Physics

UNIT-I
Crystallography and Crystal Defects
Crystallography
(Outcomes: Explain the properties of crystal structure and apply them in
crystallography using X-ray diffraction techniques)
Introduction:
Solid: Solid is one of the three main states of matter, in which the particles
(atoms or molecules or ions) are closely packed together and are not free to
move.
On the basis of arrangement of constituent particles solids are divided into,
1. Crystalline solids
2. Amorphous(non-crystalline)solids
Crystalline Solids:
If the atoms or molecules in a solid are arranged in some regular fashion, then
the solid is known as crystalline solid.
In a crystalline solid, each atom or molecule is fixed at a definite point in space
at a definite distance and in a definite angular orientation to other atoms or
molecules surrounding it. The crystalline state of solid is characterized by regular
and periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules.
Difference between crystalline and amorphous solids

S.No Crystalline Amorphous
1 The constituent particles are The constituent particles are not
arranged in a regular fashion arranged in any regular fashion
2 They have definite geometric They have irregular shapes
shapes
3 They are anisotropic (Different They are isotropic (Same
properties in different directions) properties in all directions)
4 They have a long range order They have a short range order
5 They have sharp melting points They melt over a range of
temperature
6 They are ductile in nature They are brittle in nature
7 They are true solids They are pseudo solids or super
cooled liquids
8 Example- Quartz is crystalline SiO2 Example-Silica glass is
amorphous SiO2
Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

Crystallography: The branch of science, which deals with the study of
geometrical form and physical properties of crystalline solids, is called
crystallography.
Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the
arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids.
Crystal: A crystal is a three dimensional body, which is made up of regular and

periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules in space.
Lattice: The periodic arrangement of points is called lattice.
Space Lattice: It is defined as an array of points in three dimensional space

such that the environment about each point is same.
Let us consider the two dimensional array of points as shown in figure 2. It is
obvious from the figure that environment about any two points is the same
hence it represents a two dimensional space lattice.
If the environment about any points is not the same, then it is not a
space lattice.
Lattice points: The points in space lattice are called as lattice points.
Lattice line: The line which joined the lattice points is known as lattice line.
Figure 2. Space lattice
Basis and crystal structure:

A set of one or more atoms (unit assembly of atoms) about a lattice point is
called a basis.
The space lattice together with the basis gives the actual crystal structure i.e.,
Crystal structure is formed when a basis of atoms is attached identically to
each lattice point.

When the basis is repeated with correct periodicity in all directions it gives the
actual crystal structure. The crystal structure is real, while the lattice is imaginary.
Mathematically it is expressed as
Space lattice + basis -------> Crystal structure
Figure 3.Crystalstructure
❖ Unit cell:
The unit cell is the smallest block or geometrical figure the repetition of which
gives the actual crystal structure. (Or)
Unit cell may be defined as that volume of a solid from which entire crystal
may be constructed by translational repetition in three dimensions.
The unit cell is the fundamental elementary pattern of minimum number of
atoms or molecules which represents fully all the characteristics of the crystal.
Figure 4.Unit Cell
Unit Cell Parameters:

Axial lengths or intercepts: The distance between two neighboring points is
called as the edges of the unit cell. The lengths OE, OC and OA along the three
axes OX, OY, and OZ are called as axial lengths or intercepts. The axial lengths
along the three axes are represented by vectors a, b, and c respectively.
Interfacial angles: The angles between the above three intercepts are called
interfacial angles (γ, α, and β). (Or)
The angles between three crystallographic axes are known as interfacial
angles or inter-axial angles.

Both intercepts (a, b, and c) and interfacial angles (γ, α, and β) together are
known as parameters of unit cell. These parameters determine the actual space
and size of unit cell as shown in figure 6.
Figure 6. Unit Cell parameters

Crystal systems:
The vectors a , b, c (axial lengths vectors) may or may not be equal. Also the
interfacial angles α, β and γ may or may not be right angles. Based on these
conditions, there are seven crystal systems. All these crystal systems are divided
to 7 crystal systems they are 1) Cubic, 2) Tetragonal, 3) Orthorhombic, 4)
Rhombohedral (or) Trigonal, 5) Hexagonal, 6) Monoclinic, and 7) Triclinic.
1. Cubic crystal: In this crystal, all the three axial lengths of the unit cell are
equal and the three axes are mutually perpendicular to each other. I.e.,
a=b=c & α=β=γ=90°.
Examples: NaCl, CaF, Diamond, Cu, etc.
2. Tetragonal crystal: In this crystal, two axial lengths of the unit cell are
equal while the third one is longer and the three axes are mutually
perpendicular to each other. I.e., a=b≠c & α=β=γ=90°.
Examples: TiO2, SnO2, NiSO4, etc.
3. Orthorhombic crystal: In this crystal, all the three axial lengths of the unit
cell are different (unequal) and the three axes are mutually
perpendicular to each other. I.e., a≠b≠c & α=β=γ=90°.
Examples: Ga, BaSO4, KNO3, etc.
4. Rhombohedral or Trigonal crystal: In this crystal, all the three axial lengths
of the unit cell are equal and all the three axes are equally inclined to
each other at an angle other than 90°. I.e., a=b=c & α=β=γ≠ 90°.
Examples: As, Sb, Bi, etc.
5. Hexagonal crystal: In this crystal, two axial lengths of the unit cell are
equal while the third one is longer and the two axes of the unit cell are
equal and perpendicular to each other and the third one is at 120°. I.e.,
a=b≠c & α=β=90°, γ=120°.
Examples: SiO2, AgI, Mg, Zn, Cd, etc.

6. Monoclinic crystal: In this crystal, all the three axial lengths of the unit cell
are different (unequal) and two axes are right angles and third one is
obliquely inclined. I.e., a≠b≠c & α=β=90°≠ γ.
Examples: FeSO4, CaSO4.2H2O, etc.
7. Triclinic crystal: In this crystal, all the three axial lengths of the unit cell
are different (unequal) and also the three axes are not right angles and
not equal to each other. I.e., a≠b≠c & α≠β≠γ≠ 90°.
Examples: CuSO4, K2Cr2O7, etc.
Fig.7 Seven Crystal Systems

Seven crystal systems:
Sl. No. Name of the Lattice parameters Examples
Crystal system
Primitives/ Interfacial
Axial lengths Angles
1. Cubic a=b=c α=β=γ=90° NaCl, CaF, Diamond,
Cu, etc.
2. Tetragonal a=b≠c α=β=γ=90° NiSO4, SnO2, TiO2, etc.
3. Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α=β=γ=90° BaSO4, KNO3, Ga, etc.
4. Rhombohedral a=b=c α=β=γ≠ 90° As, Sb, Bi, etc.
(or) Trigonal
5. Hexagonal a=b≠c α=β=90°,γ=120° SiO2, Mg, Zn, Cd, etc.
6. Monoclinic a≠b≠c α=β=90°≠ γ FeSO4, CaSO4.2H2O,

etc.
7. Triclinic a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠ 90° CuSO4, K2Cr2O7etc.

❖ Bravais Lattices:
In the year of 1948, Bravais showed that there are only fourteen independent
ways of arranging the points in three dimensional space such that each
arrangement confirms to the definition of space lattice. (Or) There are fourteen
different ways of arranging the points in three dimensional space such that
each point has identical surrounding. So, there are 14 lattices are sufficient to
describe all the crystals.
❖ Simple or Primitive (P): If the atoms are placed only at the corner of the
unit cell (cube) then it is called primitive and is denoted by ‘P.
❖ Body centered (I): If the atoms are placed at the corners of the unit cell
(cube) and the center of the unit cell (where body diagonals intersect)
then it is said to be body centered and is denoted by ‘I’.
❖ Face Centered (F): If the atoms are placed at the corners of the unit cell
(cube) and the center of their faces then it is said to be Face centered
and is denoted by ‘F’.
❖ Base centered (C): If the atoms are placed at the corners of the unit cell
(cube) and the center of the two bases of the unit cell (cube) then it is
called base centered and is denoted by ‘C’.
The diagrams of the unit cells are drawn below.
1. Cubic crystal structure: (P, I, F)

In this crystal structure, there exists three (3) lattices and they are: Simple or
Primitive (P), Body centered (I), and Face centered (F).
2. Tetragonal crystal structure:(P, I)
In this crystal structure, there are only two (2) lattices exists and they are:
Simple or Primitive (P), and Body centered (I).
3. Orthorhombic crystal structure:(P, I, F, C)
In this crystal structure, there are only four (4) lattices exists and they are:
Simple or Primitive cubic (P), Body centered cubic (I), Face centered
cubic (F) and Base centered (C).
4. Rhombohedral or Trigonal crystal structure:(P)
In this crystal structure, there is only one (1) lattice exists and that is Simple
or Primitive (P).

5. Hexagonal crystal structure:(P)
or Primitive (P).
6. Monoclinic crystal structure:(P, C)
In this crystal structure, there are only two (2) lattices exists and they are:
Simple or Primitive (P), and Base centered (C).
7. Triclinic crystal structure:(P)
or Primitive (P).
The fourteen Bravais lattices are shown below:

Table: Bravais Lattices with seven crystal systems:
Crystal System Unit Cell Types of No. of Examples

Parameters Bravais Bravais
lattices lattices
1. Cubic a=b=c & P, I, F 3 NaCl, CaF,
α=β=γ=90° Diamond, etc.
2. Tetragonal a=b≠c & P, I 2 NiSO4, SnO2, TiO2,
α=β=γ=90° etc.
3. Orthorhombic a≠b≠c & P, I, F, C 4 BaSO4, KNO3, Ga,
α=β=γ=90° etc.
4. Rhombohedral a=b=c& P 1 As, Sb, Bi, etc.
(Trigonal) α=β=γ≠ 90°
5. Hexagonal a=b≠c & P 1 SiO2,Mg,Zn,Cd,
α=β=90°, γ=120° etc.
6. Monoclinic a≠b≠c & P, C 2 FeSO4,CaSO4.2H2
α=β=90°≠ γ O, etc.
7. Triclinic a≠b≠c& P 1 CuSO4,
α≠β≠γ≠ 90° K2Cr2O7etc.
❖ Expression for Lattice Constant of a Cubic crystal (a):-
Let us consider a cubic unit cell in which ‘a’ is the edge length or primitive of a
cubic unit cell and ‘ρ’ is the density of the crystal.
Density ρ = (total mass of the unit cell) / (volume of unit cell)
The mass of the unit cell = ρ a3-------(i);
Where, a3 → Volume of the cubic unit cell.
Let ‘M’ be the molecular weight and ‘NA‘ is the Avogadro number (i.e. no. of
molecules per Kg mole of substance), then mass of the each molecule= M / NA;
If each unit cell contains ‘n’ molecules,
then mass of the unit cell = n M / NA-------------(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
ρ a3= n M / NA
a3= n M / ρ NA
Lattice Constant for Cubic Lattice, a = (n M / ρ NA)1/3.
Where, n→no. of molecules, NA→Avogadro number, M→Molecular weight,
ρ→Density of unit cell, a→ Lattice constant / parameter of the unit cell/ crystal.

❖ Lattice directions and planes:
In a crystal lattice there exist directions and planes which contain a large
number of atoms.
For understanding crystallography the concept of directions and planes
play an important role. It is necessary to locate their directions and planes for
crystal analysis.
Lattice directions:
The direction in which lattice vector is pointing is called Lattice direction.
To understand the Lattice directions let us first take the case of two
dimensions. The crystal direction is described by writing the first integer point x, y
in square brackets [ ] through which the directional line passes. For example, in
figure the direction OA, OB, OC, OD are written as [1 3], [1 1], [3 2], [4 1]
respectively.
Fig. Lattice Directions

In similar way the crystal direction in three dimensions is written as [x y z] where
(x, y, z) is the coordinate of the first whole number point through they pass. The
square brackets can used to indicate the direction (note: commas are
unnecessary). In general, the indices of a direction are written as [u v w]. A
negative index is indicated by a bar over the digit.
For example, the positive X-axis [1 0 0], and for negative X-axis [1̅ 0 0].
❖ Directions [3 3 3] and [2 2 2] directions are identical to [1 1 1]. In such a case
lowest combination of integers i.e. [1 1 1] is used to specify the directions.
Examples: Draw the direction [1 2 0] of a simple cubic crystal.
➢ Along X and Y axes 1 & 2 units are moved and the position ‘p’ is marked.
➢ Since the directional unit corresponding to Z- axis is ‘0’.
➢ OP is joined, it gives [1 2 0] direction.
Fig: [1 2 0] direction.

