 Types of stress: -

Stress is of three types.

(6M) Tensile stress (Longitudinal stress):
When the deformation consists of a change in
 Deformation: - The forces applied to a body can the length of the body, the stress in it is called
produce a change in shape or size or both in shape tensile stress or longitudinal stress.
or size of the body. Such a change is called ∴Tensile stress =
deformation.
 Deforming forces: -The forces which produce = =
deformation in the body are called deforming Volume stress:
forces. When deformation consists of a change in the
E.g. when a rubber cord is pulled at both the ends, volume of a body, the stress in it is called as
its length increase. The increase in length of the volume stress.
cord is its deformation and the pulls applied at the Volume stress= =
. .
ends are the deforming forces. ∴ Volume stress = Change in pressure=dp
 Elasticity: - Theproperty of a body due to which it Shearing stress:
is deformed when deforming forces are applied to it, When deformation consists of a change in the
and regains its original dimensions as soon as the shape of a body, the stress in it is called as
deforming forces are removed, is called elasticity. shearing stress.
E.g. the shape of a hacksaw blade changes when Shearing stress= .
forces are applied to bend it, but as soon as applied =
forces are removed, it regains its original shape.
Q. Distinguish between elastic & Plastic Body.  Strain:-
Ans:- The ratio of change in dimensions per unit
Elastic Body Plastic Body original dimensions is called as strain.
1) A body which gets deformed 1) A body which gets deformed Strain =
when deforming forces are applied easily when deforming forces are
to it and which regains its original applied to it, but it does not regain Strain is ratio of similar quantities hence it is
dimension as soon as the deforming its original dimension when the
forces are removed, is called as forces are removed is called as unit less and dimensionless. It is pure number.
elastic body. plastic body
 Types of stress: -
2) For Deformation, a sufficiently 2) For Deformation, a very small
target force is necessary. force is necessary There are three types of strain.
3) Internal restoring forces are 3) Internal restoring forces are not Tensile stress (Longitudinal stress):- When
produced in the body during produced in the body during
deformation deformation the deformation consists of a change in the
4) Deforming forces produces 4) Deformating forces produce length of the body, the strain is called tensile
temporary deformation permanent deformation
5) E.g.: Rubber cord Metallic wires. 5) E.g.: Wax, mud, plastic strain or longitudinal strain.
The ratio of change in length per unit original
 Stress length is called tensile strain.
When external forces are applied to body, the Tensile strain = =
body is deformed. Due to this deformation, internal Volume strain: - When the deformation
forces are set up within the body consists of a change in volume of the body, the
Stress: - The internal restoring force per unit area is
strain in it is called Volume strain.
called stress. The ratio of change volume to original volume.
∴Stress= =
Volume Strain= =
The internal restoring force is equal to the applied force Shearing strain:- When the deformation
consists of a change in the shape of the body
∴Stress = =
the strain in it is called shearing strain or shear.”
30

