   dx = logx, x > 0.
x
• Method of Substitution
• Some Special Integrals Let's Learn
• Integration by Parts
5.1.2 Definition: Integral or primitive or
• Integration by Partial Fraction antiderivative of a function.
If f(x) and g(x) are two functions such that
Let's Recall d
[f(x)] = g(x) then f(x) is called an integral of
dx
• Derivatives g(x) with respect to x. It is denoted by ∫ g(x) dx
= f(x) and read as integral of g(x) w.r.t.x is f(x).
Here, we say that g(x) is the integrand.
5.1.1 Introduction This process of finding the integral of a
function is called integration. Thus, integration
In this chapter, we shall study the operation
is the inverse operation of differentiation.
which is an inverse process of differentiation. We
now want to study the problem : the derivative For, example,
of a function is given and we have to determine d
(x4) = 4x3
the function. The process of determining such a dx
function is called integration.
∴ ∫ 4x3 dx = x4
Consider the following examples: But, note that
(1) Suppose we want to determine a function d 4
(x + 5) = 4x3
whose derivative is 3x2. Since we know that dx
dx3 d 4
= 3x2. Therefore, the required function (x − 8) = 4x3
dx dx
is f(x) = x3.
What is the observation? Can you
x3 is called integral of 3x2 w.r.t.x and this is generalize from the observation?
written as ∫ 3x2 dx = x3.
In general,
The symbol ∫ , called the integration sign, d 4
was introduced by Leibnitz. 'dx' indicates (x + c) = 4x3
dx
that the integration is to be taken with
respect to the variable 'x'. where, c is any real number.
(2) Suppose we want to determine a function Hence, in general, we write
1 ∴ ∫ 4x3 dx = x4 + c
whose derivative is Since we know that
x
d 1 The number 'c' is called constant of
(log x) = . Therefore, the required
dx x integration.
116
  1  5.2 Method of Change of Variable or Method
(11) Evaluate   e(15t )   dt of Substitution
 5t  1 
In this method, we reduce the given
(15t )  1  function to standard form by changing variable
Solution: I =  e dt     dt
 5t  1  x to t, using some suitable substitution x = φ(t)
e(15t )  log 5t  1  Theorem 4 : If x = φ(t) is a differentiable
I=  c function of t, then
(5)  5 
(12) If f ′(x) = 8x3 + 3x2 − 10x − k, f(0) = −3 and  f ( x)dx   f  (t )  '(t )dt
f(−1) = 0, find f(x) 5.2.1 Corollary 1:
 f ( x)
n 1
Solution: By the definition of integral
  f ( x) 
n
f '( x)dx  c
(n  1)
f(x) =  f '( x)dx   (8 x  3 x  10 x  k )dx
3 2

= 8  x3 dx  3  x 2 dx  10  x dx k  dx SOLVED EXAMPLES

x4 x3 x2
Evaluate ∫ (log x) dx
7
= 8  3  10  kx  c 1.
4 3 2 x
f(x) = 2 x 4  x3  5 x 2  kx  c Solution: Put log x = t
1
Now f(0) = −3 gives c = −3 ∴ dx = dt
x
and f(−1) = 0 gives k = 7 ∴ t 7 1 1
I   t 7 dt   c  (log x)8  c
f(x) = 2 x 4  x3  5 x 2  7 x  3 7 1 8
2. Evaluate  1
dx
EXERCISE 5.1 2x  x  n
1
Solution: I =  dx
(i) Evaluate  2  1 
dx 2x   n 
5x  4  5x  2 x 
xn
=  ( n 1) dx
 x2  2x 1
(ii) Evaluate  1  x   dx
 2! 
Put x ( n 1)  t
3x  2 x
3
(iii) Evaluate  dx ∴ (n  1) x n dx  dt
x
∴ dt
(iv) Evaluate  (3 x 2  5) 2 dx x n dx 
n 1
(v) Evaluate  1 1 dt
dx ∴ I=  
x( x  1) (2t  1) (n  1)
(vi) If f ′(x) = x2 + 5 and f(0) = −1, then find the 1 dt
value of f(x). = 
(n  1) (2t  1)
(vii) If f ′(x) = 4x3 − 3x2 + 2x + k, f(0) = 1 and
1 log 2t + 1
f(1) = 4, find f(x) = +c
n +1 2
x2 1
(viii) If f ′(x) =  kx  1 , f(0) = 2 and f(3) = 5, I= log 2 x n +1 + 1 + c
find f(x)
2 2(n + 1)

119
 EXERCISE 5.2 SOLVED EXAMPLES

Evaluate the following. 4e x  25

(1) Evaluate  2e x  5 dx
(i)  x 1 x dx
2

Put Numerator = A (Denominator + B

x 3

(ii)  1 x 4
dx d
( Denominator)
dx
d 
(iii)  (e
x
 e  x ) 2 (e x  e  x ) dx 4 e x − 25 = A(2 e x  5)  B  (2 e x  5) 
 dx 
1 x
(iv)  xe x
dx
x x
= A(2 e  5)  B(2 e )
x
= ( 2 A  2 B )e  5 A
(v)  ( x  1)( x  2) ( x  3) dx
7

1 Comparing the coefficients of ex and

(vi) ∫ dx constant term on both sides, we get
x logx
x5 2 A  2B  4 & 25  5A
(vii)  2 dx ∴ A  5 and B  3
x 1
∴ 4e x  25  5(2e x  5)  3(2e x )
2x  6
(viii)  dx x x
x  6x  3
2 ∴ I =  5(2e  5)  3(2e ) dx
2e x  5
1
(ix)  dx
=
 3(2e x ) 
xx  5  x  dx
 2e  5 
1
(x)  x( x 6
 1)
dx
= 5  dx  3 
2e x
dx
2e x  5

= 5 x  3 log 2e x  5  c
Activities

For each of these integrals, determine a EXERCISE 5.3

strategy for evaluating. Don't evaluate them,
just figure out which technique of integration Evaluate the following.
will work, including what substitutions you
3 e 2t  5
will use. 1)  4 e2t  5 dt
1 3
1) ∫ xlogx dx 2) x 2
 5x  4
dx
20  12e x
2)  3 e x  4 dx
x5 ex
3)  x2  5x  7
dx 4)
 36  e2 x dx 3e x  4
3)  2e x  8 dt
a ex  b 2e x  5
5.3 Integrals of the form  ce x  d dx 4)  2e x  1 dt
where a,b,c,d ∈ R

123
 2x 1 4. 1
1
log c  dx
3 2( x  1) ( x  2)( x  3)
1
1 Solution: I =  dx
2.  1  x  x 2 dx x2  5x  6
1
1 =  dx
Solution: I =  dx 25 25
1 1
1   x  x 2 x2  5x    6
4 4 4 4
1
1 =  dx
 1  2 1
dx 
2
5 1
2

= 1     x  x    x    
 4  4  2 2

1  5  5 1
2 2

 2
dx
= log  x     x       c
5 
2
= 1  2  2 2
   x  
 2   2
 5
= log  x    c
5  1  2
x 
1 2  2
= log c
 5 5  1 2x 1
2
2

