The Cell and Cell Division
Figure 2. Nucleus
Figure 1. Cell
A. Nucleus
 appears as a rounded or oval structure near the
center of the cell
 largest structure of the cell
 Contains the nuclear envelope containing
chromatin and the mass of DNA as well as its
associated protein with 1 or more specialized
regions which are called the nucleoli –
specialized region of chromatin
 size and shape vary from different cell types
 Data Center of the cell-
o has the coded form of instructions
required for the synthesis of proteins
and nucleic acids needed within or
exported out of the cell
B. Nuclear Matrix
 Also known as Nuclear Sap/ Nucleoplasm
 Homogenous substance within the nucleus
where the chromatin and nucleoli are
embedded
 Composed of water, proteins, metabolites and
ions
 Supporting framework that controls the overall
size and shape of the nucleus
C. Nucleolus
 specialized region of chromatin in the nucleus
 Synthesizes ribosomal subunit, synthesizes RNA
-Eccentrically located; usually one nucleolus per
nucleus
 Present in cells that are in interphase
(disappears during early mitosis and reappears
only during late telophase)
D. Chromatin
 consists of DNA and all of the associated
proteins involved in the organization and
function of DNA
 in humans each cell's chromatin (except that of
eggs and sperm) is divided among 46
chromosomes (23 pairs)
o After DNA replication but before cell
division, each chromosome consists of
two identical chromatin units called
chromatids held together by complexes
of cohesion proteins.
 DNA packaging
o DNA of humans is approximately 2m long
with 3.2 billion base pairs thus need to
be extensively packaged within the
nucleus. This occurs initially by the DNA
associating with small basic proteins
known as histones.
o The nucleosome has a core of 8 histones
around which is wrapped about 150 base
pairs of DNA, and each nucleosome also
has a larger histone associated with both
the wrapped DNA and the surface of the
core
E. Nuclear envelope
 outermost region of the nucleus
 Forms a selectively permeable barrier between
the nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments
 The space and the outer nuclear membrane are
continuous with the cytoplasmic network of
RER
Figure 3. DNA packaging
F. Categories of chromatin
a. Euchromatin
-visible as finely dispersed granular material
in the electron microscope
-lightly stained basophilic areas in the light
microscope
 -extended areas, composed of portions that
are in the process of producing RNA
b. Heterochromatin
-forming electron dense material
-basophilic clumps
-condensed areas, made up of
chromosomes that are not actively
producing RNA

Figure 5. Telomere

H. Telomere
 a telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide
sequences at each end of a chromosome,
which protects the end of the chromosome
from deterioration or from fusion with
neighboring chromosomes.

Figure 4. Centromere
G. Centromere
 the centromere is the specialized DNA
sequence of a chromosome that links a pair of
sister chromatids
 separate the chromosome into the p arm and
the q arm which are being used cytogenetically
to determine the different parts of the
chromosome and how many chromosomes they
are
 During mitosis, spindle fibers attached to the
centromere via the kinetochore
 Located somewhere but not exactly in the
middle of the chromosome, around 1/3 to 2/3
of the way down the chromosome
 Part where the cell’s chromosome is constricted
and a bit tighter, and looks like a little ball in
the middle of two sticks
Figure 6. Barr Body
I. Barr Body
 One of the two large X chromosome present in
females but not in males
 remains tightly coiled while the other X
chromosome remains uncoiled transcriptionally
active and not visible
 Cells of males have 1 X chromosome and 1 Y
chromosome
 X chromosome is euchromatic
 In neutrophils, the barre body is recognized as
the drumstick appendage that may or may not
be seen.
 in the cell cycle

Figure 7. Neutrophil

 X/Y chromosomes
o contain genes determining whether an
individual develops as a female or a
male
 Plus 22 pairs of autosomes
o -Each pair contains 1 chromosomes
from the mother and another from the Figure 8. Cell Cycle
father
 Homologous  2 Major Phases
o Each chromosomal pair are o Interphase
homologous because they contain  interval in between cell divisions
forms of the same genes  longer that mitotic phase
 Diploid (2n)  the DNA and cell doubles in size
o Cells of most tissues or somatic cells  3 separate phases: G1, S, G2
are considered diploid because they
contain pairs of chromosomes
o N=# of unique chromosomes in a
species
o In humans, n=23
 Sperm cells and mature oocytes: haploid (with
half the diploid number of chromosomes. Each
pair being separated during meiosis.
 Microscopic analysis of chromosomes usually
begins with culture cells arrested in mitotic
metaphase by colchicine or other compounds
that disrupt microtubules
 After processing and staining the cells, the
condensed chromosome of one nucleus are
photographed by light microscopy and
rearranged digitally to form a karyotype in Figure 9. Cell Cycle continuation
which stained chromosomes can be analyzed