[112] direction:
➢ Along X, Y and Z axes 1, 1& 2 units are moved and the position ‘p’ is
marked.
➢ OP is joined, it gives [1 1 2] direction.
Fig: [1 1 2] direction.
❖ Lattice Planes:
The crystal lattices may be considered as made up of an aggregate of set of
equidistant parallel planes passing through lattice points which are known as
lattice planes.
Fig. Lattice Planes

❖ Miller Indices:
Miller developed a method to designate a set of parallel planes in a crystal by
three numbers (h k l) which are known as miller indices.
Definition: “Miller indices are the reciprocals of the intercepts made by a plane
on the three crystallographic axes when reduced to smallest integers”.
Procedure for finding miller indices:
1. Find out the intercepts of the desired plane on the three coordinate axes
/crystallographic axes (x, y, z).
2. Express these intercepts in the terms of axial lengths / lattice parameters
(a, b, c) [Ex: 1a, 3b, c/2].
3. Take the reciprocals of the above intercepts. [1/1, 1/3, 2/1]
4. Reduce these numbers /reciprocal intercepts into smallest three integers
which have the same ratio (this can be done by taking LCM of numerical
values from the above reciprocals and multiplying with LCM to get
smallest numbers) [Ex: LCM of 1, 3, 1 will be 3, then →
1 1 2
[1 × 3 ∶ ×3 : × 3] = 3 : 1 : 6.
3 1

5. Write the result in the parenthesis as (h k l) which are known as miller
indices of the crystal plane i.e. (3 1 6).
Important features of miller indices:
1. All the equidistant parallel planes have the same miller indices (h k l).
2. When a plane is parallel to one of the three crystallographic axes, then the
intercept made by that plane with that axes is ‘infinity’.
3. Miller indices are defined for a set of parallel planes but not for individual
planes.
4. If any plane making the intercept on negative axis then the corresponding
miller indices is represented by a bar on the top of miller index. Ex: (2̅ 0 0).
5. A plane passing through the origin is defined in terms of a parallel planes
having non zero intercepts.
6. For a cubic system, the distance ‘d’ between the adjacent planes of a set
of parallel planes of the indices (h k l) is given as, 𝑑 = √ 2 𝑎 2 2.
ℎ +𝑘 +𝑙
Significance/ importance of Miller Indices:

✓ Miller indices are used to specify directions and planes in crystals. It is
necessary to locate their directions and planes for crystal analysis.
✓ In Materials Science it is important to have a notation system for atomic
planes since these planes influence,
a. Optical properties
b. Reactivity
c. Surface tension
d. Dislocations.
Example 1:
1. The plane cuts X- axis at ‘1a’ distance, Y-axis at ‘∞’ and Z-axis at ‘∞’.
2. Expressing these intercepts in terms of lattice parameters (1a, ∞b, ∞C) and
the intercepts are (1, ∞, ∞).
1 1 1
3. Reciprocals of the above intercepts ( 1 , ∞ , ∞) i.e. (1, 0, 0).
4. Reduce the reciprocals of intercepts into smallest integers it is noted that
here the reciprocals of the intercepts already smallest whole numbers.
Hence, the smallest numbers are (1, 0, 0).
5. Write smallest numbers in parenthesis to get miller indices i.e. (h k l) = (1 0 0).

1. Different crystal planes with miller indices:
Fig. (a) BCGF plane with miller indices (100) (b) ADGF plane with miller indices
(101), and (c) AHF plane with miller indices (111).
2. Different crystal planes with miller indices:
Examples: Draw the planes corresponding to following miller indices of (112) &
(120).
1. (112):
➢ Given miller indices (h k l) = (112)
1 1 1
➢ Reciprocals of miller indices = ( 1 , 1 , 2 )
1
➢ Take the reciprocals as intercepts i.e. (1, 1, 2 )
1
➢ Identify (1, 1, ) on the crystallographic axes and joining them to draw
2
(112) plane.
1
Fig: (112) plane with intercepts of (1, 1, 2 ) on coordinate axes.
2. (120):
➢ Given miller indices (h k l) = (120)
1 1 0 1
➢ Reciprocals of miller indices = ( 1 , 2 , 1 ) = (1, 2 , ∞)
1
➢ Now the intercepts are (1, 2 , ∞)

➢ The above intercepts are marked on three crystallographic axes and
joining them then the (120) plane is formed/drawn.
1
Fig: (120) plane with intercepts of (1, 2
, ∞)on coordinate axes.
❖ Inter-planar spacing:
The separation between successive lattice planes is known as inter-planar
spacing. It is defined as spacing between a plane (h k l) and other parallel
plane passing through the origin. The inter-planar spacing is denoted by dhkl.
The expression for the inter-planar spacing for cubic crystal system is 𝑑 = √ 2 𝑎 2 2.
ℎ +𝑘 +𝑙
Derivation:
a b c
Let a plane ABC making the intercepts X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis at , ,
h k l
respectively and another plane is passing through the origin. The normal
distance between the two planes is called inter-planar spacing i.e. ON and ON
= d. ON is a normal to the plane ABC and making an angle with X, Y, Z-axis, i.e.
α, β, γ.
ON d
From the figure, Cosα = = ---------- (1)
OA a/h
ON d
Cosβ = = ---------- (2)
OB b/k
ON d
Cosγ = = ---------- (3)
OC c/𝑙
According to the law of direction cosines
Cos2α + Cos2β + Cos2γ = 1
hd 2 kd 𝑙d
( ) + ( b )2 + ( c )2 = 1
a
𝟏
dhkl=
√(𝐡 )𝟐 +(𝐤 )𝟐+(𝒍 )𝟐
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜
For Cubic system, a= b= c then, dhkl= 𝟏
√(𝐡 )𝟐 +(𝐤 )𝟐 +(𝒍 )𝟐
𝐚 𝐚 𝐚
Therefore, 𝒅 = √ 𝒂
𝒉𝟐 +𝒌𝟐 +𝒍𝟐
❖ Diffraction of X-rays by crystal:

Introduction:

Diffraction effects can be observed only if the spacing between the lines ruled
on the grating is of the order of magnitude of the wave length of light used. In
case of diffraction of light, the spacing between the lines of grating element is in
the order of 10–6 m.
X-rays are discovered by Rontgen. X-rays are produced when a beam of
fast moving electrons strikes a solid target material (tungsten or molybdenum).
The wavelengths of X-rays ranging from 0.01Å to 100Å and are not deflected by
electric field and magnetic fields. X-rays are the electromagnetic radiations with
a wavelength of the order of a Å (Angstrom), i.e. 1/1000th of wavelength of
visible light. Therefore to observe diffraction pattern of X-rays the grating should
have a spacing 1/1000th of the grating used for the diffraction of light.
Laue suggested that the crystal consists of arrays of atoms in three
dimensions and it can be used for the diffraction of X-rays because the spacing
between the atoms of a crystal is of the order of 1Å. The diffraction centers in the
crystal are not in one plane thus the crystal act as three dimensional grating.
❖ Bragg’s Law:
Crystals serve as grating to the X-rays to produce the diffraction of X-rays. W.H
Bragg and W.L. Bragg while studying the properties of X-rays studied the X-ray
diffraction pattern of few crystals. W.L. Bragg first derived a relation between
inter-planar spacing and angle of reflection.
“Bragg’s law states that the X-rays are reflected from different parallel
planes of a crystal interfere constructively when the path difference is the
integral multiple of the wavelength of X-rays”
According to W.H Bragg and W.L. Bragg, the diffraction is due to the
reflection of some incident X-rays from the various set of parallel crystal planes
(known as Bragg’s law) which contain a large number of atoms. When the two
consecutive planes scatter waves in phase with each other, then the path
difference must be equal to integral multiple of the incident wavelength.
Fig. Reflection of X-rays from the crystal planes

Let us consider a set of parallel lattice planes of a crystal separated by a
distance ‘d’ apart. A narrow beam of X-rays of wavelength ‘λ’ be incident upon

these planes at angle ‘θ’. The beam will be reflected in all directions by the
atoms of various atomic planes. The condition for the reflected waves to be all
in phase is that path difference between two reflected waves must be an
integral multiple of wavelength.
Consider two parallel rays PA and RB of the incident beam which are
scattered by two atoms A and B in adjacent layers as shown in Fig. Constructive
interference takes place only between those scattered rays that are parallel
and whose path differ exactly λ, 2λ, 3λ and so on., i.e. the path difference Δ
must be nλ, where ‘n’ is an integer. Draw AM and AN perpendicular to the rays
RB an BS. Path difference between the X-rays along PQ and RS are given by
Δ= MB+BN = AB Sinθ + AB Sinθ
dSinθ + dSinθ
Δ =2d Sinθ -------------- (1)
Where AB=d is the interplaner spacing. i.e. spacing between the atomic
planes. For constructive interference to take place, the path difference
Δ= nλ -------------- (2)
Where n=1, 2, 3 etc. for first order, second order, third order maxima etc.
From equation (1) & (2) →2d Sinθ = nλ
This relation is known as Bragg’s law for X-ray diffraction.
Since the maximum possible value for sinθ is 1 then nλ/2d ≤ 1 (or) nλ≤ 2d
This sets limitation on wavelength. The wavelength λ should not exceed twice
the inter-planer spacing for diffraction to occur.
X-ray diffraction methods:

There are three main X-ray diffraction methods by which the crystal structure
can be analyzed.
1. The Laue method (for single crystals)
2. The Powder method (for finely divided crystals or polycrystalline specimen
powders)
3. The rotating crystal method (for single crystals)
❖ Powder X-ray Diffraction method (Powder method / Debye Scherer Method) :

Powder X-ray diffraction method is usually carried for polycrystalline materials.

This method reveals the information regarding the size of the crystal, presence of
imperfections, distortion, and preferred orientations of crystals etc. The given
polycrystalline material is grinded to get fine powders and this powder can be
taken in a capillary tube made up of non-diffracted material fixed at the centre
of cylindrical camera known as Debye Scherer camera whose length is small
compared to diameter. A collimated beam of monochromatic X rays is
produced by passing the X rays through a filter and collimator. Then the
monochromatic X rays enter the camera through a small hole and strike the
powder specimen. Since the specimen contains large number of small
crystallites with random orientations. The diffraction takes place for those values
of ‘d’ and ‘θ’ satisfy the Bragg’s condition i.e. 2dSinθ =nλ.
If θ is the glancing angle corresponding to a value of ‘d’ for one set of
planes the reflected ray will be inclined at an angle ‘2θ’. The open of the cone
is the point of contact of X-ray with the specimen.
Different cones are observed for different sets of ‘d’ and ‘θ’ for a particular
value of ‘n’ and also for different combinations of ‘θ’ and ‘n’ for a particular
values of ‘d’. The transmitted ray move out of the camera through an exit hole
located diametrically opposite to the entrance hole. A part of each reflected
cone is recorded on the film which is positioned around the camera. The
recorded lines are in the form of arc’s as shown in figure.
Fig. (a)
Fig. (b)

Fig. (c)
Fig. Powder method (a) Experimental arrangement (b) Reflection of X ray from
the crystal plane, and (c) Reflection ray pattern on the photographic film.
The film is removed from the camera, processed and flattened. It shows the
diffraction lines and the holes for the incident and transmitted beams. The
distance between two successive arcs “S” is measured and using the relation,
S 180
4θ = ( ), Where ‘R’ is the radius of the camera. A list of θ values can be
R π
obtained. Since the wavelength λ is known, substituting these θ values in Bragg’s
formula, a list of inter-planar spacing ‘d’ can be calculated. Each spacing is the
distance between neighboring planes (hkl). From the ratio of inter-planar
spacing, the type of the lattice can be identified as well as lattice constant /
lattice parameter is evaluated.
❖ Advantages of powder X-ray diffraction method:
✓ The powder technique has the advantage that it does not require large
single crystals and almost any substance can be ground into powder.
✓ The experiment is easy to perform
✓ Small crystals of any substance can be easily obtained.