2
 x  
 2
5.  x2  2x  3
dx
 

1 5 1  2x Solution: I  
 2x  2 1 dx
= log c
5 5 1 2x x2  2x  3
2x  2 dx
=I  dx  
ex x2  2x  3 x2  2x  3
3.  e2 x  6e x  5 dx
1
Solution: Put e x = t = 2 x 2  2 x  3  log
∴ e x dx = dt x 2
 2 x  1  2

dt = 2 x 2  2 x  3  log ( x  1)  x 2  2 x  3  c
I = t 2
 6t  5
dt x 1
=  t 2  6t  9  9  5 6.  x 2  3x  2
dx

d 2
dt Solution: x  1  A ( x  3 x  2)  B
=  (t  3)2  22 dx
x  1  A(2 x  3)  B  2 Ax  3 A  B
1 (t  3)  2 ∴ 2 A  1 and 3 A  B  1 Solving we get
= log c
2(2) (t  3)  2 1 −1
A= and B =
2 2
1 ex + 1
= log x +c 1 1
4 e +5 (2 x  3) 
∴ I 2 2 dx
x  3x  2
2

126
 2x  3 dx
 5
1 1
 dx  
2
= =log t  t 2  c
2 x 2  3x  2 2 x 2  3x  2
2 2 1 1 =log log x  (log x) 2  5  c
=
2
x  3x  2 
2  2 2
dx
 3 1
 x    
 2 2 x 2 dx
2. 
1  3 x 6  2 x3  3
= x  3 x  2  log  x    x  3 x  2  c Solution: Put x 3 = t
2 2

2  2
dt
= 3 x 2 dx dt= : x 2 dx
5.4.4 Integrals reducible to the form 3
1 dt
1 I =  2
 ax 2  bx  c dx t  2t  3 3
1 1
To find this type of integrals we use the
= 
3 t 2  2t  1  2
following steps: 1
= log (t + 1) + t 2 + 2t + 3
Step 1: Make the coefficients of x as one
2 3
1 dx 1
if it is not, ie
a  bx c
. = log (t + 1) + t 2 + 2t + 3 + c
3
x2  
a a 1
= log ( x 3 + 1) + x 6 + 2 x 3 + 3 + c
Step 2: Find half of the coefficient of x. 3
px  q
1
Step 3: Add and subtract ( coeff.of x)2
5.4.5 Integrals of the form  ax 2  bx  c
dx
2
inside the square root so that the square
To find this type of integrals we use the
root is in the form
following steps:
b  4ac  b 2 4ac  b 2  b 
2 2
 Step 1: Write the numerator px + q in the
 x    or  x 
 2a  4a 2
4a 2
 2a  following form
Step 4: Use the suitable standard form for d
evaluation. px  q  A (ax 2  bx  c)  B
dx

SOLVED EXAMPLES Step 2: Obtain the values of A and B by

equating the coefficients of same power of
dx x on both sides.
1. x (logx) 2  5 Step 3: Replace px + q by A(2ax + b) + B
in the given integral to get in the form of
Solution : Put log x = t
px  q
∴
dx
= dt  ax 2  bx  c
dx
x
1 2ax b 1
I =  t2  5
dt A
ax 2 bx c
dx B
ax 2 bx c
dx

1
= dt dx
 5 =A ax 2 bx c B
2
t 
2
ax 2 bx c
127
(1  x)(1  x) (1  x) x3
dx =  dx
x(1  x) x2  x
5)  16 x8  25 dx
d 2
Let x + 1 = A (x + x) + B 1
dx 6) a 2
 b2 x2
dx

x+1 = A(2x + 1) + B = 2Ax +(A + B)

1
Comparing the coefficient of x, we get 7)  7  6x  x 2
dx

1 = 2A and 1=A+B 1
1 1
8)  3x 2  8
dx
A = and B =
2 2 1
1 1
9)  x  4 x  29
2
dx
(2 x  1) 
x 1
 x x
2
dx   2
x x
2
2 dx
10) 
1
dx
3x 2  5
1 1
(2 x  1) 1
=  2 x 2  x dx   x 22 x dx 11)  x 2  8 x  20
dx

1
1 (2 x  1) 5.5 Integration by Parts.
2  x2  x
= dx   2 dx
2 2 5.5.1 Theorem 5: If u and v are two functions of
 1 1
 x     x then
 2 2
 du 
1 1  1 
2
1 1
2
 u.v dx  u  v dx     v dx. dx  dx
= 2 x 2  x  log  x     x       c
2 2  2  2 2
The method of integration by parts is used
when the integrand is expressed as a product of
1  1
= x 2  x  log  x    x 2  x  c two functions, one of which can be differentiated
2  2 and the other can be integrated conveniently.
Note:
EXERCISE 5.4 (1) When the integrand is a product of two
functions, out of which the second has to
Evaluate the following. be integrated (whose integral is known),
hence we should make proper choices of
1
1)  2 dx first function and second function.
4x 1
1 (2) We can also choose the first function as
2)  2 dx the function which comes first in the word
x  4x  5
'LAE' where
1
3)  2 dx L - Logarithmic Function
4 x  20 x  17
x A - The Algebraic Function
4)  4 dx
4 x  20 x 2  3 E - The Exponential Function

129
 = ∫(logt).1 dt
SOLVED EXAMPLES
d 
= (logt )  1.dt    (logt )  1.dt  dt
1. x e 2 x
dx 1  dt 
= tlogt   tdt  c
t
d  = tlogt   dt  c
Solution: I = x  e dx    ( x)  e dx  dx
2 x 2 x

 dx 
= t (log t  1)  c
e 2 x e 2 x
= x   1. dx  c = (log x).(log (log x)  1)  c
2 2
1 2 x 1 2 x 5.  x.2
3 x
= xe  e  c dx
2 4 d 
Solution: I = x  (2 )dx    x  (2 )dx  dx
3 x 3 x

 dx 
2. ∫logx dx
x(2 3 x ) (2 3 x )
Solution: I = ∫(logx).1 dx = dx c
3 log 2 3 log 2
d
= (logx) ∫ 1.dx −   (logx)  1.dx  dx x(23 x ) 1
 dx  = 
3  log 2  3  log 2   (23 x ) dx  c
1
= xlogx −  xdx  c
x x(23 x ) 1  23 x 
=   c
= xlogx − ∫ dx + c 3  log 2  3  log 2   3  log 2  
= x(log x − 1) + c
 x 23 x 1 1
=  23 x  c
3. ∫ x3log x dx 3  log 2  9 (log 2) 2