The Dimensions of stress are [ ⁻ ⁻

] The ratio of change in shape to the original
Page

2 shape.
SI unit of stress is Or N/m Or Pascal.
Mr. G. S. Khairnar’s Physics Notes. Mahad. (5.Elasticity)
  Bulk modulus:-
Q. Obtain an expression for Bulk modulus of
material.
Ans.: - The modulus of elasticity related to a
change in the volume is bulk modulus (k).
Bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of the
Shearing strain= volume stress to the volume strain.
= = = tanθ≈ ∴ =
Let volume V is subjected to an additional
θ is angle of shear in radian i.e. Shearing strain = shear
pressure dp, The increase in pressure will
 Hooke’s law: - (Robert Hooke, 1703 U.K.) produce a decrease in its volume dv.
Statement:- “Within the elastic limit, stress is ∴Volume stress = Change in pressure
directly proportional to strain.” = dp
∴ ∴Volume Strain= =
∴ = constant(M)
∴ = =
The constant of proportionality is called as
Modulus of elasticity. ∴ K = ⁄
Modulus of elasticity =
i.e. The ratio of strain per unit strain is called, ∴ K =
modulus of elasticity. This property is possessed by solids, liquids and
SI unit of Modulus of elasticity is Or N/m2 Or Pascal. gases. It depends on temperature and a material.
There are three types of module of elasticity :  Compressibility:-
1) Young’s modulus2) Bulk modulus3)Modulus of Reciprocal of Bulk modulus is called
rigidity Compressibility.
 Modulus of rigidity.
 Young’s modulus:- Q. Obtain an expression for the modulus of
Q. Obtain an expression for the Young’s modulus rigidity of rigidity of a material.
of the material of a wire. Ans.: - The modulus of rigidity (n) is the
Ans.: - Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of modulus of elasticity corresponding to a change
tensile stress to the tensile strain in the shape of a body.”
∴ = The ratio of the sharing stress to the shearing
strain is called Modulus of Rigidity.
Suppose that a wire of length L and radius r is ℎ
∴ =
suspended from a rigid support and mass M is ℎ
attached to its free end. Let l be the increase in its . The ratio of the lateral displacement of any
length. layer will be constant. This constant is shearing
ℓ
∴Tensile strain= = strain or shear. If A is the area of each face of
the cube.
∴Tensile strain= = L ℎ
=
ℎ
∴ = /
=
( ⁄ )
∴ = = or
(ℓ⁄ )

∴Y= F=Mg η=
ℓ
31

This property is possesses by solids only, since it has As only solids have definite volume. Modulus of
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definite length. Rigidity is possessed by solids only.

Mr. G. S. Khairnar’s Physics Notes. Mahad. (5.Elasticity)
 Poisson’s ratio.  Young’s Modulus by Searle’s apparatus.
Q. Obtain an expression for Poisson’s ratio. Q. Describe the experiment to determine
Ans.: - Simeon Poisson observed that if a load is Young’s Modulus by Searle’s method.
applied to the free end of a suspended wire, it gets Ans : - ‘Y’ by Searle’s method :
elongated. At the same time, there is decrease in its
diameter.
The ratio of the lateral contraction strain to the
longitudinal elongation strain is called Poisson’s
ratio (σ).
Let L and D be the original length and diameter
of the wire. When it is loaded, let l be the change in
its length and d be the corresponding change in its
diameter
Lateral contraction strain = =

Longitudinal elongation strain = =

 Construction:-
Searle’s apparatus consists of two vertical
∴ =
frames P and Q joined by third frames R such
⁄ that relative displacement between frames P
∴ = =
⁄ and Q is possible.
In homogeneous isotropic material -1 ≤σ≤ 0.5. One end of the spirit level is fixed in frames P
In actual practice σ is always positive & for metal and the other rests on the tip of the micrometer
σ = 0.3 0.2 ≤ σ ≤ 0.4 for rubber 0.5. screw in the frame Q.
Two identical wires are suspended from rigid
 Relation between elastic constants: support and their ends are connected to tops of
Relation between Young’s modulus, Modulus or the frames P and Q.
rigidity & Poisson’s ratio, A dead L load is suspended from frame P and
η= a hanger H is suspended from frame Q.
( )
Relation between Young’s modulus, Bulk  Procedure : -
modulus & Modulus of rigidity, When dead load and hanger are suspended,
K= spirit level is adjusted and micrometer screw
( ) and reading is noted.
Relation between Young’s modulus, bulk modulus The difference between the micrometer
and modulus of rigidity, readings gives the change in the length of the
9 3 1
= + wire.
Relation between Poisson’s ratio, Bulk modulus & A load of 1⁄2Kg added & procedure is
modulus of rigidity, repeated & five readings are taken in the way.
A load of ½ kg is removed from the hangar,
=
the wire will contract & frame Q will be raised
Q. Why do liquid and gases have only as bulk modulii?
up. With the help of micrometer screw spirit
Ans.: - 1) The Young’s modulus is related to the change
in the length. As liquids and gases do not possess length, level is adjusted & micrometer is noted.
they do not have the Young’s modulus. A load of ½ kg is removed in each step &
2) The Modulus of rigidity is related to the change in the procedure is repeated.
shape. As liquids and gases do not have their own  Formula: - By using following formula we can
shape, they do not have modulus of rigidity. determine the value of Young’s modulus for
3) Bulk modulus is related to the change in volume. given wire.
32

Liquids and gases have definite volume at constant ∴ =

Page

temperature so liquid posses Bulk modulus.