UNIT-I
Crystal Defects
Introduction:
Crystal is defined as regular and periodic arrangement of atoms in three
dimensions. But no crystal is perfectly regular which means crystal possesses
some defects.
The disturbance occurred in the regular arrangement of atoms or molecules
(may be at a point / along a line / in a region) is called crystal defect or
imperfection.
The concept of ideal crystal is nothing but a crystal without any defect or
imperfection. But in the real crystals this is not possible, because in every crystal
at least few imperfections are existing. Some defects are important and most
useful whereas other defects are useless.
Classification of crystal defects:
Crystal defects or imperfections can be classified on the basis of their geometry
and are four types i.e.
1. Point defects (Zero dimensional)
2. Line defects (One dimensional)
3. Surface defects (Two dimensional)
4. Volume defects (Three dimensional)
(1) Point defects:
• Point defects / imperfections are also called as Zero-dimensional
imperfections. In a crystal lattice, point defect is one which is completely
local in its effect, i.e., a vacant lattice site.
• The point defects are formed due to the missing of atoms or due to the
presence of extra /interstitial atom in the crystal.
• The point defects are again classified into four types they are
(a) Vacancy, (b) Interstitials, (c) Compositional and (d) electronic defects.
(a) Vacancy defect:
• When an atom is missing from its normal position, then the defect is called
as vacancy defect. (Or) An empty site of an atom in a crystal is called
vacancy.
Fig. Vacancy defect.

Schottky Defect:
• The Schottky defect is closely related to vacancies. It is formed when a
cation and anion are removed from a normal lattice site and replaced in
an average position on the surface of the crystal.
• A pair of one cation and one anion can be missing from an ionic crystal.
Hence ion vacancies are called as Schottky defect.
• The concentration of Schottky defect decreases the density of the
crystal. Crystals such as NaCl, KCl, KBr etc. show Schottky defect.
Fig. Schottky defect.
(b) Interstitial defect:

• An interstitial defect occurs when an atom occupies the interstitial
position (the definite position not normally occupied by regular atoms) of
the lattice structure.
Fig. Interstitial defect.

Frenkel Defect:
• The Frenkel defect is closely related to the interstitial defect. In the case
of ionic crystals, “an ion is displaced from the lattice into an interstitial
site” is called as Frenkel defect.
• An atom leaves the regular site and occupies interstitial position. Such
defects are called Frenkel defects.
• A Frenkel defect is the combination of interstitial defect i.e.

vacancy + interstitial = Frenkel defect.

The concentration of Frenkel defects does not change the density of the
crystal and overall electrical neutrality of the crystal. Crystals such as CaF2,
AgBr, AgI etc. shows the Frenkel defect.
✓ Frenkel and Schottky defects together are called as “intrinsic defects”.
Fig. The ion moved from lattice position to interstitial: Frenkel defect.
(c) Compositional defects:

The compositional defects are formed due to presence of unwanted impurities
or due to the doped impurities during the process of crystallization.
The presence of impurity atom in the crystal leads to the compositional defect.
Compositional defects play an important role in the semiconductors which are
specially prepared for diodes and transistors etc.
The compositional defects are again classified into two types: (i) Substitutional
impurity (ii) Interstitial impurity.
(i) Substitutional impurity:

A substitutional impurity refers to a foreign (metal) atom that replaces a
parent/regular atom in the crystal lattice.
For example, in extrinsic semiconductor either third or fifth group atoms
occupy the sites of Silicon or Germanium atoms. If the size of the
substitutional impurity is same as the parent /regular atom then the amount
of strain around will be less, otherwise it will be more.
Fig. Substitutional impurity.

(ii) Interstitial impurity:
An interstitial impurity refers to a small sized foreign atom lodging the void
space in the crystal without disturbing any of the parent atoms from their
sites.
The small sized atoms (lower atomic number atoms) such as hydrogen
may fit into the interstitial spaces and these atoms are known as interstitial
spaces and are responsible for the interstitial impurity.
Fig. Interstitial impurity.
(d) Electronic defects:

Electronic defects occur as a result of errors in charge distribution in solids.
Non-uniformity of charge or charge distribution in the crystal is refers to as
electronic defect.
Errors in charge distribution in solids are called electronic defects.
In semiconductors, temperature variation changes the charge
concentration, so the variation of temperature leads to electronic defects.
Fig. Electronic defect.

❖ Concentration of Schottky defects in metals (or covalent crystals):
Schottky defect is closely related to vacancies. It is formed when a cation and
anion are removed from a normal lattice site and replaced in an average
position on the surface of the crystal.
Schottky defect
In covalent crystals, If an atom leaves from the regular site and migrates to
the surface of the crystal. Such defects are called as Schottky defects.
In spite of lot of care taken in the preparation of crystals, vacancies are
always present in the crystals. The main cause for these defects is thermal
agitation /fluctuations and these vacancies are produced & destroyed
constantly. This defect may be produced by plucking the atoms from its regular
lattice site & shifting them to the surface of the crystal. This process requires
some energy. In thermal equilibrium, a certain number of lattice vacancies are
always present which can be estimated as follows:
Let us consider Ev is the energy required to move an atom from the regular
lattice site inside the crystal to lattice site on the surface.
Therefore, the amount of energy required to produce ‘n’ number of isolated
vacancies can be written as
U = nEv ------------ (1)
The total number of ways to move ‘n’ number of atoms in a crystal (Let it consists
of ‘N’ atoms/cc) to its surface will be
𝑁!
P = Ncn =(𝑁−𝑛)! 𝑛! ----------------------------- (2)
The increase in the entropy due to the formation of ‘n’ vacancies can be
written as S = KB log P ----------------- (3)
The change in the entropy causes change in the free energy F. [the creation of
vacancies produces not only change in the entropy but also change in the
free energy F of the crystal]
Therefore, free energy F = U – TS ----------------- (4)
Substitute equation (1), (2), and (3) in (4) then we get,
𝑁!
F = nEv – KBT log ((𝑁−𝑛)! 𝑛!)
F = nEv – KBT [log N! – log (N-n)! – log n!]

By Stirling’s approximation, Log x! = x log x – x
F= nEv – KBT [N log N – N – {(N–n) log (N–n) – (N–n) –n log n – n}]
F = nEv – KBT [N log N – (N–n) log (N–n)– n log n]
At thermal equilibrium, the free energy is constant and minimum with respect to
∂𝐹
‘n’ hence, (∂𝑛) 𝑇 = 0
−1 1
1.Ev – KBT [0 – {(N – n).(N−n) + (–1). log (N – n)} – (n. n + 1. log n)] = 0
Ev – KBT [1 + log (N – n) – 1 – log n] = 0
N−n
Ev – KBT log ( )=0
𝑛
N−n
Ev = KBT log ( )
𝑛
𝐸𝑣 N−n
= log ( )
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑛
𝐸 N−n
exp(𝐾 𝑣𝑇) =
𝐵 𝑛
If n<<N then N-n ≈ N

N 𝐸
= exp(𝐾 𝑣𝑇)
𝑛 𝐵
𝑛 –𝐸𝑣
= exp(𝐾 𝑇)
𝑁 𝐵
–𝑬𝒗
𝒏 = N exp( )
𝑲𝑩 𝑻
Where ‘n’ represents the number of vacancies created in the crystal.

The above equation indicates that by decreasing equilibrium temperature the
concentration of vacancies decreases.
❖ Concentration of Schottky defects in ionic crystals:
In ionic crystals, the formation of pair of vacancies is most favored i.e. an equal
number of positive and negative ion vacancies are produced.
Schottky defect is closely related to vacancies. It is formed when a cation and
anion are removed from a normal lattice site and replaced in an average
position on the surface of the crystal.
Schottky defect
Let us consider the energy required to move an ion pair from lattice site inside

the crystal to a lattice site on the surface.
Therefore, the amount of energy required to produce ‘n’ number of isolated
vacancies will be
U = nEP ------------ (1)
The total number of ways that to move ‘n’ number of ion pairs out of ‘N’ number
of ionic molecules in a crystal on to the surface will be
𝑁! 𝑁! 𝑁!
P = [(𝑁−𝑛)! 𝑛!] x[(𝑁−𝑛)! 𝑛!] = [(𝑁−𝑛)! 𝑛!]2 -------------- (2)
We know that, S = KB log P ----------------- (3)

The change in the entropy causes change in the free energy (F),
F = U – TS ----------------- (4)
𝑁!
F = nEp – KBT log ([(𝑁−𝑛)! 𝑛!]2)
𝑁!
F = nEp – KBT. 2 log ((𝑁−𝑛)! 𝑛!)
Here, Ep is the energy of formation of a pair of ion vacancies.

Using Stirling’s approximation, Log x! = x log x – x; then
F = nEp – 2KBT [N log N – N – {(N–n) log (N–n) – (N–n) + n log n – n}]
F = nEp – 2KBT [N log N – N – (N–n) log (N–n) + N–n - n log n + n}]
F = nEp – 2KBT [N log N – (N–n) log (N–n)– n log n]
∂𝐹
‘n’ i.e., (∂𝑛) 𝑇 = 0
−1 1
→1.Ep – 2KBT [0 – {(N – n).(N−n) + (–1). log (N – n)} – (n. n + 1. log n)] = 0
Ep – 2KBT [1 + log (N – n) – 1 – log n] = 0
N−n
Ep = 2KBT log ( )
𝑛
𝐸𝑝 N−n
= log ( )
2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑛
N−n 𝐸𝑝
= exp(2𝐾 𝑇) If n<<N then ‘n’ can be neglected i.e., N-n ≈ N
𝑛 𝐵
N 𝐸𝑝
≈ exp(2𝐾 𝑇)
𝑛 𝐵
𝑛 –𝐸𝑝
≈ exp(2𝐾 𝑇)
𝑁 𝐵
–𝐸𝑝
𝒏 ≈ N exp( )
𝟐𝑲𝑩 𝑻
The number of Schottky defects increase exponentially with increase of

temperature.

❖ concentration of Frenkel defects:
Interstitial atoms are the extra atoms that are squeezed in between regular
atom sites. When an interstitial atom is formed by transferring an atom from a
regular lattice site to an interstitial position and a vacancy is created. The
vacancy associated with the interstitial atom is called Frenkel defect.
As in the case of Schottky defect, now we can calculate the number of Frenkel
defects present in the crystal in equilibrium at a given temperature.
The internal energy is given by, U = nEi---------------- (1)

Where, ‘Ei‘ is the energy required to displace an atom from regular lattice site to
interstitial position; and ‘n’ is the number of Frenkel defects formed.
Let ‘N’ is the Total number of atoms; and ‘Ni‘ is the number of interstitial sites.
The total number of ways in which ‘n’ Frenkel defects can be formed will be
given as
𝑁! 𝑁!
P = [(𝑁−𝑛)! 𝑛!x(𝑁 −𝑛)!
𝑖
] -------------- (2)
𝑖 𝑛!
The increase in the entropy due to the creation of Frenkel defects can be
calculated based on Boltzmann law.
We know that S = KB log P ----------------- (3)
The change in the entropy causes change in the free energy and free energy
(F) is given by
F = U – TS ----------------- (4)
𝑁! 𝑁!
F = nEi – KBT log [(𝑁−𝑛)! 𝑛!x(𝑁 −𝑛)!
𝑖
]
𝑖 𝑛!
Using Stirling’s approximation Log x! = x log x – x; & log (ab) = log a +log b, then
F = nEi – KBT [[N log N – N – {(N–n) log (N–n) – (N–n) + n log n – n}] + [𝑁𝑖 log 𝑁𝑖 – 𝑁𝑖
– {(𝑁𝑖 –n) log (𝑁𝑖 –n) – (𝑁𝑖 –n) + n log n – n}]]
F = nEi – KBT [N log N – N – (N–n) log (N–n) + (N–n) – n log n + n + 𝑁𝑖 log 𝑁𝑖 – 𝑁𝑖 –
(𝑁𝑖 –n) log (𝑁𝑖 –n) + (𝑁𝑖 –n) – n log n + n]
F = nEi – KBT [N log N + 𝑁𝑖 log 𝑁𝑖 – (N–n) log (N–n) – (𝑁𝑖 –n) log (𝑁𝑖 –n) –2n log n]