Solution: I = ∫ (log x)x3 dx

Integral of the type  e { f ( x)  f '( x)} dx
x

d 
= (logx)  x3 dx    (logx)  x3 dx  dx These integrals are evaluated by using
 dx 
 e { f ( x)  f '( x)} dx  e
x x
f ( x)  c
x log x 1 3
4
=   x dx  c  x log x  1 
1. e
x
4 4   dx
 x 
x 4 log x 1 x4
=  dx  c  1
4 4 4 Solution: I =  e x  log x   dx
 2
x 4 log x x 4 1
 c = Put log x f= ( x) f '( x)
= x
4 16
 e { f ( x)  f '( x)}dx  e
x x
f ( x)  c
log(log x) 1
4. ∫ x dx = ∫ log (logx) x dx = e x logx + c
Solution: Put log x = t
1 (1  x 2 )
e
x
∴ dx = dt 2. dx
x (1  x) 2
I = ∫log t dt ( x 2  1)  2
Solution: I =  e
x
dx
(1  x) 2

130
 2 2 x 1
7) e
x
I1 = ( x + x + 1)3/ 2 + c1 dx
3 ( x  1)3
7 2logx 
I2 =
2  x 2  x  1 dx 
(logx)  x  dx
2
8) e
x

7  1  1 2
x 2  x  1 1   1 
3 1
 x   x  x  1  logx   9)
= 
2 2  2 8 2   log x c2(logx)2  dx
1 logx
x x 2 x 1 c2 10)  dx
2 (1  logx) 2
I = I1 + I2
5.6 Integration by method of Partial
Fractions:
EXERCISE 5.5
5.6.1 Types of Partial Fractions.
Evaluate the following. (1) If f(x) and g(x) are two polynomials then
f(x)/g(x) is a rational function where g(x)≠0.
1) ∫ x log x (2) If degree of f(x) < degree of g(x) then f(x)/
g(x) is a proper rational function.
∫ x e dx
4x
2)
2

(3) If degree of f(x) ≥ degree of g(x) then

∫ x e dx
3x
3)
2
f(x)/g(x) is improper rational function.
∫ x e dx (4) If a function is improper then divide
x2
4)
3

f(x) by g(x) and this rational function

1 1 
5) e can be written in the following form
x
  2  dx
x x  f ( x) Remainder
x  Quotient  and can
g ( x) g ( x)
6)  e ( x  1)2 dx
x

be expressed as the sum of partial fractions

using following table.
Type Rational Form Partial Form
px  q A B
1 
( x  a )( x  b) xa xb
px 2  qx  r A B C
2  
( x  a )( x  b)( x  c) xa xb xc
px  q A B
3 
( x  a)2 x  a ( x  a)2
px 2  qx  r A B C
4  
( x  a ) 2 ( x  b) x  a ( x  a) 2
xb

px 2  qx  r A B C D
5   
( x  a )3 ( x  b) x  a ( x  a) ( x  a) x  b
2 3

px 2  qx  r A Bx  C
 2
6 ( x  a )(ax 2  bx  c) x  a ax  bx  c
2
where, ax ± bx ± c is non factorizable
133
 x3  4 x 2  3 x  11 5 7 1 5
=  x 2  5 x  6 dx I log x  2   log x  2  c
16 4 ( x  2) 16
2x  5
=  ( x  1) dx   x 2
 5x  6
dx
EXERCISE 5.6
x2 2x  5
= x 2 dx  cv Evaluate:
2 x  5x  6
2x 1
Express 2
2x  5

A

B 1)  ( x  1)( x  2) dx
x  5x  6 x  2 x  3
2x + 5 = A (x − 3) + B (x − 2) 2x 1
2)  x( x  1)( x  4) dx
Put x = 2 we get A = −9
Put x = 3 we get B = 11 x2  x 1
3)  x 2  x  6 dx
2x  5 9 11
I=   x
x  5x  6 x  2 x  3 4)  ( x  1) ( x  2) dx
2
2

∴ x2  9 11 
I  x     dx  cv
 x 2 x3 3x  2
2 5)  ( x  1) ( x  3) dx
2

∴ x  4 x  3 x  11
3 2
x 2
I  dx   x 1
x  5x  6 x
 x( x
2
6) dx
5
 1)
9log x  2  11log x  3  c

1
3x  1
7)  x( x n
 1)
dx
5.  ( x  2)2 ( x  2) dx
5 x 2  20 x  6
Express 8)  x3  2 x 2  x dx
3x  1 A B C
  
( x  2) ( x  2) x  2 ( x  2)
2 2
x2
3x + 1 = A (x − 2) (x + 2) + B (x + 2) +
Activity
C (x − 2)2
Put x = 2 B = 7/4
x 1
x = −2, C = −5/16 Evaluate:  ( x  3)( x  2) dx
Comparig Coefficients of x2 on both sides
we get Now,
x 1

  
A+C=0 A = 5/16 ( x  3)( x  2) ( x  3) ( x  2)
5 7 5 There is no indicator of what the numerators
3x  1 should be, so there is work to be done to find
 16  4  16
( x  2) 2 ( x  2) x  2 ( x  2) 2 x  2 them. If we let the numerator be variables, we
can use algebra to solve. That is we want to find
5 1 7 1 5 1 constants A and B that make equation 2 below
I 
16 x  2
dx  
4 ( x  2) 2
dx  
16 x  2
dx
true for x = 2,3 which are the same constants that
make the following equation true.

135
 ex Activities
iv)  2x
e  4e  13 x
dx
1
dx 1)  (x  5 x  4)
2 x dx
 x[(logx)2  4logx  1]
2
v)
2x C D
dx Solution:  
vi)  5  16 x 2       x  4
∴ 2x = C (x − 4) + D (x − 1)
dx
vii) 
25 x  x(logx) 2 ∴ C= ,D=
x
e  
viii)  4e 2x
1
dx
 ( x  1)( x  4) 2 x dx    ( x  1)  ( x  4)  dx
∴
4) Evaluate. =  ( x  1) dx   ( x  4) dx
i) ∫ (logx) dx
2

= + +c
ii) 1 x
e
x
dx
(2  x) 2
2) x (1  x5/ 2 )1/ 2 dx
13/ 2

∫ xe
2x
iii) dx
Solution: ∫xx3/2 (1 + x5/2) dx = ∫(x5/2)2 x3/2
iv)  log( x  x)dx (1 + x5/2) dx
2

let 1 + x5/2 = t
v)
∫e
x
dx
dx = dt

vi)
 x 2  2 x  5dx
I =
2
∫ (t − 1)2 t1/2 dt
5
vii)  x 2  8 x  7 dx
=
2 2
(t − 2t + 1) t1/2 dt
5
5) Evaluate. 2
= [ dt = ∫ dt + dt]
3x  1 5
i)  2 x 2  x  1 dx
2
= { − + }+c
2 x  3x  9 x  1
3 2
5
ii)  2 x 2  x  10 dx
dx
(1  log x) 3)  ( x  2)( x  1)
= .......... (given)
 x(3  logx)(2  3logx) dx
2
iii)
1
x 2
1
dx  tan 1 x  c