Mr. G. S. Khairnar’s Physics Notes. Mahad. (5.Elasticity)

 Relation between Young’s modulus, Coefficient  Elastic limit : (E)
of Linear expansion and thermal stress :- The maximum stress to which a body can be
Consider the metallic rod of length ℓ₀ at θ⁰ C, If subjected without permanent deformation is
temp is increased by is the coefficient of linear called its elastic limit.
expansion Final length of rod is,  Yield stress :
∴ ℓ= ℓ₀(1 + △ ) The stress in the wire at which strain goes on
∴ ℓ = ℓ₀+ℓ₀ △ increasing even without any increase in the
∴ ℓ = ℓ₀+ℓ₀ △ stress is called as yield stress.
∴ ℓ−ℓ₀ = ℓ₀ △  Breaking stress : -
ℓ₀ − ℓ₀ The maximum stress to which a wire can be
∴ = △
ℓ₀ subjected is called its breaking stress.
We have, Y =  Yield point : - [Y]
At this point strain goes on increasing even
=[ ]×
without any increase in the stress.
= × △ ……….(iii)
 Breaking Point : - [N]
Force exerted by the rod due to heating
The point on the stress-strain curve at which
= Thermal stress×
the wire breaks is called as the breaking point.
F=Y△ ×
Stress = Y× △  Strain energy:-
= △ Q. Obtain an expression for the work done in
stretching a wire. Hence, Show that the strain
 Behavior of the metal wire under the increasing
energy per unit volume is 1/2 × (stress×strain).
load:- Ans.: - Strain energy: During elongation of a
Ans. : - wire, work is done on it by the applied force.
B Y N This work is stored in the wire form of potential
E
energy. This energy is called Strain energy.
Suppose that the wire of length L and area
of cross section A is elongated by gradually
O increasing the load from 0 to the magnitude F.
The load applied to the wire is increased Let l be the extension produced in the wire For
continuously in steps of 1/2 kg until finally the wire final loading, then the tensile stress is given as,
F
breaks. During each step, the extension in the wire =
is measured & a graph of stress against strain is and the corresponding tensile strain is given by,
plotted.
=
The initial part [OE] of the graph is straight line,
which indicates that stress strain i.e. Hooke’s law is By definition we can write,
⁄
obeyed. ∴ Y= ⁄ =
ℓ ℓ
Beyond the point E, the graph is curved, showing ℓ
that the strain increase more rapidly. ∴ = ……….(1)
Then, we get yield point Y at which the tangent During the procedure of Loading, let at any
drawn to the curve is parallel to the strain axis, i.e. instance be the stretching force f and x be the
At this point stress. The plastic deformation begins corresponding extension, then
at this stage. ∴f= ……….(2)
During plastic deformation, we reach a point N, at
The work done in the process is,
which the wire forms a thin at its weakest part & dW = f dx………….(3)
begins to increase in strain at reduced stress The total work done in stretching a wire from
33

breaking finally at point B, which represents the X= 0 to X=l will be,

breaking stress.
Page

Mr. G. S. Khairnar’s Physics Notes. Mahad. (5.Elasticity)

 =∫ Beam supported at two ends & loaded at
center. Consider a steel bar of length ℓ, Breadth
= ∫
b, depth d loaded at centre by a load W.
= [ ] Then sag ( ) of bending of the beam is given
by,
ℓ
=
sag( )=
= × F×ℓ 1) Sag ( ) is inversely proportional to b, , .
2) Sag ( ) is inversely proportional to W,ℓ
W = Load × Extension If load is placed exactly at the centre of the
This work is stored in the form of potential energy beam & depth of box is increased, then beam
which is called strain energy. will bend is called as buckling.
1 To avoid buckling, cross section shape of bar
∴ = × ×ℓ is used as I. The ‘I’ beam minimize the weight &
2
ℓ stress. I letter is much lighter but almost strong
= × × × AL∴
for bending which prevents buckling. I beam
= × × × provides high bending moment& lot of material
1 is saved. A hollow circular pole or tube is
= × ×
2 resistant to bending in all directions than pole
1 of some mass shown in fig below.
= × ×
2
We have, Y=