‘n’. Differentiating the above equation with respect to ‘n’ at constant
∂𝐹
temperature (T), i.e., (∂𝑛) 𝑇 = 0
−1 −1
→1.Ei – KBT [0 – 0 – {(N – n).(N−n) + (–1). log (N – n)} – {(𝑁𝑖 – n).(𝑁 −n) + (–1). log (𝑁𝑖 –
𝑖
1
n)} – 2(n. n + 1. log n)] = 0
Ei – KBT [1+ log (N – n) + 1 +log (𝑁𝑖 – n) –2 – 2log n] = 0
Ei – KBT [log (N – n)(𝑁𝑖 – n) – log n2] = 0
(N – n)(𝑁𝑖 – n)
Ei – KBT log ( )=0
𝑛2
If n<<N and n<<𝑁𝑖 then ‘n’ can be neglected i.e., N – n ≈ N and 𝑁𝑖 – n ≈𝑁𝑖
N 𝑁𝑖
Ei = KBT log ( )
𝑛2
𝐸𝑖
= log (N 𝑁𝑖 ) – 2 log n
𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝑖
2 log n = log (N 𝑁𝑖 ) – 𝐾
𝐵𝑇
Divide both sides by 2 and apply exponential then

–𝑬
n = (𝐍 𝑵𝒊 )𝟏/𝟐 𝐞𝐱𝐩 (𝟐𝑲 𝒊𝑻)
𝑩
Therefore, ‘n’ is proportional to(N 𝑁𝑖 )1/2. The number of frenkel defects increase
exponentially with increase of temperature.
(2) Line defects:

➢ Line defects are known as one dimensional defect’s. These defects are also
known as dislocations.
➢ These defects appear along a line in the crystal geometry.
➢ These dislocations occur generally due to the presence of incomplete
atomic planes which arise due to growth accidents, thermal stress etc.
➢ The presence of dislocations in the crystal decreases its mechanical strength.
➢ A dislocation may be defined as a disturbed region between two
substantially perfect parts of a crystal.
➢ In general, the line defects are again classified into two categories, (a) Edge
dislocation and (b) Screw dislocation.
(a) Edge dislocation:
➢ An edge dislocation is created in the crystal by introducing an extra half
plane (or any extra plane that does not extend up to the base of the
crystal).

➢ If one of the vertical planes does not extend to full length but ends in
between within the crystal, then it is called as edge dislocation.
➢ Figure(a) shows a perfect crystal, the top sketch depicting a three-
dimensional view and the bottom one showing the atoms on the front face.
➢ From the lower sketch of figure (b), it can be clearly seen that the atoms
above the edge of the extra plane are squeezed together and are in a
state of compression.
➢ The bond lengths have been compressed to smaller than the equilibrium
value just below the edge of the extra plane the atoms are pulled apart
and are in a state of tension.
➢ This distorted configuration extends along the edge of the crystal. There is an
extra energy due to the distortion in the region immediately surrounding the
edge of the incomplete plane.
➢ If one of the plane of atoms glides over another separated by an integral
multiple of interatomic distance is called slip, and slip plane is the plane in
which slip has taken place. In figure (C), XY- is the slip plane.
➢ If the incomplete extra plane is above the slip plane, then the edge
dislocation is positive and is represented by the symbol ‘┴’.
➢ If the incomplete extra plane is below the slip plane, then the edge
dislocation is negative and is represented by the symbol ’┬‘as shown in
figure (c).

(b) Screw dislocation:
Screw dislocation is defined as a displacement of the atoms in one part of a
crystal relative to the rest of the crystal, forming a spiral ramp around the
dislocation line as shown in figure.
The plane ABCD is the slipped area, AD dislocation line. The name screw follows
the new character of atomic planes which are transferred such that as one
moves around the dislocation line in circuit. Speed of movement of a screw
dislocation is less than the edge dislocation.
Fig. Screw dislocation
❖ Burger’s vector:
➢ Dutch physicist, Jan Burger introduced a vector, which represents the
direction and magnitude of dislocations in crystals, is called Burger’s Vector.
It is represented by ′𝑏⃗’.
➢ Burger’s vector indicates how much and in what direction the dislocation has
been shifted. The magnitude and direction of the dislocation can be
understood from the concept of Burger’s vector.
➢ Burger’s vector is proportional to the square root of the elastic energy of the
dislocation.
➢ In most metallic materials, the magnitude of the Burgers vector is equal to the
interatomic spacing of the material, since a single dislocation will offset the
crystal lattice by one close-packed crystallographic spacing unit.
➢ In edge dislocations, the Burgers vector and dislocation line are at right
angles to one another. In screw dislocations, they are parallel.
Burger’s circuit:
Dislocation in a crystal is represented by a closed loop is called Burger’s circuit.

❖ Burger’s vector (𝒃
⃗ ) in Edge dislocation:
➢ As shown in figure (a), let consider a point ‘P’. From this point, we go up atom
by atom by 6 steps, then move towards right by 5 steps, and move down by
6 steps and finally move towards left by 5 steps to reach the starting point ‘P’.
Thus, the circuit is closed.
➢ In figure (b), atoms are missing along edge, called edge dislocation. In this,
circuit is failed to close itself in the region containing edge containing
dislocation. Then the vector is necessary to close the circuit is called Burger’s
vector. Now we have to move an extra step QP to return to P in order to
close the circuit.
➢ Burger’s vector ⃗b = QP.
➢ In Edge dislocation, Burger’s Vector (b
⃗ ) is Perpendicular to dislocation line.
Fig. Burger’s vector in edge dislocation.

❖ Burger’s vector (𝒃
⃗ ) in Screw dislocation:
In figure, atoms are missing and gives dislocation in the form of screw called,
screw dislocation. In this, circuit is failed to close itself in the region containing
screw dislocation. Then the vector is necessary to close the circuit is called
Burger’s vector.
In Screw dislocation, Burger’s Vector (𝑏⃗) is Parallel to dislocation line.
Fig. Burger’s vector in Screw dislocation.

❖ Difference between Edge Dislocation and Screw Dislocation: -
Edge Dislocation Screw Dislocation

1.In this, an edge of atomic plane is 1. In this, only a distortion of the lattice
formed internal to the crystal. planes in the immediate vicinity is
produced.
2. Dislocation line is perpendicular to 2. Dislocation line is parallel to the
the Burger’s vector. Burger’s vector.
3. Edge dislocation moves in the 3. Screw dislocation moves in the
direction of Burger’s vector. direction perpendicular to the
Burger’s vector.
4.It has specific glide plane. 4. It doesn’t have a unique glide
plane.
5.Speed of movement of an edge 5. Speed of movement of a screw
dislocation is greater than that of dislocation is less than that of an Edge
Screw dislocation. dislocation.
6. Edge dislocation is particularly 6. Screw dislocation is especially useful
useful in explaining slip in plastic flow in explaining crystal growth as well as
during mechanical working. slip in plastic deformation.
(3) Surface defects:

➢ Surface defects/imperfections arise from a change in the stacking of atomic
planes on or across a boundary.
➢ In surface defects, the crystalline irregularity extends in two dimensions.
Surface defects are also called as plane defects. The surface imperfections
refer to regions of distortions that lie about a surface having a thickness of
few atomic diameters.
(4) Volume defects:

Volume defects such as cracks may arise in crystals when they are grown or
while they are used.
➢ When clusters of atoms are missing, a large vacancy or void is created
which are also a volume defect /imperfection.
➢ Foreign particle inclusions, large voids and non-crystalline regions which
have the dimensions of the order of 1 or 3 nm are also called as volume
defects/ imperfections.

UNIT-II
BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS & SEMICONDUCTORS
Introduction:
•In Solids, the electrons in the outermost orbitals of the atoms determine its
electrical properties. The electron theory of solids aims to explain the electrical,
thermal and magnetic properties of solids.
•This theory has been developed in three main stages.
1. Classical free electron theory
2. Quantum free electron theory
3. Band theory of solids.
Classical free electron theory:
•Drude and Lorentz developed this theory in 1900. According to this theory,
the metals containing free electrons obey the laws of Classical Mechanics.
Quantum free electron theory:
•Somerfield developed this theory during 1928. According to this theory, free
electrons obey the Quantum laws.
Band theory of solids or Zone theory:
•Bloch stated this theory in 1928. According to this theory, the free electrons
move in a Periodic field provided by the lattice and the theory is also called
Band theory of solids.
The classical free electron theory of metals:-
• In 1900, Drude and Lorentz developed this theory.
It has some postulates/ salient features, they are:
• A metal is composed of atoms and atoms have nucleus around which
there are revolving electrons.
• The valence electrons of atoms are free to move about the whole volume
of the metals like the molecules of a perfect gas in a container.
• These free electrons move in random directions and collide with either
positive ions or other free electrons. All collisions are elastic.
• Metals obey the laws of classical mechanics.
• Electrical conduction is due to motion of free electrons only.
• The free electrons move in a constant potential field. Hence the potential
energy of the electrons is constant.
Department of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

• When an electric field is applied to a metal, free electrons are
accelerated in the direction opposite to the direction of applied electric
field with a velocity called drift velocity (vd).
• Lorenz force acting on electron is 𝐹 = −𝑒𝐸….(1)

• From Newton’s second law 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 ………(2)
• From equations (1) & (2), m a= -eE
• -eE= mvd/tr since we know that a=v/t
• Drift Velocity : vd =-(etr/m)E
• The amount of velocity gained by the electron by the application of unit
electric field is known drift velocity.
Success (or) Advantages of Classical free electron theory:-
(i) It verifies Ohm’s law.
(ii) It explains optical properties of metals.
(iii) It explains the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.
𝐾
(iv)It derives Wiedemann – Franz law. ( = a constant.)
𝜎𝑇
Drawbacks:-
• It fails in explaining Photo electric effect, Compton Effect and Theory of
Black radiation.
• It couldn’t explain the classification of solids into conductors,
semiconductors & insulators.
• It fails to explain temperature variation of electrical conductivity at low
temperature.
• It fails to explain the temperature dependence of paramagnetic
susceptibility and ferromagnetism.
2. Quantum free electron theory:-
• In 1928 Sommerfeld developed the quantum free electron theory.
According to Sommerfeld, the free electrons move with a constant
potential. This theory obeys quantum laws.