1 Bx  C
Solution:   2
( x  2)( x  1) ( x  2) ( x  1)
2

139
 6 Definite Integration

Let's Study SOLVED EXAMPLES

Ex 1 : Evaluate:
• Definite Integral
• Properties of Definite Integral 3

i) ∫ x dx
4

Introduction 1
1
We know that if f(x) is a continuous function
ii)  (2 x  5) dx
0
of x, then there exists a function φ(x) such that
φ'(x) = f(x). In this case, φ(x) is an integral of 1
1
f(x) with respect to x and we denote it by iii)  1 x  x
dx
∫ f(x) dx = φ(x) + c. Now, if we restrict the domain of 0

f(x) to (a, b), then the difference φ(b) - φ(a) is called Solution:
definite integral of f(x) w.r.t. x on the interval
b x5
i) Here f(x) = x4, φ(x) = +c
[a, b] and is denoted by  f  x dx .
a 3
5
b

Thus  f  x dx = φ(b) − φ(a) ∫ f ( x) dx = [φ(x)]32

2
a

The numbers a and b are called limits of 3

3
 x5  35 25
integration, 'a' is referred to as the lower limit of ∫ x dx = 5  5  5
4

integral and b is the upper limit of integral. 2  2

Note that the domain of the variable x is 243 32 211
restircted to the interval (a, b) and a, b are finite =  
5 5 5
numbers.
1
1 1
Let's Learn 0 (2 x  5)
ii) dx =
2
[log|2x + 5|]10

1
6.1 Fundamental theorem of Intergral = [log7 − log5]
Calculus.
2
Let f be a continuous function defined on 1 7
= log
(a, b) 2 5

 f  x  dx
1
= φ(x) + c. 1
b
iii) 
0 1 x  x
dx

Then  f  x dx = [φ(x) + c]ba 1

1 x  x
a = [φ(b) + c] − [φ(a) + c] =  dx
= φ(b) − φ(a)
0  1 x  x  1 x  x 
1 x  x
1
There in no need of taking the constant of
integration c, because it gets eliminated.
= 
0
1 x  x
dx

141
 dx log x
4 2
ii) 
0 x  2x  3
2
ii) ∫
1
x 2
dx

4 2
1
 dx 1
=
0 x  2x 11 3
2
= ∫ log x. x
1
2
.dx
2
  1   1  x 1 
2
4 1
= 
1
dx =  log x. x2
.dx  

(log x     
 x  1 1 x  1 
 dx
0 ( x  1)  ( 2 )
2 2

2
  1  1 
log ( x  1)  ( x  1) 2  ( 2 ) 2 
4
= log x  x   x 
=   0    1
 1   1 1
log ( x  1)  x 2  2 x  3 
4
=  log 2  .log 1    
=   0  2   2 1
1 1
= log(5  16  8  3)  log (1  3 ) = log 2 
2 2
= log(5  3 3)  log (1  3 ) 1
= ( log 2  1)
2
53 3 
= log   1
= ( log 2  log e)
 (1  3 )  2
1 e
Ex. 4: Evaluate: = log
2 2
2
i) ∫ log x dx
1
Ex. 5: Evaluate:
2
1
log x  ( x  1)( x  3) dx
2
i)
ii) ∫1 x 2 dx 1

3
1
Solution: ii)  x(1  x ) dx
1
2

2
i) I   log x dx Solution:
1
2
1
2
I   log x .1. dx
i)  ( x  1)( x  3) dx
1

A B
1
1
2 Let  
1
I   log x. x 1   x dx
2
( x  1)( x  3) ( x  1) ( x  3)
1
x
1 = A(x + 3) + B(x + 1) ............. (1)
 x log x  x 1
2
=
Putting x + 1 = 0
= (2log 2  1log1)  [2  1] i.e. x = −1 in equation (i) we get A =
1
2
= (log4 − 0) − 1 Putting x + 3 = 0
1
= log 4 − 1 i.e. x = −3 in equation (i) we get B 
2

144
 1 1 1
 = (log 3 − log 5)
1 2
 2  2
( x  1)( x  3) ( x  1) ( x  3)
= log 3  log 51/ 2  log 3  log 5
2
1
 ( x  1)( x  3) dx =
 3 
log  
1
 5
1 dx 1 dx
2 2

=   
2 1 x 1 2 1 x  3 EXERCISE 6.1

1 2
Evaluate the following definite intergrals:
= log x  1  log x  3 1
2
9
1
=
1 1
(log 3 − log 2) − (log 5 − log 4) 1. ∫ x
dx
2 2 4

3
1 3 5 1
= 
2
log  log 
2 4
2.  x  5 dx
2

1 6 3
x
=
2
log  
5 3. x
2
2
1
dx

3
1 x 2  3x  2
1
ii) 1 x(1  x 2 ) dx 4. 0 dx
x
1 A Bx  c
Let  
x
3
x(1  x ) x 1  x 2
2
5.  ( x  2)( x  3) dx
1  A(1  x 2 )  ( Bx  c) x .........(1) 2

Putting x = 0 in equation (i) we get A = 1 dx

2

Comparing the coefficient of x2 and x, we 6. x

1
2
 6x  5
dx
get A + B = 0, B = −1 & C = 0
a
1 1 x 7. If  (2 x  1) dx  2 , find the real value of a.
 
x(1  x ) x 1  x 2
2
0

a
dx
3
8. If  (3 x  2 x  1) dx  11 , find a.
2
1 x(1  x 2 ) 1
1
1
3
1
3
x 9.  dx
= 1 x dx  1 1  x 2 dx 0 1 x  x

3x
2

=
1
log x 1  log 1  x 2 
3 3
10.  (9 x
1
2
 1)
dx
2 1

3
11. ∫ log x dx
1
= (log 3 − log 1) − (log 10 − log 2)
2 1

3 1  10 
= log    log  
1 2  2

145
6.2 Properties of definite integrals b
f ( x)
In this section we will study some properties
4.  f ( x)  f (a  b  x) dx
a
of definite integrals which are very useful in
evaluating integrals. 7
(11  x 2 )
a
5. 4 x 2  (11  x 2 ) dx
Property 1 :  f ( x) dx  0
a

b a Solution:
Property 2 : 
a
f ( x) dx    f ( x) dx
b
1 0 1

b b
1. 
1
f ( x) dx = 
1
f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx
0
Property 3 :  f ( x) dx   f (t ) dt 0 1
a

b
a

c
=  (1  2 x) dx   (1  2 x) dx
1 0
Property 4 : 
a
f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx
a
0
=  x  x  1   x  x  0
2 2 1

  f ( x) dx, where a  c  b = 0  (1  1)  (1  1)  0

c
= 22  4
b b 1
2.
 x(1  x)
n
dx
Property 5 :  f ( x) dx  f (a  b  x) dx
a a 0
a a
a a
By property  f ( x) dx   f (a  x) dx
Property 6 :  f ( x) dx  f (a  x) dx
0 0
0 0
n
1
2a a a I =  (1  x) 1  (1  x)
Property 7 : 
0
f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx 
0

0
f (2a  x) dx 0
1

 (1  x) x
n
= dx
[If f(−x) = f(x), f(x) is an even function.
0
If f(−x) = −f(x), f(x) is an odd function.]
1