∴ / = × [ ] ×Y

 Some important definitions: I- Beam

 Ductile substance: - The substance which
lengthen & undergo plastic deformation till they  Problems for Practice (From Text Book):-
break, are called as ductile substance. 1) A wire of length 2 m and cross sectional area 10 -4
E.g. wrought iron, cooper, lead etc. m2 is stretched by a load 102 kg. The wire is
stretched by 0.1 cm. Calculate longitudinal stress,
 Brittle substance: - The substances which break
longitudinal strain, and Young’s modulus of wire.
just after elastic limit is reached are called as brittle
7 2 -4 9 2
(1 10 N/m , 5  10 , 20  10 N/m )
substance. E.g. Glass, carbon, steel etc.
2) Find the increase in pressure required to
 Malleability: - Metals are made into sheets by
decrease volume of mercury by 0.001%.
pressing or applying forces called as malleability of
(Bulk modulus of mercury = 2.8  1010 N/m2.
the substance. 3) A copper metal cube has each side of length 1m.
 Ductility: -Metals are made into wires by The bottom edge of cube is fixed and tangential
force 4.2 x 108 N is applied to tops surface. Calculate
applying forces called as ductility of the substance.
the lateral displacement of top, if modulus of
 Bending of the beam: rigidity of copper is 14x1010N/m2.( 3mm)
Q.14) State the formula to obtain the bending of 4) A copper wire 4 m long has diameter of 1mm, if a
beam (Buckling/sag). Explain why I-beam is used load of 10 kg wt is attached at other end, what
instead of ordinary beams? extension is produced, if position ratio is 0.26? How
Beam supported at both the ends is under much lateral compression produced in it?
(Ycu=12.5x1010N/m2) (3.992 mm, 2.595 x 10-4 mm)
compression & tension shown in fig. below.
5) Calculate the work done in stretching steel wire
of length 2 m and of cross sectional area 0.0225
34

mm2, when a load of 100 N is applied slowly to its

Page

free end. Young’s modulus of steel = 20 x 1010 N/m2.

Mr. G. S. Khairnar’s Physics Notes. Mahad. (5.Elasticity)