• This theory considered the behavior of electron gas taking into quantum
theory and Pauli’s exclusive principle.
• All the electrons are not present in the ground state at 0°K, but the
distribution obeys Pauli’s principle. At 0°K, the highest energy level filled is
called Fermi level.
• The potential remains constant throughout the lattice.
• Collision of electrons with positive ion cores (or) other free electrons is
independent of charges and is elastic in nature.
• Energy levels are discrete.
• It was successfully explained not only conductivity, but also thermo-ionic
emission, Para magnetism, specific heat.
Drawbacks: It fails to explain classification of solids such as conductors,
semiconductors, and insulators.
Bloch Theorem – (Electrons in a Periodic Potential):-

Statement:- Bloch stated this theory in 1928. According to this theory “the free
electrons move in periodic potentials provided by the lattice in a crystal.”}
❖ Kronig – Penny Model:-
• In 1930,Kronig and penny proposed a simpler potential in the form of an
array of square wells as shown in fig.
• According to Kronig - Penney model the electrons move in a periodic
potential field which is provided by the lattice ions.
• In this consideration, the problem is simplified by replacing the periodic
potential with a square well of period (a+b). At the bottom of the well, i.e.,
for 0<x<a, the electron is assumed to be very close to the nucleus of the
positive ion core where the potential energy of electron is zero. At outside
the well, i.e., –b<x<0, the potential energy is maximum (assumed to be V0).
The wave function for electron can be obtained by solving the one
dimensional Schrodinger Time Independent wave equation for the two
regions.
• For one dimensional Periodic potential field
V (x) = 0, for Region-I i.e. for 0<x<a
V(X) = V0, for Region-II i.e. for -b<x<0

Fig: One dimensional Periodic potentials in a crystal
Region-I:-0<x<a
The one dimensional Schrodinger Time Independent wave equation is,
∂2 Ψ 2m
+ [E-V(x)]Ψ = 0
∂x2 ђ2
∂2 Ψ 2m
Since, V(x) = 0, + EΨ = 0
∂x2 ђ2
2m ∂2 Ψ
Consider, 2 E= α ;
2 Then, + α2Ψ = 0 ---------------(1)
ђ ∂x2
Region-II:--b<x<0
The 1-dimensional Schrodinger Time Independent wave equation is,
∂2 Ψ 2m
+ [E-V(x)]Ψ = 0
∂x2 ђ2
∂2 Ψ 2m
+ [E-V0]Ψ = 0 [since V(x) =V0 ]
∂x2 ђ2
2m ∂2 Ψ
Consider, [E -V0 ] = β2 ; Then, + β2Ψ = 0 ---------------(2)
ђ2 ∂x2
The solutions of equations (1) & (2) can be obtained by using Bloch theorem.
The Bloch functions are: ΨK(x) =UK(x) e± iKx [Where, UK(x) = UK(x+a)] ---------- (3)
Differentiating equation (3) w. r. to ‘x’ twice and substituting in eqns (1)&(2)
and applying boundary conditions and solving, we get the solution,
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂𝐚
𝐏 + Cosαa = Cosαa --------------- (4)
𝛂𝐚
m𝑉0 𝑎𝑏
It is called as Kronig – Penny equation. Where, P = ; α =√2𝑚𝐸
ђ2
ђ2
P = Scattering power of the potential barrier and V0b = Barrier strength.

Kronig – Penny Graph:-
The Kronig – Penny Graph is plotted shown in figure using equation (4). From the
eqn (4), the R.H.S is a cosine term which varies between the limits –1 and +1 and
hence the L.H.S is also varies between these limits. It means energy is restricted

within +1 and –1 only.
Fig.1 Fig.2 Fig.3

Conclusions-
i. The motion of electron in a periodic lattice is characterized by the allowed
energy and forbidden energy bonds, as shown in fig.1.
ii. If the energy of electron lies between –1 to +1, are called allowed energy
bands and if the energy of electron not lies between –1 to +1, are known as
forbidden energy bands. This means that ‘αa’ can take only certain range of
values belonging to allowed energy bands.
iii. As the value of ‘αa’ increases the width of the allowed energy band increases
and width of the forbidden band decreases.
iv. As scattering power (P) increases, the strength of potential barrier increases
and the width of the allowed energy band decreases.
v. When P→0 then all the electrons are completely free to move in the crystal
without any constraints. Hence all the energies are allowed to the electrons
and produce the continuous spectrum as shown in fig. 2. This case supports the
classical free electrons theory.
vi. When P→ ∞ (infinity), the allowed energy bands become infinitely narrow and
the energy Spectrum is a line spectrum as shown in fig. 3.
vii. By varying ‘p’ from 0 to ∞, we can find that the completely free electrons
become completely bound to Brillouin zone.
❖ Origin of Energy band formation in Solids:-
• When we consider isolated atom, the electrons are tightly bound and
have discrete, sharp energy levels.
• When two identical atoms are brought closer the outer most orbits of these
atoms overlap and interact. This results in shifting and splitting of each
energy level into two energy levels.

• If more atoms are brought together more levels are formed and for a solid
of N atoms, each of the energy levels of an atom splits into N levels of
energy.
• The levels are so close together that they form an almost continuous band.
• The width of this band depends on the degree of overlap of electrons of
adjacent atoms and is largest for outer most atomic electrons.
Fig. energy band formation

Energy Level (or) Band Diagram:-
Energy band also defined as, the range of energies possessed by an electron in
a solid. It consists of(i) Inner filled bands, (ii) Valence bands, (iii) Conduction
bands, and (iv) Forbidden band (or) energy gap.

Fig. Energy Level Diagram
• Valance band: The highest filled energy band is called valance band.
• Conduction band: Lowest unfilled energy band is called conduction band.
• Forbidden energy gap: The gap between valance band and conduction
band is called energy gap.
Classification of Solids:-
Based on band theory, arrangement of electrons and forbidden energy gap,
the solid materials are classified into 3 types.
They are: 1. Conductors, 2. Insulators, and 3. Semiconductors.
1) Conductors:-
• Solid materials which conduct electric current when potential difference is
applied across them are known as Conductors.
• In conductors, the forbidden energy gap is zero (Eg = 0) i.e., both valence
band &conduction band overlap with each other as shown in above
figure (a).
• In conduction band plenty of free electrons are available. These electrons
move freely from valence band (V.B) to conduction band (C.B) &
constitute electrical current.
Ex:- Cu, Al, Fe, etc.

2) Insulators:-
• Solid materials which don’t conduct electric current are known as
insulators.
• In insulators, the forbidden energy gap is very high (Eg = 6ev or Eg> 3 eV)
as shown in above figure (b). Due to this electrons cannot jump from
valence bond to conduction band. In insulators, the valence electrons
are bound tightly to their parent atom.
• At 0K, the valence bond is completely filled & energy gap between C.B &
V.B is of the order of 10ev. The resistivity of insulator is the order of 107 Ω-m.
Ex:- Glass, wood, plastic.
3) Semiconductors:-
• Solid materials, whose electrical conductivity lies between conductors &
insulators are called as semiconductors. Conductivity of semiconductors is
in the order of 104 to 10–4 mho m–1.
• In semiconductors, the forbidden energy gap is very small (E g 1.1ev) as
shown in above figure (c).
Ex:-Ge, Si.
• For Ge, forbidden energy gap (Eg) = 0.72 eV and for Si, Eg = 1.1 eV. At T = 0
K, semiconductor becomes an insulator.
❖ Concept of Hole:-
✓ The absence of an electron in a particular place in an atom is known as
hole.
✓ Hole is a positively charged particle.
✓ It has the same mass as that of an electron
✓ Holes are charge carriers in semiconductors.
✓ In P-type Semiconductor, majority charge carriers are holes.
✓ In N-type Semiconductor, minority charge carriers are holes.
❖ Types of Semiconductors: Semiconductors are mainly two types

1.Intrinsic (Pure) Semiconductors
2.Extrinsic (Impure) Semiconductors

❖ Intrinsic semiconductors:
• A Semiconductor which does not have any kind of impurities behaves as
an Insulator at 0K and behaves as a Conductor at higher temperature is
known as Intrinsic Semiconductor or Pure Semiconductor.
• Ex: Germanium & Silicon (4th group elements) and they possess diamond
cubic crystalline structure.
❖ Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors:-
Density of Electrons:-
The number of electrons available between energy interval E and E+dE in
conduction band is given by dn = p(E) g(E) dE ------------------- (1)
where p(E) is the probability of occupation of an electron in the energy state E;
g(E) dE is the density of electrons in the energy level E and E+dE.
If Ec is the energy corresponding to the bottom of the conduction band, to
calculate the density of electrons integrate the equation (1) between the limits
Ec and ∞.
∞ ∞
i.e., n= ∫𝐸 𝑑𝑛 = ∫𝐸 𝑝(𝐸)𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸
𝑐 𝑐

1
But we know that p(E) = 𝐸−𝐸
1 +exp ( 𝐾𝑇𝑓 )
For all possible temperatures E- Ef>> KT

−(𝐸−𝐸𝑓 ) 𝐸𝑓 −𝐸
So, p(E) = exp ( 𝐾𝑇
) = exp ( 𝐾𝑇
)
and g(E) = 𝑑𝐸 [Density of electron states]
4𝜋 3 1
3 (2𝑚) ⁄2 (𝐸) ⁄2
ℎ
The electron in the conduction band is not free electron so m =me*, and if we
consider the minimum energy of the electrons in the conduction band as Ec,
4𝜋 3 3 1
then, g(E)dE = (
ℎ 3 )(2) ⁄2 )(𝑚𝑒∗ ) ⁄2 (𝐸−𝐸𝑐 ) ⁄2 𝑑𝐸
n= 4𝜋 3 1
∞ 𝐸𝑓 −𝐸
(2𝑚𝑒∗ ) ⁄2 ∫𝐸 (𝐸−𝐸𝑐 ) ⁄2 exp( ) 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3 𝑐 𝐾𝑇
n= 4𝜋
ℎ3
3 𝐸 ∞ 1 −𝐸)
(2𝑚𝑒∗ ) ⁄2 exp(𝐾𝑇𝑓 ) ∫𝐸 (𝐸−𝐸𝑐 ) ⁄2 exp( 𝐾𝑇 ) 𝑑𝐸
𝑐
Put E–Ec =x;E=Ec+x; dE = dx; and limits will be from 0 to ∞.

n= 4𝜋
ℎ3
3 𝐸 ∞ 1 −(𝐸𝑐 +𝑥)
(2𝑚𝑒∗ ) ⁄2 exp(𝐾𝑇𝑓 ) ∫0 𝑥 ⁄2 exp( 𝐾𝑇 ) 𝑑𝑥
n= 4𝜋
ℎ 3
3 𝐸
(2𝑚𝑒∗ ) ⁄2 exp( 𝑓−𝐸
𝐾𝑇
𝑐 ) ∞ 𝑥 1⁄2 exp(−𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
∫0 𝐾𝑇
∞ 1 3 1
but∫0 𝑥 ⁄2 exp(𝐾𝑇
−𝑥
) 𝑑𝑥 = (𝐾𝑇) ⁄2 𝜋2 ⁄2
4𝜋 3⁄ 𝐸 3 1⁄
n= (2𝑚𝑒∗ ) 2 exp( 𝑓−𝐸𝑐 ) (𝐾𝑇) ⁄2 𝜋 2
ℎ 3 𝐾𝑇 2
The number of electron per unit volume (density of electrons) of the material is
given by,
∗ 3 𝐸
n =2(2𝜋𝑚2𝑒𝐾𝑇) ⁄2 exp( 𝑓−𝐸
ℎ 𝐾𝑇
𝑐 ).
Density of holes:
Let dp be the number of holes or vacancies in the energy interval E and E+ dE in
the valence band
dp = g(E) (1–p(E) dE
where g(E) dE is the density of energy states in the energy interval E and E+dE
and1-p(E) is the probability of existence of a hole.
1
1–p(E) = [ 𝐸−𝐸𝑓 ]
1+exp ( )
𝐾𝑇
𝐸−𝐸𝑓
For E-Ef>> KT, 1-p(E) = exp ( 𝐾𝑇
)
4𝜋 ∗ 3⁄2 1
g(E)dE =
ℎ 3 (2𝑚ℎ ) (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸) ⁄2 𝑑𝐸

where, m∗h is the effective mass of hole
Since Ev is the energy of the top of the valance band, E= (Ev– E)
4𝜋 ∗ 3⁄2 𝐸𝑣 1 𝐸−𝐸𝑓
p=
ℎ3
(2𝑚ℎ ) ∫–∞(𝐸𝑣 −𝐸) ⁄2 exp( 𝐾𝑇
) 𝑑𝐸
4𝜋 ∗ 3⁄2 −𝐸𝑓 𝐸𝑣 1
p=
ℎ3
(2𝑚ℎ ) exp( 𝐾𝑇 ) ∫–∞ (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸) ⁄2 exp(𝐾𝑇𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸
Put Ev–E = x; E= Ev–x; dE = –dx ; and limits will be from ∞ 𝑡𝑜 0
𝐸 1 0 1
Take the term, ∫∞𝑣(𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸) ⁄2 exp(𝐾𝑇 𝐸
) 𝑑𝐸 = – ∫∞(𝑥) ⁄2 exp(𝐸𝐾𝑇
𝑣 −𝑥
) 𝑑𝑥
∞ 1 ∞ 1
∫0 (𝑥) ⁄2 exp(𝐸𝐾𝑇 𝑣 −𝑥
) 𝑑𝑥 = exp(𝐾𝑇𝐸𝑣
) ∫0 (𝑥) ⁄2 exp(𝐾𝑇 −𝑥
) 𝑑𝑥
∞ 1 3 1
But∫0 𝑥 ⁄2 exp(𝐾𝑇
−𝑥
) 𝑑𝑥 = (𝐾𝑇) ⁄2 𝜋2 ⁄2
4𝜋 3⁄ −𝐸 3⁄ 𝜋1⁄
Now, p = (2𝑚ℎ∗ ) 2 exp( 𝑓) 𝐸𝑣
exp(𝐾𝑇 ) (𝐾𝑇) 2 2
ℎ3 𝐾𝑇 2
4𝜋 3⁄ 𝐸 −𝐸 3 1⁄
p= (2𝑚ℎ∗ ) 2 exp ( 𝑣 𝑓) (𝐾𝑇) ⁄2 𝜋 2
ℎ 3 𝐾𝑇 2
The number of holes per unit volume (density of holes) of the material is given by
∗ 𝐾𝑇 3⁄ 𝐸𝑣−𝐸
p =2(
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑓
ℎ2
) 2 exp ( ) 𝐾𝑇
In intrinsic semiconductors, n= p = ni is intrinsic carrier concentration, so ni2= n.p