 (x
n
a a
=  x n 1 ) dx
Property 8 :  f ( x) dx  2  f ( x) dx if f is an 0
a 0
1 1
even function  x n 1   x n  2 
=  n  1   n  2 
= 0 if f is an odd function  0  0

SOLVED EXAMPLES 1 1 (n  2)  (n  1)
=  =
Ex. Evaluate the following integrals: n 1 n  2 (n  1) (n  2)
1
 1 2 x; x 0 1
=
1. 
1
f ( x ) dx where f(x) =  1 2 x; x 0

 n  1  n  2 
a 3 3 ( x  4) dx
2.  x(1  x) dx
n
3. Let I = 
0
3 ( x  4)  3 ( 7  x )
............ (1)
0

a a
x4
3

 f ( x) dx   f (a  x) dx
3
By property
3. 
0
3
x4  3 7x
dx
0 0

146
 b c b
EXERCISE 6.2 3)
 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx
a a c

Evaluate the following integrals: b b

4)
1)
9
x3  f ( x) dx   f (t ) dt
9 4  x 2 dx a a

a a
a 5) f ( x) dx f (a x) dx
2)  x (a  x) dx
2 3/ 2 0 0

0 b b
6) f ( x) dx f (a b x) dx
x5
3 3 a a
3)  3
x5  3 9 x
dx
2a a a

 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f (2a  x) dx
1
7)
x
5 0 0 0
4)
 x  7x
dx a a
2 8) 
a
f ( x) dx  2  f ( x) dx,, if f is even function,
0
x
2
5)  dx =0 , if f is odd function
1 3 x  x

7
x MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 6
6) 
2 x  9 x
dx
I) Choose the correct alternative.
1 
1
x3
9
7) 0 log  x  1 dx 1)  4  x 2 dx =
9

1 a) 0 b) 3 c) 9 d) −9
8)
 x(1  x) dx
5

dx
0 3

2)  x5
2
=
Let's Remember
8 8
a)  log   b) log  
 Rules for evaluating definite integrals. 3 3
b b b
3 3
1)  [ f ( x)  g ( x)]dx  [ f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx
a a a
c) log  
8
d)  log  
8
b b
x
3
2)  k f ( x)dx  k  f ( x) dx 3) x dx =
a a
2
2
1
 Properties of definite integrals 8 8
a) log   b)  log  
a 3 3
1)  f ( x) dx  0 1 8 −1 8
a c) log   d) log
b a
2 3 2 3
2)
 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx
a b

148
 7 Applications of Definite Integration

4. x2 = − 4by
Introduction

The theory of integration has a large variety

of applications in Science and Engineering. In
this chapter we shall use integration for finding
the area of a bounded region. For this, we first
draw the sketch (if possible) of the curve which
encloses the region. For evaluation of area
bounded by the certain curves, we need to know
the nature of the curves and their graphs. Fig. 7.1
7.2 Standard forms of ellipse
The shapes of different types of curves are
discussed below. x2 y 2
1)   1 ( a  b)
a 2 b2
7.1 Standard forms of parabola & their shapes
1. y2 = 4ax

Fig. 7.2
2. y2 = − 4ax x2 y 2
2)   1 ( a  b)
a 2 b2

3. x2 = 4by

Fig.7.3
152
(ii) The area of the portion lying above the
X-axis is positive. 0 0

(iii) If the curve under consideraion lies above

A1  
x 2
y dx   (2 x) dx
2

as well as below the X-axis, say A1 lies 0

below X-axis and A2 lies above X-axis (as = 2.  x dx

2
in Fig. 7.8), then A, the area of the region is
given by,
0
 x2 
=  2. 
A = A1 + A2  2  2

= 0  4  4 sq. units

 x2  4
4
A2   2 x dx  2   = (42-02) = 16-0 = 16
0  2 0
A = A1 + A2 = 4 + 16 = 20 sq. units

SOLVED EXAMPLES

1. Find the area of the regions bounded by the

following curves, the X-axis and the given
Fig. : 7.8 lines.
(a) y = x2, x = 1, x = 3
t b
(b) y2 = 4x, x = 1, x = 4
A1 =  f ( x) dx and A2   f ( x) dx
a t
(c) y = −2x, x = −1, x = 2
Area A bounded by the curve y = 2x, X-axis
and lines x = −2 and x = 4 is A1 +A2. Solution: Let A denote the required area in
each case.

Fig. : 7.9 Fig. : 7.10

154
 3 Required area A = A1 + |A2|
(a) A = ∫ y dx 0 2

1
3
A2   (2 x) dx 
1
  2 x  dx
0
= ∫ x dx
2
0
 x2
2
1  2 x2 
=  2    
1 33 1 3 3 1
= [ x ]1 =  3  1    27  1  2  1  2  0
3 3 3 0 2
26 =   x 2    x 2 
= sq. units 1 0
3
4
= (0  1)  (4  0)
(b) A = ∫ y dx
1
A = 5 sq. units
4 2. Find the area of the region bounded by the
= ∫ 2 x dx parabola y2 = 16x and the line x = 4.
1
2 3/ 2 4 4 Solution: y2 = 16x
= 2. [ x ]1 = (43/2 - 13/2)
3 3 ∴ y = ±4 x
4 28
= (8 - 1) = sq. units ∴ A = Area POCP + Area QOCQ
3 3
= 2(Area POCP) (why?)
4
= 2 ∫ y dx
0

4
= 2 ∫ 4. x dx
0

Fig. : 7.11

(c) A = (Area below X-axis) +

(Area above X-axis)

Fig. : 7.13

 y lies above X-axis

2
= 8 . . [ x3/ 2 ]04
3
16 128
= . [8] = sq.units
3 3
Fig. : 7.12
155
3. Find the area of the region bounded by the
curve x2 = 16y, y = 1, y = 4, and the Y - axis
lying in the first quadrant. 4
Solution: Required area = ∫ x.dy
1
4 4

∫ 16 y dy = 4 ∫ y 2 . dy
1
∴ A =
1 1

4
 2 32  8
=  4. 3 y   3  7
1
Fig. : 7.15
56
= sq. units.
3 b 2
y = a − x2
a

 In first quadrant, y > 0

a
∴ A = 4.∫ y dx
0

a
b 2
= 4. a  x 2 dx
0
a
a
4b  x 2 a2  x 
Fig. : 7.14 =  a  x 2
 . sin 1   
a 2 2  a 0

4b  a 2 a2 
Find the area of the ellipse x  y  1 .
2 2
4. =  sin 1
(1)  sin 1 (0) 
a 2 b2 a 2 2 
Given
4b a 2 π
x 2 a2 x = . . -0
a 2 2
 a 2  x 2 dx 
2
a  x 2  sin 1  
2 a
= π ab sq.units.
π
sin (1) = 2 , sin−1(0) = 0
−1
5. Find the area of the region bounded by the
curve y = x2 and the line y = 4.
Solution: From the equation of ellipse Solution:
x2 y 2
 1 Equation of curve is y = x2 .......... (i)
a 2 b2
y2 x2 and equation of line is y = 4 .... (ii)
∴ = 1 −
b2 a2 Because of symmentry,
b2 2 Required area = 2 [Area in first quadrant]
y2 = (a − x 2 )
a2 4

b 2 A = 2.∫ x . dy
y =  a  x2 0
a

156
 4
= 2.∫ y dy MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 7
0

2 I) Choose the correct alternative.

4
= 2 × [ y 3/ 2 ]04 = (43/2 - 03/2)
3 3 1) Area of the region bounded by the curve
x2 = y, the X-axis and the lines x = 1 and
4 32
= (8 - 0) = sq.units. x = 3 is ___________
3 3
26 3
a) sq. units b) sq.units
3 26
c) 26 sq. units d) 3 sq. units