6) A solid brass spare of volume 0.305 m3 is dropped in
ocean, where water pressure is 2 x 107 N/m2. The bulk
modulus of water is 6.1 x 1010 N/m2. What is change in
volume of spare? (10-4 m3)
7) A uniform steel wire of length 3 m and area of cross
section 2 mm2 is extended through 3 mm. Calculate the
energy stored in the wire, if the elastic limit is not
exceeded. (Ysteel = 20 x 1010 N/m2) (0.6 J)
8) A load 1 kg produces a certain extension in the wire
of length 3 m and radius 5 x 10-4 m. How much will be
the lateral strain produced in the wire?
(Y=7.48 x 1010N/m2and σ=0.291) 4.854 10-5)
9) A steel wire of length 7 m and cross section 1 mm 2 is
hung from a rigid support with steel weight of volume
1000 c.c. hanging from the other end. Find the decrease
in the length of wire, when steel weight is completely
immersed in water. (Ysteel = 20 x 1010 N/m2, density of
water = 1 g/c.c.(0.343 mm)
10) A mild steel wire of radius 0.5 mm and length 3 m is
stretched by a force of 49 N. Calculate i) longitudinal
stress ii) longitudinal strain iii) elongation produced in
the wire.(Ysteel=21x1010N/m2)
(6.237 107 N/m, 2.970 10-4, 0.8911 mm)
11) Calculate the change in volume of lead block of
volume 1 m3 subjected to pressure of 10 atm. Also
calculate compressibility of lead. (1 atm = 1.013 105
N/m2, K=8105N/m2)(1.266 10-4 m3, 1.25  10-10 m2/N)
12) A square steel plate has area 1 m2 and thickness 5
cm. The bottom edge is fixed. A tangential force applied
to top surface displaces it through 0.005 cm. Find
shearing stress, shearing strain if modulus of rigidity of
steel is 4.2 x 106N/m2.(4.2  103 N/m2, 10-3)
13) Copper and steel wires of same length and same
area of cross section are joined end to end. The
composite wire is suspended from a rigid support and
the load is applied to its free end. If increase in length of
composite wire is 3.1 mm, find the increase in length of
copper wire and steel wire.(Ycu = 1.1 x 1011 N/m2,Ysteel = 2
x 1011 N/m2) (2  10-3 m, 1.1  10-3 m)
14) Calculate strain energy per unit volume in a brass
wire of length 2 m and cross sectional area 0.5 mm 2,
when it stretched by 2 mm and a force of 5 kg-wt is
applied to its free end. (4.9 104 J/m3)
15) Two wires of equal cross section one made up of
aluminum and other of brass are joined end to end.
When the combination of wires is kept under tension
the elongation in wires are found to be equal. Find the
ratio of lengths of two wires. (YAL = 7 x 1010 N/m2, Ybrass =
9.1 x 1010 N/m2) (0.7693:1)
16) The length of wire increases by 9 mm when weight
of 2.5 kg is hung from the free end of wire. If all
conditions are kept the same and the radius of wire is
Mr. G. S. Khairnar’s Physics Notes. Mahad. (5.Elasticity)
made thrice the original radius, find the increase in
length. (1mm)
17) One end of steel wire is fixed to a ceiling of the
wire of 2.5 kg is attached to the free to the wire.
Another identical wire is attached to the bottom of
load and another load of 2.0 kg, is attached to the
lower end of wire. Compute the longitudinal strain
produced in both the wires, if the cross- sectional
area of wires is 10-4 m2. (Ysteel =20 x 1010 N/m2)
(1.225 10-6, 2.205 10-6)
 Additional Numericals for practice:
1) When the load suspended from end of the wire is
increased from 2 kg to 7 kg, extension produced in
the wire is increases from 0.5 mm to 1 mm. Find the
work done during extension of the wire. [ Ans: 29.4
× 10-3 J ]
2) A brass wire of radius 1 mm is loaded with mass
of 31.4 kg. What would be the decrease in its
radius? (Y=1×1010 N/m2 and σ= 0.36[Ans: 3.92 × 10-7 m]
3) A bar of length 100 cm is supported at its two
ends. The breadth and depth of bar are 5 cm and
0.5 cm respectively. A mass of 100 g is suspended at
the centre of bar. Compute the depression
produced in the bar.(Y=4x1010N/m2) (9.8  10-4 m)
4) Two wires have their length in ratio 4:3,
diameters are in ratio 2:1 and Young’s modulus are
in the ratio 1:2 calculate the ratio of the elongations
produced in wires when they are subjected to the
same stretching force.[Ans:2:3]
5) A brass wire of diameter 0.5 mm and length 2m
stretched by applying the force of 2 kgwt. Calculate
i) the increase in a length of wire ii) strain produced
in wire.iii) stress.
6) An aluminum wire and copper wire of equal
length and equal cross section are joined end to
end. The composite wire is suspended from the
rigid support and a load is applied to its free end. If
the increase in the length of composite wire is 3.6
mm, find the increase in the length of each wire.(Y Al
=7×1010 N/m2 and YCu=1.1×1010 N/m2)[ Ans: 2.2 mm,
1.4 mm]
7) One face of cube is kept fixed and tangential
force of 0.25 N is applied to the opposite face. If the
lateral displacement of opposite face is 0.65 cm,
calculate shearing stress, shearing strain and
modulus of rigidity of material of the cube. [ Ans:
100 N/m2,0.13]
8) A steel wire having cross sectional area 1 mm2 is
stretched by 10 N. Find the lateral strain produced
35
in the wire. (Y = 2 x 1011N/m2and σ=0.291) (0.1455
Page
 10-4)