J. Cell Cycle  G1 phase

 series of events that take place as the cell - G1 phase (gap one phase)
grows and divides lasts for hours to several
 Varies in length in different types of cells but is days.
repeated each time a cell divides. - period during which the
 temporarily suspended in non dividing cells cell grows and proteins are
such as peripheral lymphocytes wherein they synthesized, restoring the
are in the G0 or the gap outside phase, such daughter cells to normal
cells may re-enter and begin to divide again volume and size.
 Permanently interrupted in cells that do not - Certain trigger proteins are
divide such as most cardiac muscle cells and synthesized; these proteins
neurons so for other cells that would enable the cell to reach a
continuously divide, they would continuously be threshold (restriction point)
 and proceed to the S
phase.
- Cells that fail to reach the
restriction point become
resting cells and enter the
GO phase (gap outside
phase)
 S Phase
- S phase (synthetic phase)
lasts 8 to 12 hours in most
cells.
- DNA is replicated, and
histone and non-histone
proteins are synthesized,
resulting in duplication of
the chromosomes - 
Centrosomes are also
duplicated.
- Period of DNA synthesis
 G2 phase
- G2 phase (gap two phase)
lasts 2 to 4 hours. (b)
Centrioles duplicate, and
each gives rise to a new,
daughter centriole
- The cell prepares to divide
as the energy required for
the completion of mitosis is
stored and the RNA and
proteins necessary for
mitosis are synthesized
including tubulin and the
spindle apparatus
- Centrioles duplicate, and
each gives rise to a new,
daughter centriole
 Control Factors and
Checkpoints
Figure 10. Cell Cycle Checkpoints
 Cyclins and cyclin dependent
kinases
- can initiate and induce
progression through the
cell cycle if all factors that
are involved are checked
and found to be correctly
done. However, if not, they
can delay the progression
of the cycle.
o Mitosis
 lasts 1 to 3 hours
 follows the G2 phase and
completes the cell cycle.
 The only phase that can be
routinely distinguished with the
light microscope
 includes segregation of the
replicated chromosomes, division
of the nucleus (karyokinesis),
and finally division of the
cytoplasm (cytokinesis), resulting
in the production of two identical
daughter cells.
o Stages of mitosis
 Interphase
- Early prophase
- Late prophase
Prometaphase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Late Anaphase
 Late telophase
Figure 11. Stages of Mitosis
Figure 12. Stages of Mitosis Summary
K. Karyotype
 refers to the number and morphology of
chromosomes and is characteristic for each
species
 In humans, the genome consists of 22 pairs of
autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes
(either XX or XY) totaling 23 homologous pairs,
or 46 chromosomes
 Exons - regions of the DNA molecule that code
for specific RNAs
 Introns - regions of the DNA molecule, between
exons, that do not code for RNAs
 Codon - sequence of three bases in the DNA
 molecule that codes for a single amino acid
 mRNA - carries the genetic code to the
cytoplasm to direct protein synthesis
 rRNA associates with many different proteins
(including enzymes) to form ribosomes
 associates with mRNA and tRNA during protein
synthesis

L. Apoptosis
 programmed cell death
 cells are removed from the tissues in an orderly
fashion as part of normal maintenance of
during development
 Features of apoptotic cells:
o Chromatin condensation: breaking up
of the nucleus, blebbing of the
plasma membrane
o Cell shrinks and is fragmented into
membrane enclosed fragments called
apoptotic bodies
 Mechanisms of signals that induce apoptosis
a. Caspases (genes which code for enzymes)
play an important role in the process
b. Cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor
(TNF) may also activate caspases which
degrade regulatory and structural proteins in
the nucleus and cytoplasm --- leads to
morphological chances
 Defects in the process of apoptosis contribute
to many major diseases
a. Alzheimer’s disease and stroke - due to
extensive apoptosis causing extensive nerve
cell loss
b. Insufficient apoptosis has been linked to
cancer and other autoimmune diseases
Figure 13. Meiosis

M. MEIOSIS
 Meiosis is a special form of cell division in germ
cells (oogonia and spermatozoa) in which the
chromosome number is reduced from diploid
(2n) to haploid. These events are accomplished
via two reduction divisions.
o This occurs in developing germ cells
in preparation for sexual
reproduction. Subsequent fertilization
results in diploid zygotes.
o DNA content of the original diploid
cell is doubled (4n) in the S phase
preparatory to meiosis.
- This phase is followed by
two successive cell
divisions that give rise to
four haploid cells.
- In addition, recombination
of maternal and paternal
genes occurs by crossing
over and random
assortment, yielding the
unique haploid genome of
the gamete.