2) The area of the region bounded by y2 = 4x,

the X-axis and the lines x = 1 & x = 4 is
___________
a) 28 sq. units b) 3 sq. units
28 3
c) sq. units d) sq. units
3 28
Fig. : 7.16
3) Area of the region bounded by x2 = 16y,
y = 1 & y = 4 and the Y=axis. lying in the
first quadrant is ___________
EXERCISE 7.1 a) 63 sq. units b)
3
sq. units
56
1. Find the area of the region bounded by the 56 63
following curves, the X-axis and the given c) sq.units d) sq.units
3 7
lines:
i) y = x4, x = 1, x = 5 4) Area of the region bounded by y = x4, x = 1,
x = 5 and the X-axis is ___________
ii) y= 6 x + 4 , x = 0, x = 2
3142 3124
a) sq.units b) sq. units
iii) y = 16 − x 2 , x = 0 , x = 4 5 5
3142 3124
iv) 2y = 5x + 7, x = 2, x = 8 c) sq. units d) sq. units
3 3
v) 2y + x = 8, x = 2, x = 4
5) Using definite integration area of circle
vi) y = x2 + 1, x = 0, x = 3
x2 + y2 = 25 is ___________
vii) y = 2 − x2, x = −1, x = 1
a) 5π sq. units b) 4π sq. units
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the
c) 25πsq. units d) 25 sq. units
parabola y2 = 4x and the line x = 3.
3. Find the area of circle x2 + y2 = 25
x2 y 2
4. Find the area of ellipse  1
4 25

157
II. Fill in the blanks. 3) Find the area of the region bounded by the
1) Area of the region bounded by y = x4, x = 1, curve y = x2 and the line y = 10.
x = 5 and the X-axis is ___________ x2 y 2
4) Find the area the ellipse   1.
2) Using definite integration area of the circle 16 9
x2 + y2 = 49 is _________
5) Find the area of the region bounded by
3) Area of the region bounded by x2 = 16y, y = x2, the X-axis and x = 1, x = 4.
y = 1, y = 4 and the Y-axis lying in the first
quadrant is _____________ 6) Find the area of the region bounded by the
curve x2 = 25y, y = 1, y = 4 and the Y-axis.
4) The area of the region bounded by the
curve x2 = y, the X-axis and the lines x = 3 7) Find the area of the region bounded by the
and x = 9 is ___________ parabola y2 = 25x and the line x = 5.

5) The area of the region bounded by y2 = 4x, Activities

the X-axis and the lines x = 1 & x = 4 is
___________ From the following information find the area
III) State whether each of the following is of the shaded regions.
True or False. 1)
1) The area bounded by the curve x = g(y),
Y-axis and bounded between the lines y = c
d y d

and y = d is given by  x dy  
c y c
g ( y ) dy

2) The area bounded by two curves y = f(x),

b a

y = g(x) and X-axis is  f ( x) dx   g ( x) dx

a b

3) The area bounded by the curve

y = f(x), X-axis and lines x = a and x = b is
b

∫ f ( x) dx
a

2)
4) If the curve, under consideration, is below
the X-axis, then the area bounded by curve,
X-axis and lines x = a, x = b is positive.
5) The area of the portion lying above the
X-axis is positive.
IV) Solve the following.
1) Find the area of the region bounded by
the curve xy = c2, the X-axis, and the lines
x = c, x = 2c.
2) Find the area between the parabolas
y2 = 7x and x2 =7y.

158
 8 Differential Equations and Applications

dr
Let's Study 4) r  e  8
d
• Differential Equation dy d 2 y
5) 1 
• Ordinary differential equation dx dx 2
• Order and degree of a differential equation 6) x dx  y dy  0
• Solution of a differential equation 8.1.1 Ordinary differential equation
• Formation of a differential equation A differential equation in which the
• Applications of differential equations dependent variable, say y, depends only on one
independent variable, say x, is called an ordinary
differential equation.
Let's Recall
8.1.2 Order of a differential equation
• Independent variable It is the order of the highest order derivative
• Dependent variable occurring in the differential equation.

• Equation dy
 y  x is of order 1
dx
• Derivatives
d2y dy
• Integration x2  x  y  0 is of order 2
dx 2
dx
2
 d2y  dy
Let's Learn  2  x  2 y is of order 2
 dx  dx
8.1 Differential Equations: 2dy
= e x is of order 1
dx
Definition: An equation involving
dependent variable(s), independent variable
and derivative(s)of dependent variable(s) with 8.1.3 Degree of a differential equation
respect to the independent variable is called a It is the power of the highest order
differential equation. derivative when all the derivatives are made free
For example : from fractional indices and negative sign,if any.
dy For example -
1) yx
dx
1
 d2y  dy
1) x  2  x y0
2

d y
2
dy  dx  dx
2) x2 x y0
dx 2
dx
In this equation, the highest order derivative
2
d y 2
d y
3) = 2t is and its power is one. Therefore this
dt 2 dx 2

160
 dy iii) y = ex, dy
∴ = − e−x + a ........................ II =y
dx dx
Differentiating both sides of equation II iv) y = 1 − logx d 2 y dy
with respect to x, we get x 2 = 1  2 y
dx 2 dx
d 2 y dy−x
= e  2 y v) y = aex + be−x d 2 y dy
dx 2 dx
d 2 y dyx −x = y  2 y
Consider L.H.S. = e  2 y)
= e (e x dx 2 dx
dx 2 dx
= e0 = 1 = R.H.S. vi) ax2 + by2 = 5 d 2 y dy dy  2 dy
xy 
2 + x
 2 y = y.
Therefore, the given function is a general dx dx dx  dx
solution of the given differential equation.
8.1.5 Formation of a differential equation:
EXERCISE 8.1 By eliminating arbitary constants