2𝜋𝐾𝑇 ∗ ∗ 3⁄2 𝐸
ni2= n.p= 4( 2 )3 (𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ ) exp( 𝑣−𝐸 𝐾𝑇
𝑐)
ℎ
2𝜋𝐾𝑇 ∗ ∗ 3⁄2 −𝐸
ni2= 4( 2 )3 (𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ ) exp( 𝐾𝑇𝑔)where, Eg = Ec - Ev is the forbidden gap.
ℎ
2𝜋𝐾𝑇 3⁄ ∗ ∗ 3⁄4 −𝐸
ni = 2( 2 ) 2 (𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ ) exp( 𝐾𝑇𝑔)
ℎ
Intrinsic carrier concentration:
In intrinsic semiconductor, n=p=ni
∗ 𝐾𝑇 3⁄ 𝐸𝑓−𝐸 ∗ 3 𝐸 −𝐸
So, 2(
2𝜋𝑚𝑒
) 2 exp( 𝑐 )= 2(2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝑇) ⁄2 exp( 𝑣 𝑓 )
2 ℎ 𝐾𝑇 2 𝐾𝑇 ℎ
𝑚∗𝑒 3 2𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑣
(𝑚∗ℎ
) ⁄2 = exp( 𝐾𝑇
)
Applying log both sides, we get,3⁄2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑚

𝑚𝑒 ∗ 2𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑣
∗) = ( 𝐾𝑇
)
ℎ
3𝐾𝑇 ∗
2𝐸𝑓 = 𝑚𝑒
𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑚∗ ) + 𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑣
2 ℎ
3𝐾𝑇 ∗
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑚𝑚∗𝑒 ) + (𝐸𝑐+𝐸
2
𝑣
)
4 ℎ

𝐸𝑐 +𝐸𝑣
If 𝑚𝑒∗ = 𝑚ℎ∗ (T= 0K), then𝐸𝑓 = ;
2
Hence, the Fermi level exists exactly at the center of conduction and valence
bands.
❖ EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:
• A semiconductor which is in an impure form (with doping) is called an
extrinsic semiconductor.
• Adding a suitable impurity to pure semiconductor is known as doping.
• Extrinsic semiconductors are further divided into two types
1. P- type semiconductors
2. N-type semiconductor
P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS:
• By adding the trivalent impurity to pure semiconductor (like Al, Ga, In etc.)
it becomes P-type semiconductor.
• These impurities (or dopants) have three valence electrons in their outer
shell. Each impurity is short of one electron for covalent bonding. The
vacancy thus created is bound to the atom at 0 K. At some higher
temperature an electron from a neighboring atom can fill the vacancy
leaving a hole in the valence band for conduction.
• Due to ionization of acceptor atoms only holes and no electrons are
created.
• Impurities (or dopants) of the trivalent type are called acceptors, since
they accept electrons to create holes above the top of the valence
bond. The semiconductors doped with the acceptor impurities are called
P-type Semiconductors.
• In P-type semiconductors majority charge carriers are holes.
N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS:
• By adding the pentavalent impurity to pure semiconductor (like P, As, Sb,

etc.) it becomes N-type semiconductor.
• Four electrons are involved in covalent bonding with four neighboring pure
Semiconductor atoms the fifth electron is weakly bound to the parent atom.
The additional electron contributes to the conductivity in the same way as
those excited thermally from the valence bond.
• Since Penta valent impurities donate extra carrier electrons, they are called
donors. The energy level of fifth electron is called donor level.
• The donor level is close to the bottom of the conduction band most of the
donor level electrons are excited in to the conduction band at room
temperature and become the Majority charge carriers.
• In N-type semiconductors majority charge carriers are Electrons
❖ PN junction diode and VI-characteristics:

• When a P-type Semiconductor is joined together with an N-type
Semiconductor a PN junction is formed. It is also known as a Semiconductor
Diode. The surface of contract of P and N-type crystals is called junction.
• The two kinds of majority carriers diffusing across the junction meet each
other near the junction and undergo recombination’s, leaving negative
ions on the P- side and positive ions on the N-side of the junction. This
distribution of Positive and Negative charges is called Space charge region.
• Holes leaving and electrons entering the P-side make it negative. Similarly,
holes entering and electrons leaving the n-region make it positive. Thus,
there is net negative charge on the P side of the junction and net positive
charge on n-side. This produces an electric field across the junction.
Equilibrium is established when the field becomes large enough to stop
further diffusion of the majority charge carriers. The field helps the minority
carries to move across the junction.

• The region on either side of the junction which becomes depleted (free) of
the mobile charge carries is called the depletion region. The potential
difference across the depletion region is called the potential barriers.
V-I Characteristics of a junction diode:

• Graphs drawn between bias voltage and circuit current of a junction diode
are called characteristics of the diode.
• The diode can be operated in two different ways, as Forward and Reverse
bias.
1. Forward Bias:-
• When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type & negative
terminal is to the N-type of the PN-junction diode, then the diode is said to be
in forward bias.
• If external voltage exceeds the barrier voltage then current increases rapidly.
The forward voltage at which the flow of the current through the PN junction
diode starts increasing rapidly is called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage of
a diode.
• The cut-in (or) knee voltage for silicon diode is approximately 0.7 volts.
• The cut-in (or) knee voltage for germanium diode is approximately 0.3 volts.

2. Reverse Bias:-
• When negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type & positive
terminal is to the N-type of the PN-junction diode, then the diode is said to be
in reverse bias.
• With reverse bias the reverse current remains very small which is due to the
minority charge carriers, known as reverse leakage current.
• If the reverse bias is made very high, the covalent bonds near the junction
breakdown and the reverse current then increases abruptly to a large value.
• Break down voltage is the reverse voltage at which the breakdown of
junction takes place and reverse current rapidly increases.
• From the characteristics graph the following points are noted.
• The region between knee voltage & breakdown voltage is known as non-
ohmic region.
• Above the knee & breakdown voltage the current increases.
• Breakdown voltage is due to thermally broken covalent bonds.
• Diode is conducting in forward bias & non-conducting in reverse bias.

❖ Thermistor
• Thermistors are made up of semiconductor materials (metallic compounds
including oxides such as manganese, copper, cobalt, and nickel, as well
as single-crystal semiconductors silicon and germanium).
• We are all known that a resistor is an electrical component that limits the
amount of current flows through a circuit.
• A Thermistor is a special type of resistor whose resistance changes with its
temperature.
• Thermistors are used temperature related sensors.
• The symbol of Thermistors can be represented as follows:
• When the temperature of the thermistor is low, its resistance is high. This is
because a thermistor is made of a material which does not conduct
electricity well at low temperatures.
• Typically, for every 1°C rise in temperature, there will be a 5% decrease in
their resistance. So their sensitivity is very high.
• Assume a simple linear relationship between resistance and temperature
for the following discussion
ΔR = k ΔT
Where, ΔR = change in resistance
ΔT = change in temperature
k = temperature coefficient of resistance
• This graph shows the thermistor’s resistance against temperature.
• Remember, the resistance of a thermistor decreases as the temperature
increases.
• Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the sign of k.
• If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and
the device is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor.
• If k is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and
the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.

❖ Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC):
• PTC thermistors increase their resistance as the temperature rises. The
relationship between resistance and temperature is linear.
• PTC stands for Positive Temperature Coefficient.
• In PTC thermistor, resistance increases as its temperature increases as shown
in the figure.
• PTC thermistors are made using barium titanate.
• They are used to protect electronic circuits from high temperatures.
❖ Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC):

• NTC stands for Negative Temperature Coefficient.
• In NTC thermistor, resistance decreases as its temperature increases as shown
in the figure.
• NTC thermistors are made using oxides of nickel, cobalt, copper, manganese
and other materials.
• They are mainly employed for temperature control and measurement
applications.
❖ Thermistor characteristics:
Three important characteristics of thermistors are:
(a)The resistance – temperature characteristics,
(b)The voltage – current characteristics,
(c)The current – time characteristics.
a) Resistance vs Temperature:
The resistance increases with increase in temperature for PTC and resistance
decrease with increase in temperature for NTC. The thermistor exhibits a highly
non-linear characteristic of resistance vs temperature.
There are two fundamental ways to change temperature of thermistor internally
or externally. Temperature of thermistor can be changed externally by changing

the temperature of surrounding media and internally by self-heating resulting
from a current flowing through the device.
b) Voltage vs Current
The voltage drop across a thermistor increases with an increase in current. It
increases until it reaches the peak value after the peak value; it decreases with
the increase in current. This is so because, initially when an increase in the
current is small, it is not able to produce a change in the temperature of the
thermistor, therefore, the voltage drop across it increases. But after the peak
value, the value of the current is able to change the temperature of the
thermistor. It increases its temperature. It results in a decrease in thermistor
resistance. And hence voltage drop across thermistor decreases.
c) Current vs time
The current – time characteristics are shown in Figure. The time delay to reach
maximum current is the function of the applied voltage. When the heating
effect occurs in a thermistor, a certain finite time is required for the thermistor to
heat and the current to build up to a maximum steady-state value.

❖ Thermistor Applications:
➢ PTC thermistors were used as timers in the coil circuit of most CRT displays.
➢ We can also use PTC thermistors as heater in automotive industry to provide
additional heat inside cabin with diesel engine or to heat diesel in cold
climatic conditions before engine injection.
➢ We can use PTC thermistors as current-limiting devices for circuit protection,
as replacements for fuses.
➢ We can also use NTC thermistors to monitor the temperature of an incubator.
➢ Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to
monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging.
➢ We regularly use NTC thermistors in automotive applications.
➢ NTC thermistors are used in the Food Handling and Processing industry,
especially for food storage systems and food preparation.
➢ NTC thermistors are used throughout the Consumer Appliance industry for
measuring temperature. Toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair
dryers, etc. all rely on thermistors for proper temperature control.
➢ We can regularly use the Thermistors in the hot ends of 3D printers; they
monitor the heat produced and allow the printer’s control circuitry to keep a
constant temperature for melting the plastic filament.
➢ NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature
measurements of the order of 10 K.
➢ NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power
supply circuits.