1. Determine the order and degree of the If the order of a differential equation is n,
following differential equations. differentiate the equation n times to eliminate
arbitrary constants.
d 2 x  dx 
2

i)   8  0
dt 2  dt  SOLVED EXAMPLES
2 2
 d 2 y   dy  1. Form the differential equation of the line
ii)  2     a
x

 dx dx
   having x-intercept 'a' and y-intercept 'b'.
3 Solution: The equation of a line is given by,
d 4 y   dy  
2

iii)  1     x y
dx 4   dx     1 ............... I
a b
 y '''  2  y ''  6 y ' 7 y  0
2 2
iv) Differeentiating equation I with r. t. x we
get,
 dy 
3/ 2
1
v) 1  
 dy   dx  1 1 dy 1 dy
2
1
    0,  
 dx  a b dx b dx a
dy d2y dy b
vi) =7 2   ................. II
dx dx dx a

 d3y 
1/ 6 Differentiating equation II with r. t. x we
vii)  3  9 d 2 y dy
 dx  get, 2 = 0 is 2the
y required differential
dx dx
2. In each of the following examples, verify equation.
that the given function is a solution of the
2. Obtain the differential equation from the
corresponding differential equation.
relation Ax2 + By2 = 1, where A and B are
Solution D.E. constant.
i) xy = log y + y' (1 − xy) = y2 Solution: The given equation is
k
Ax2 + By2 = 1 .................... I
ii) y = xn
d 2 y dy xdy
x2 − n × 2 y + n y = 0 Differentiating equation I twice with
dx 2 dx dx respect to x, we get,

162
 dy dy
2Ax + 2 By =0 that is 2x3 - y3 + 3xy2 = 0.
dx dx
dy is the required differential equation.
Ax + By = 0 .................... II and
dx
We have learnt:
 d 2 y  dy  2 
A + B  y 2     = 0 ............... III To form a differential equation by
 ax  dx   eliminating arbitrary constants, if 'n' arbitrary
since the equations I, II & III are consistent constants are present in the given equation
in A and B, then differentiate the given equation 'n' times.

x2 y2 1
dy EXERCISE 8.2
 x y 0 0
dx
1. Obtain the differential equation by
d 2 y  dy 
2

1 y 2   0 eliminating arbitrary constants from the

dx  dx  following equations.

  d 2 y  dy  2  i) y = Ae3x + B.e−3x
dy c
  x  y 2      1 y. 0 ii) y = c2 + 1
 dx  dx   dx x
2 iii) y = (c1 + c2x) ex
d2y dy dy
xy 2 x y 0 iv) y = c1e3x + c2e2x
dx dx dx
is the required differential equation. v) y2 = (x + c)3

3. Form the differential equation whose 2. Find the differential equation by eliminating
general solution is x3 +y3 = 4ax arbitrary constants from the relation
Solution: Given equation is x2 + y2 = 2ax

x3 + y3 = 4ax .............I 3. Form the differential equation by

eliminating arbitrary constants from the
Since the given equation contains only relation bx + ay = ab.
one arbitrary constant, the required differential
equation will be of order one. 4. Find the differential equation whose
general solution is x3 + y3 = 35ax.
Differentiating equation I with respect to x,
we get, 5. Form the differential equation from the
dy relation x2 + 4y2 = 4b2.
3x2 + 3y2 = 4a .................. II
dx
To eliminate a from the equations I & II, 8.2.1 Solution of a Differential Equation:
substitute the value of 4a from equation II Variable Separable Method.
in I Sometimes, a differential equation of first
dy
x3 + y3 = x (3x2 + 3y2 ) order and first degree can be written in the form
dx f(x) dx + g(y) dy = 0 ........................ I
dy where f(x) and g(y) are functions of x and y
x3 + y3 = 3x3 + 3xy2
dx respectively.

163
 dt t  1  2t  3 t  2 2. For each of the following differential
  equations find the particular solution.
dx t 1 t 1
t 1 i) (x − y2x)dx − (y + x2y) dy = 0,
.dt  dx
t2 when x = 2, y = 0
t 1 dy
Integrating we get,  dt = − ∫1dx + c ii) (x + 1) − 1 = 2e−5,
t2 dx
 t  2   1 dt  when y = 0, x = 1
=  1.dx  c
t2 iii) y (1 + logx) dx/dy - x log x = 0,
 1  when x = e, y = e2.
=  1   dt   1.dx  c
 t2 dy
iv) = (4x + y + 1), when y = 1, x = 0
t − log (t + 2) = −x + c, dx
8.3.1 Homogeneous Differential Equation:
Resubstituting the value of t, we get,
Definition : A differential equation
x − y − log (x−y+2) = −x + c
f(x, y) dx + g(x, y) dy = 0 is said to be
2x - y − log (x − y + 2) = c ......................I Homogeneous Differential Equation
which is the required general solution. if f(x, y) and g(x, y) are homogeneous
To determine the particular solution functions of the same degree.

we have x = 0 and y = 1, Substitute in I For example:

2(0) − 1 − log(0 − 1 + 2) = c, 1) x3dx + y3dy = 0 is homogeneous differential

equation because x3 and y3 are homogeneous
c = −1 functions of the same degree.
2x − y − log (x − y + 2) + 1 = 0 is the 2) x2ydx + 8y3dy = 0 is homogeneous
particular solution. differential equation because x2y and y3
are homogeneous functions of the same
We have leant: degree.
To solve a differential equation of first 8.3.2 Solution of Homogeneous Differential
order and first degree, separate the variables Equation:
and integrate the equation.
Method to solve Homogeneous Differential
Equation:
EXERCISE 8.3 To solve homogeneous differential
equation
1. Solve the following differential equations
f(x,y)dx + g(x,y) dy = 0, .......................
dy
i) = x2y + y we write it as
dx dy f ( x, y )
= ..........................II
dθ dx g ( x, y )
ii) = − k (θ − θO)
dt
To solve this equation we substitute
iii) (x2 − yx2) dy + (y2 + xy2) dx = 0
y=tx
dy dy dy dt
iv) y3  x tx
dx dx dx dx

165
 log x (1 − t2) = log c, y. (I.F.) = ∫Q. (I.F) dx + c
y
x(1 − t2) = c. Resubstitute the value of t = , where I.F. (Integrating factor) = e∫pdx
x
we get
Let's Note: If given equation is linear in x,
 y  2
x( x  y )
2 2
x 1  2   c , c dx
 x  x2 that is + P.x = Q, where P and Q are functions
dy
(x2 − y2) = cx
of y only then its solution is given by
which is the required general solution.
x.(I.F.) = ∫ Q. (I.F.) dy + c,
We have learnt : where I.F. = e∫pdy
To solve a homogeneous differential Working rule to solve first order Linear
equation, separate the variables using Differential Equation.
y
substitution = t and integrate it. i. Write the equation in the form
x dy
+ P y = Q.
dx
EXERCISE 8.4 ii. Find I.F = e∫pdx
Solve the following differential equations. iii. The solution of the given differential
equation is y. (I.F.) = ∫Q. (I.F.) dx + c
1. xdx + 2y dx = 0
2. y2dx + (xy + x2) dy = 0 SOLVED EXAMPLES
3. x2y dx − (x3 + y3) dy = 0
dy
1. Solve  x y
dy x  2 y dx
4.  0
dx 2 x  y
Solution : Given equation can be written
5. (x − y ) dx + 2xy dy = 0
2 2 dy
as yx
6. xy dy/dx = x2 + 2y2 dx
Here P = −1 and Q = x
7. x2 dy/dx = x2 + xy − y2
I.F. = e  pdx  e  1dx  e  x
8.4.1 Linear Differential Equation : Hence the solution of the given equation is
General Form given by
The general form of a linear differential y.e  x   x.e  x dx  c
equation of first degree is
xe  x e x
1  1
x
dy y.e   dx  c
+ P y = Q ...................I,
dx
y.e  x  e  x ( x  1)  c
where P and Q are functions of x only or
constants. x + y + 1 = cex

8.4.2 Solution of Linear Differential dy y

2. Solve   x3  3
Equation: dx x
dy Solution : Given equation is of the type.
To solve + Py = Q .................I
dx dy
The solution of equation I is given by  Py  Q,
dx
167
 1 8.5.1 Applications of Differential Equations
where P = x and Q = x3 − 3
1) Population Growth and Growth of
1
∫ dx Bacteria.
I.F. = e ∫P dx = e x
= elogx = x
If the population (P) increases at time t
The solution of the above equation is then the rate of change of P is proportional to
given by the population present at that time.
y.(I.F.) = ∫Q.(I.F.) dx + c dp dp
This is  p,  kp
y. x = ∫(x − 3). x dx + c
3
dt dt
xy = ∫(x4 − 3x) dx + c where k is the constant of proportionality.
dp
Integrating 
p 
x5 3x 2  kdt  c
xy =   c, which is the solution of
5 2
log P = kt +c
the given differential equation.

We have learnt: ∴ P = ekt + c = a .ekt where ec = a,

To solve first order Linear Differential which gives the population at any time t.
Equation
dy SOLVED EXAMPLES
i. wirte the equation in the form +Py=
dx
Q. 1. Bacteria increase at the rate proportional
ii. Find I.F. = e ∫pdx to the number of bacteria present. If the
original number N doubles in 3 hours, find
iii) The solution of the given differential in how many hours the number of bacteria
equation is y.(I.F.) = ∫Q.(I.F.) dx + c will be 4N.
Solution: Let x be the number of bacteria at
EXERCISE 8.5 time t. Since the rate of increase of x is
proportinal to x, the differential equation
Solve the following differential equations dx
can be written as ∝x
dy dt
i.  y  e x dx
dx = kx, where k is constant of
dy dt
ii.  y3 proportionality. Integrating we get,
dx
dy dx
iii. x  2 y  x 2 log x  x
 k  1.dt  c
dx
dy Solving this differential equation we get,
iv. ( x  y)  1
dx logx = kt + c,
v. ydx  ( x  y )dy  0
2
x = a ekt, where a = ec .................I
dy given that when t = 0, x = N.
vi  2 xy  x
dx From equation I we get N = a.1,
dy
vii. ( x  a )   y  (a ) a = N , x = N ekt ............. II
dx
Also when t = 3, x = 2N,
viii. dr  (2r )d  8d
From equation II, we have 2N = N e3k
168
Solution:
EXERCISE 8.6
If x is the amount of material present at
time t then 1. In a certain culture of bacteria, the rate
dx of increase is proportional to the number
∝=x −kt, where k is constant of present. If it is found that the number
dt
proportionality doubles in 4 hours, find the number of times
the bacteria are increased in 12 hours.
dx
 x    kdt  c 2. If the population of a town increases at a
rate proportional to the population at that
log x = − kt + c
time. If the population increases from
x = e−kt + c = e−kt .ec 40 thousands to 60 thousands in 40 years,
x = a.e−kt, where a = ec. .................... I what will be the population in another
20 years?
Given when t = 0 , x = 800
3
From I we get, 800 = a.1 = a (Given : = 1.2247)
2
x = 800 e−kt ........................II
3. The rate of growth of bacteria is
when t = 5, x = 400 from II proportional to the number present. If
400 = 800 e−5k initially, there were 1000 bacteria and the
1 number doubles in 1 hour, find the number
e−5k = of bacteria after 5/2 hours.
2
Now we have to find x, when t = 30 (Given : 2 = 1.414)
From II we have 4. Find the population of a city at any time t
x = 800 e−30k = 800 (e−5k)6 given that the rate of increase of population
1 800
6 is proportional to the population at that
= 800   = = 12.5 instant and that in a period of 40 years the
2 64
population increased from 30000 to 40000.
The mass remaining after 30 days will be
12.5 mg. dv
5. The rate of depreciation of a machine
dt
We have learnt : is inversely proportional to the square of
For decay t + 1, where V is the value of the machine
If x is the amount of any dacaying material t years after it was purchased. The initial
present at time t then value of the machine was Rs. 8,00,000 and
dx its value decreased Rs. 1,00,000 in the first
∝ =x −kx, where k is constant of year.
dt
proportionality and k ≠ 0. The negative sign Find its value after 6 years.
appears because x decreases as t increases,
Interating we get
dx Let's Remember
 x   k dt that is log x = −kt + c
1. An equation which involves polynomials
∴ log x = −kt + c, x = e−kt + c = e−kt.ec of differentials of dependent variables with
∴ x = a.e−kt, where a = ec. respect to the independent variable is called
a differential equation.
170
 dy x  y  1
4) Solve 
dx x  y  1
2 1
when x = and y = Where P = and, Q =
3 3
5) Solve ydx − xdy = − log x dx ∴ I.F. = e∫dx =
dx ∴ the solution of the linear differential
6) Solve ylogy  x  logy  0
dy equation is
7) Solve ( x  y )dy  a 2 dx y = ∫ 2x (I.F.) dx + c.
dy 2
8) Solve  y  x2 ∴ ye−x = ∫2x dx + c
dx x
9) The rate of growth of population is ye−x = 2 ∫x dx
proporational to the number present. d
= 2{x∫e−x dx − ∫ dx dx} + c
If the population doubled in the last 25 years −x −x
dx
and the present population is 1 lac, when e e
= 2 {x −∫ .1 dx
will the city have population 4,000,000?  
−x
10) The resale value of a machine decreases
over a 10 year period at a rate that depends ∴ e y = −2xe−x + 2 ∫ dx + c1
on the age of the machine. When the e−xy = −2xe−x + 2 + c2
machine is x years old, the rate at which
its value is changing is ` 2200 (x − 10) per y + + = cex is the
year. Express the value of the machine as a required general solution of the given
function of its age and initial value. If the differential equation.
machine was originally worth ` 1,20,000
how much will it be worth when it is 10
b
years old? 2) Verify y = a +
is a solution of
x
11) y 2 dx  ( xy  x 2 )dy  0 d2y dy
x 2 2 0
12) x 2 ydx  ( x 3  y 3 )dy  0 dx dx
b
y = a+
dy x
13) yx  x2  2 y 2 dy
dx =
dx
dy
14) ( x  2 y 3 ) y d2y
dx =
15) ydx  xdy  log xdx  0 dx 2
d2y dy
dy Consider x 2 + 2
16) = logx dx dx
dx
=x +2
dy
17) ylogy  log y  x =
dx
b
Hence y = a + is a solution of
Activities x
1) Complete the following activity.
dy
The equation  y  2 x is of the form
dx

v v v
173
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