❖ HALL EFFECT:
• Hall Effect was discovered by E.H.Hall in 1879.
• When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying
conductor or semiconductor, a voltage (electric field) is developed
across the specimen in a direction perpendicular to both the current and
magnetic field. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect and the generated
voltage is called as the ‘Hall voltage’.
THEORY:
• Let us consider, a thin rectangular slab carrying Current in the X-direction
and a magnetic field B is established along Z-axis.
• Now Under the influence of the magnetic field, the electrons experience a
force in the positive Y-direction. While positive ions are collected at lower
face of the specimen (due to loss of electrons).
• Hence charge carriers accumulated on the upper and lower surfaces of
the slab (i.e. electrons on Face 2 and holes on Face 1 as shown in fig.).
• Due to separation of charges a potential difference is developed between
the top and bottom faces of the specimen is called the Hall voltage (VH).
Now an electric field called Hall field (EH) is established.
• This field EH exerts a force on the electrons.
• The force on electron due to magnetic field (B) is given by = -BeVd ------- (1);
Where, e = magnitude of the charge of the electron; v = drift velocity.
• The force on electron due to electric field (EH) is given by = -eEH ----------- (2)
• Two opposing forces establish equilibrium i.e., the Magnetic deflecting
force on the charge carriers due to magnetic fieldis balanced by the
electric forces due to electric field.
Using equations (1) and (2) -BeVd = -eEH
EH= VdB -------------- (3)

The current density J is given by J = neVd ➔ Vd = neJ ------------- (4)
From (3) and (4), EH = ne
BJ
---------------- (5)
Eqn. (5) can be written by taking RH = ne
1
; where RH is the Hall coefficient.
Hall coefficient (RH) is defined as the ratio between the induced electric field
and the product of applied magnetic field and current density.
Now, equation (5) will become 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻
BJ
---------- (6)
I
But current density J is also given by J = A ---------- (7)
From (6) and (7), 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 𝐴

BI
---------- (8)
If VH be the hall voltage in equilibrium, the Hall electric field is EH = 𝑉𝑤𝐻
Where, ‘w’ is the width of the specimen, substitute this in equation (8),
𝑅𝐻 = 𝑉wBI
𝐻𝐴 ---------- (9)
Let w & d are the width and the thickness of the bar specimen along the Y&Z-
directions. Then Area A = w x d.
𝑉𝐻 𝑤𝑑
From Equation(9) ➔𝑅𝐻 = wBI
𝑽𝑯 𝒅
𝑹𝑯 = ---------- (10) This is the expression for Hall coefficient.
𝐁𝐈
The mobility of charge carriers is determined using the relation,
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇 ➔ 𝝁 = 𝑹𝑯 𝝈 [since, RH= ne
1
]here, 𝜎 is the electrical conductivity.
For n-type material the 𝑅𝐻 is negative (since the charge is negative) and for a p-
type material the 𝑅𝐻 is positive.
Applications of Hall Effect:

(1) Determination of the type of Semiconductor: The Hall Coefficient RH is
negative for an n-type Semiconductor and positive for a p-type Semiconductor
(2) Determination of Carrier Concentration: Once the Hall coefficient RH is
measured, the carrier concentration ‘n’ can be obtained from n =e𝑅
1
𝐻
(3) Determination of Mobility: According to equation the mobility of charge
carriers is given by, 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇 =>𝝁 = 𝑹𝑯 𝝈
(4) Measurement of magnetic flux density: The magnetic flux density can be
𝑽𝑯 𝒅 𝑽𝑯 𝒅
calculated from the formula of Hall Coefficient. 𝑹𝑯 = =>𝐁 = .
𝐁𝐈 𝐈𝑹𝑯

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
Introduction:
➢ Dielectrics are insulating materials of high specific resistance, negative
temperature coefficient of resistance and large insulation resistance
(dielectric strength). Dielectrics are called as poor conductors of electricity.
➢ Ex: Dry air, Glass, plastic, ceramics, etc.
➢ A dielectric material is a type of insulator which becomes polarized when an
electric field is applied to it.
➢ Dielectrics can develop internal electric field, which oppose the externally
applied field. Whereas the insulators do not develop an internal electric
field.
Important Applications of Dielectric materials:
✓ These are used for energy storage in capacitors.
✓ To enhance the performance of a semiconductor device, high permittivity
dielectric materials are used.
✓ Dielectrics are used in Liquid Crystal Displays.
✓ Ceramic dielectric is used in Dielectric Resonator Oscillator.
Electric Dipole:
A system consisting of two equal and opposite charges separated by a distance
is called electric dipole.
Dipole moment:
The product of charge and distance between two charges is called dipole
moment.
i.e., μ = q x r
Permittivity:
It is a quantity, which represents the dielectric property of a medium. Permittivity
of a medium indicates the easily polarizable nature of the material.
Units: Faraday / Meter or Coulomb / Newton-meter.

Dielectric constant:
The dielectric constant or relative permittivity of a medium is defined as the ratio
between the permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of the free space.
εr = ε / ε0= C/C0
Where, ε is permittivity of the medium, ε0 is permittivity of the free space, C is the
capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric and C0 is the capacitance of the
capacitor without dielectric.
Units: No Units.
Capacitance:
The property of a conductor that describes its ability to store electric charge.
C=q/V=Aε/d
Where, ‘C’ is capacitance of capacitor, ‘q’ is charge on the capacitor plate,
‘V’ is potential difference between plates, ‘A’ is area of capacitor plate ‘ε’ is
permittivity of medium and ‘d’ is distance between capacitor plates.
Units: Farad.
Polarizability (𝜶):
When the strength of the electric field E is increased the strength of the induced
dipole μ also increases. Thus, the induced dipole moment is proportional to the
intensity of the electric field.
μ = 𝜶E, where 𝜶 the constant of proportionality is called polarizability. It can be
defined as induced dipole moment per unit electric field.
𝜶=μ/E
Units: Farad meter2
Polarization Vector (P): The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric
material is called polarization vector P. If μ is the average dipole moment per
molecule and N is the number of molecules per unit volume, then polarization
vector, P = N μ.
Units: Coulomb/m2
Dielectric Strength: It can be defined as the minimum voltage required for
producing dielectric breakdown. Dielectric strength decreases with raising the
temperature, electric field, humidity and age of the material.
Dielectric Loss: When a dielectric is subjected to the a.c. voltage, the electrical
energy is absorbed by the material and is dissipated in the form of heat. This
dissipation of energy is called dielectric loss.

❖ Polarization in dielectrics:
The process of producing electric dipoles which are oriented along the applied
electric field direction is called polarization in dielectrics.
When an electric field is applied across a dielectric material then the dielectric
material becomes polarized. This mechanism is called dielectric polarization.
Polarization occurs due to several atomic mechanisms. When a specimen is
placed in a d.c. electric field, polarization is due to four types of processes.
Polarization Methods:
1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientation polarization and
4. Space charge polarization
❖ Electronic Polarization:
Consider an atom placed inside an electric field. The center of positive charge
is displaced along the applied field direction while the center of negative
charge is displaced in the opposite direction. Thus, a dipole is produced. The
displacement of positively charged nucleus and the negative electrons of an
atom in opposite directions, on application of an electric field, result in
electronic polarization.
➢ This occurs at atomic level.
➢ This polarization occurs at frequency 1015 Hz (UV range)
➢ It is independent of temperature
➢ This is rapid process
➢ electronic polarizability 𝛼𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3
❖ Ionic Polarization:
When an electric field is applied to ionic solid, cations and anions get displaced
in opposite directions. Hence dipoles are formed. Thus, ionic dielectric gets
polarized. This type of polarization is called Ionic Polarization
➢ This occurs only in ionic solids such as Nacl, Kcl, KBr etc., which possess ionic
bonds
➢ This polarization occurs at frequency 1013 Hz (IR range)
➢ It is independent of temperature

➢ This process is slower when compared to electronic polarization
𝑒2 1 1
➢ Ionic polarizability 𝛼𝑖 = 2 [ + ]
𝜔 𝑀 𝑚
❖ Orientation Polarization:
The molecules such as H2,N2, O2, Cl2,CH4 etc., (non-polar molecules) does not
carry any dipole because center of positive charge and center of negative
charge coincides.
In Polar dielectric substances (like CH3Cl, H2O, HCl, etc.), all the molecular
dipoles are oriented randomly when there is no Electric field. In the presence of
the electric field, all the dipoles orient themselves in the direction of field as a
result the net dipole moment becomes enormous.
µ2
Expression for Orientation polarizability 𝛼𝑜 = ; Thus, orientation
3𝑘𝑇
polarizability𝛼𝑜 is inversely proportional to absolute temperature of material.
➢ It occurs only in polar substances such as H2O, CH3Cl
➢ It occurs at a frequency 106 Hz to 1010Hz (microwave range)
➢ It is slow process compared to Ionic polarization.
➢ It greatly depends on temperature
❖ Space charge Polarization: -

The space charge polarization is also known as Interfacial polarization. This
polarization occurs due to the diffusion of ions, along the field direction, thereby
giving rise to redistribution of charges in the dielectrics.
Without the application of electric field, the ions are orderly arranged. When the

electric field is applied, the ions diffuse w.r.to the direction of applied field. This
polarization is known as space charge polarization. It occurs at a frequency 106
Hz to 102 Hz (radio/optical range)
The space charge polarization is not an important factor in most common

dielectrics and it is negligible.
❖ Frequency dependence and Temperature effect on polarizations:

This behavior of Polarizability can be understood from various polarization
processes and from the concept of the relaxation time for each process. On
application of A.C. electric field, polarization process occurs as a function of
time. The polarization P(t) as a function of time t is given by,
P(t) = P[1- exp(-t/tr)]
Where P is the Max. Polarization attained and tr is a Relaxation time for particular
polarization process.
Electronic polarization It is extremely rapid process. This occurs when the
frequency of the applied voltage is very high in the frequency of UV range
(≈1015 Hz). It is independent of temperature.
Ionic polarization: It is a slower process compared to electronic polarization.
If the frequency of the applied voltage is less than 1013 Hz, the ions respond.
This Polarization occurs at frequency of IR range (≈1013 Hz). It is independent of
temperature.
Orientation polarization: It is a slower process compared to electronic and ionic
polarization. This Polarization occurs at frequency of microwave range (≈1010 Hz).
The orientation polarization is inversely proportional to the temperature and
decreases as the temperature increases.
Space charge polarization: It is the slowest process; as it involves the diffusion of
ions over several inter atomic distances. The relaxation time for this process is
related to frequency of ions under the influence of applied field. Space charge
polarization occurs at radio/optical frequencies (102 Hz).

❖ Electronic Polarization:
Consider an atom placed inside an electric field. The center of positive charge
is displaced along the applied field direction while the center of negative
charge is displaced in the opposite direction. Thus, a dipole is produced. The
displacement of positively charged nucleus and the negative electrons of an
atom in opposite directions, on application of an electric field, result in
electronic polarization.
Induced dipole moment μ  E or μ = 𝛼𝑒 E; where 𝛼𝑒 is electronic polarizability.
Electronic polarizability is independent of temperature.
Derivation: Consider the nucleus of charge Ze is surrounded by an electron
cloud of charge -Ze distributed in a sphere of radius R.

Charge density ρ is given by
3 −𝑍𝑒
𝜌 = 4−𝑍𝑒3 = ----------(1)
3
𝜋𝑅 4 𝜋𝑅 3
When an external field of intensity E is applied, the nucleus and electrons

experiences Lorentz forces in opposite direction. Hence the nucleus and
electron cloud are pulled apart.
Then Coulomb force develops between them, which tends to oppose the
displacement. When Lorentz and coulomb forces are equal and opposite,
equilibrium is reached.
Let ‘𝑥 ’ be the displacement.
Lorentz force F = -Ze E ---------- (2) (Force = charge x applied field)
Now, Charge enclosed = 43𝜋𝑥 3 x ρ --------- (3) (q=volume x charge density)
Substitute eqn1 in the above, then
3 −𝑍𝑒 3
Charge =43𝜋𝑥 3 x =>− Ze𝑥
𝑅3
-------------------(4)
4 𝜋𝑅 3
− Ze𝑥3
𝑞𝑝 𝑞𝑒 𝑍𝑒( ) −𝑍 2 𝑒 2 𝑥
𝑅3
We know that the Coulomb force F= = = -------- (5)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3
At equilibrium, Lorentz force = Coulomb force (equate eqn. 2 and eqn. 5)
−𝑍 2 𝑒 2 𝑥 −𝑍𝑒𝑥 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 𝐸
-ZeE = => E = (or) x = -------------- (6)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 𝑍𝑒
Thus, displacement of electron cloud is proportional to applied field.
The two charges +Ze and -Ze are separated by a distance ‘x‘ under applied
field constituting induced electric dipoles.
Induced dipole moment μ = Ze x
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 𝐸
Therefore μ = Ze ( ) =4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 𝐸 ------------(7)
𝑍𝑒
We know that μ = 𝛼𝑒 E------------(8) where 𝛼𝑒 is electronic polarizability
By comparing eqn’s 7 and 8 we will get
𝛼𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 ------------------(9)
This is an expression for electronic polarizability.
The dipole moment per unit volume is called electronic polarization. It is
independent of temperature.

❖ Dielectric constant:
The dielectric characteristics are determined by the dielectric constant.
The dielectric constant or relative permittivity of a medium is defined as the ratio
between the permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of the free space.
εr = ε / ε0= C/C0
Where, ε is permittivity of the medium, ε0 is permittivity of the free space, C is the
capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric and C0 is the capacitance of the
capacitor without dielectric.
Units: No Units.
❖ Determination of Dielectric constant by Schering Bridge method: (or
Capacitance Bridge Method):
➢ The Schering Bridge is one type of AC bridge, which is used to measure the
unknown capacitance, dielectric constant, dissipation factor, and
dielectric loss of a capacitor.
➢ It is one of the most commonly used AC Bridge. The Schering Bridge works
on the principle of balancing the load on its arm.
➢ The formula for determining the dielectric constant is 𝜀𝑟 = C1l/C1, Where C1l
is the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor with dielectric and C1 is

the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor without dielectric material.
➢ The basic circuit diagram of an AC Schering bridge circuit consists of Z1, Z2,
Z3, and Z4 four impedances, a detector and an AC voltage source. The
detector is placed between the point ‘b’ and ‘d’ and this detector is used
to balance the bridge. An AC voltage source is placed between the point
‘a’ and ‘c’ and it supplies power to the bridge network.
➢ Let, C1 – capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined,
➢ r1 – a series resistance, representing the loss of the capacitor C1.
➢ C2 – a standard capacitor (The term standard capacitor means the
capacitor is free from loss)
➢ R3 – a non-inductive resistance
➢ C4 – a variable capacitor.
➢ R4 – a variable non-inductive resistance parallel with variable capacitor C4.

When the bridge is in the balanced condition, zero current passes through the
detector, which shows that the potential across the detector is zero. By using the
balance condition of the bridge, the ratio of impedance ‘Z1 & Z2’ are equal to
𝑍1 𝑍3
the impedance ‘Z3 & Z4’, it is expressed as = =>Z1 . Z4 = Z2 . Z3
𝑍2 𝑍4
1 1
Here, Z1 = r1 + ; Z2 = ; Z3 = R3; and in case of 4th arm C4 and R4 are
𝑗⍵𝐶1 𝑗⍵𝐶2
1 1 1 𝑅4
parallel So, = 1 + => by solving Z4 = .
𝑍4 𝑅4 1+ 𝑗⍵𝐶4 𝑅4
𝑗⍵𝐶4
Substitute the above Z1 , Z2 , Z3 & Z4 values in Z1 . Z4 = Z2 . Z3 (Balanced condition)
Equating the real and imaginary equations, we get
Since R3, C2 are fixed, the dial of R4 can be calibrated to read the capacitance
C1 directly.
Determination of Dielectric Constant: The dielectric specimen should be in the size
of C1 (in its area) and is inserted between the plates of C1. Now, once again the
bridge is balanced. The dial reading in R4 will give the value of new
capacitance C1l. The formula for determining the dielectric constant is 𝜀𝑟 =
C1l/C1, Where C1l is the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor with
dielectric and C1 is the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor without
dielectric material.

❖ Ferro electricity:
➢ The materials which exhibit spontaneous polarization i.e., they maintain
the polarization even once the field is removed are called Ferroelectric
materials. The first discovered ferroelectric material is Rochelle salt by
Valasek in 1921.
➢ These materials have some similarities over ferromagnetic materials which
reveal permanent magnetic moment. The hysteresis loop is almost same
for both materials.
➢ All the ferroelectric materials exhibit piezoelectric effect.
➢ Examples of Ferroelectric Materials are BaTiO3, PbTiO3, Lead Zirconate
Titanate (PZT), and Lithium tantalite etc.
➢ Ferroelectric behavior is dependent on the crystal structure.
➢ Ferroelectric crystals possess regions with uniform polarization called
ferroelectric domains. Within a domain, all the electric dipoles are aligned
in the same direction. There are many domains in a crystal separated by
interfaces called domain walls.
➢ These materials exhibit hysteresis behavior between Polarization and
Electric field as shown in the figure. The meaning of hysteresis is “lagging”.
It is characterized as a lag of polarization (P) behind the electric field (E).
➢ With increasing the electric field (E) there is an increase in the value of
polarization (P) and finally reaches point ’PS’ which is called saturation
point or saturation polarization.
➢ With a decrease in the value of the electric field, there is a decrease in
the value of polarization. But at zero electric field, material retains some
amount of polarization is called retentivity or residual polarization or
Remanence (PR).
➢ By applying the electric field towards the negative side, polarization now
decreases and at point –EC the substance is completely de-polarized.
➢ The force required to remove the residual polarization of the material is
known as Coercive force or Coercivity (Ec).
➢ In the opposite direction, the cycle is continued where the saturation
point is ‘-PS’, Retentivity point is ‘-PR’ and coercive force is ”EC”. With
forward and opposite direction process, the cycle is completed and this
cycle is called the hysteresis loop.

➢ Hysteresis Loss: The work done by the electric force against the internal
friction of the dipoles produces heat. This energy which is wasted in the
form of heat due to hysteresis is called Hysteresis Loss.
➢ The properties of these materials exist only below a definite phase

conversion temperature. Above this temperature, the material will
become Para electric materials. That is, loss in spontaneous polarization.
This definite temperature is called Curie temperature (TC).
➢ Relation between dielectric constant and Curie temperature is given by
𝐶
𝜀𝐫=𝑇−𝑇 , where (T>TC).
𝐶
➢ The shape of the hysteresis loop varies for different temperatures below
the Curie temperature as shown in Figure. It gets thinner as the
temperature increases and becomes single line above the Curie
temperature when the material is no longer ferroelectric. Ferroelectric
behavior is dependent on the crystal structure.
❖ Applications of Ferroelectrics:
1. The high dielectric constant of ferroelectrics makes them to manufacture
small sized capacitors of high capacitance and to store electric energy.
2. They can be used as memory devices in computer.
3. In optical communications, the ferroelectric crystals are used for optical
modulation.
4. They are used in electro transducers such as microphones.

5. Ferroelectric crystal exhibits polarized property, which can be used to
produce ultrasonic waves.
6. Piezoelectric acoustic transducers and pyro-electric infrared detectors
are the devices based also on the ferroelectrics.
❖ Structure of Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) and Spontaneous Polarization in

Ferroelectric:
❖ BaTiO3 is a best-known Ferroelectric material and exhibits spontaneous
dielectric polarization below Curie temperature.
❖ Above 1200C, BaTio3 has cubic crystal structure with titanium ion exactly
at the body center, barium ions at the body corners and the oxygen ions
at the six face centers as shown in the figure of barium titanate (BaTiO3)
unit cell.
❖ Above 1200C the center of positive and the center of negative ions
coincide, there is no dipole moment and there is no spontaneous
polarization exists.
❖ If the crystal is cooled to below1200C, the Ti4+ ions is displayed upwards
from the center of the unit cell while the O2– ions are located slightly
below the centers of the each of the six faces where the crystal gets
elongated.
❖ Consequently, a permanent ionic dipole moment arises in each unit cell.
Strong interactions between the adjacent permanent dipoles cause all
the dipoles to align in the same direction.
❖ Thus, the cubic structure becomes tetragonal where dipoles are created
throughout the crystal.
❖ All the dipoles of the adjacent unit cells get aligned in the same direction.
Thus, net dipole moment exists. Hence spontaneous polarization arises in
the material.

Unit 3: Wave Mechanics & Electromagnetic Theory
UNIT-III:
Wave Mechanics and Electromagnetic Theory
Classical Mechanics: It is the branch of Physics, which explains the motion of

macroscopic objects. It is introduced by Isaac Newton in 1684.
Quantum Mechanics: It is the branch of Physics, which explains the motion of
microscopic particles like electrons, protons, etc. It is introduced by Max Planck in
1900, developed by Einstein.
Wave Mechanics:
Wave mechanics is a branch of Quantum Physics describes the behavior of
particles in terms of their wave-like properties.
Wave: A wave is nothing but spreading of disturbance created in a medium. A
wave is specified by its frequency, wave length, phase or wave velocity, amplitude
and intensity.
Particle: It is a smallest quantity of matter which occupies a certain space, is
called as a particle. The particle is specified by its mass, momentum, velocity and
energy.
Wave-Particle Duality:
❑ We cannot explain the interference and diffraction phenomena by using
the particle nature of radiation.
✓ We can explain the interference and diffraction phenomena by the wave
nature of radiation (light).
❑ Similarly, we cannot explain the Photoelectric effect, Black body radiation
and Compton Effect by using the wave nature of radiation.
✓ In 1900, Max Planck, successfully explained the black body radiation
phenomenon by particle nature of radiation. We can explain the Einstein’s
photoelectric effect and Compton effects by the particle nature of
radiation.
❖ Thus, the radiation sometimes exhibits particle nature and sometimes
exhibits wave nature; hence we can say that the radiation has dual nature
(wave-particle duality).
1 Dept. of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College, Hyderabad.

de-Broglie concept of matter waves

Matter waves: The waves associated with material particles are called as matter
waves.
In 1924 Louis de-Broglie suggested that, matter waves also exhibit dual nature like
radiation (light). They are: 1. Wave nature 2. Particle nature
de-Broglie Hypothesis:
❖ In 1924, de-Broglie made his hypothesis for dual nature of matter waves.
They are:
✓ The universe consists of matter and radiation (light) only.
✓ Waves and particles are only two modes through which the energy is
propagated in the nature.
✓ Nature loves symmetry;
✓ If radiation (like light) can act as a wave some time and like a particle at
other time, then material particles (electrons, protons, etc.) should act like
a particle some time and like a wave at other time (i.e. the matter waves
also exhibits dual nature like radiation).
✓ The waves associated with material particles are called as matter waves or
de-Broglie matter waves and its wavelength is called as de-Broglie wave
length.
✓ According to de Broglie the wave length of the matter wave is given by λ =
ℎ
𝑚𝑣
= ℎ𝑝
Where 'm' is the mass of the material particle, ‘ v ’ is its velocity and ‘ p ’
is its momentum.
Expression for de-Broglie wavelength (λ):
According to the Planck’s theory of radiation, the energy of a photon is given by,
E = hν = hc
λ
----------- (1),
Where h = Planck’s constant, ν = frequency of a photon, c = velocity
of light in vacuum, and λ = wavelength.
According to Einstein’s Mass- Energy relation,
E = mc2 ------------ (2),
Where m = mass of a photon, and c = velocity of a photon.

hc
From equations (1) and (2), = mc2
λ
h = λmc
h
λ = mc
The momentum associated with photon is mc = p then, λ = hp
In case of material particle momentum p = mv,
Therefore, the de-Broglie wavelength (λ) = h𝑝 = m𝑣
h
Case (i): de-Broglie Wavelength in terms of Energy (E):-

We know that the kinetic energy, E = ½ mv2
Multiply by ‘m’ on both sides, we get
mE = ½ m2v2➔2mE = m2v2 and mv = √2mE
h
But the de-Broglie wavelength λ = mv ;
Substitute the expression of mv in above equation then,
h
The de-Broglie wavelength λ = √2mE
Case (ii): de-Broglie Wavelength in terms of Voltage (V):-

If a charged particle of charge ‘e’ is accelerated through a potential difference of
‘V’ volts, then the kinetic energy of the particle is, E = eV
h
But the de-Broglie wavelength λ = √2mE
Substitute the expression of E = eV in above equation then,
h
The de-Broglie wavelength λ = √2meV (Or) λ = 12.26
√V
Å
Case (iii): de-Broglie Wavelength in terms of Temperature (T):-

According to the kinetic theory of gases, the average kinetic energy of a particle at
3
temperature ‘T’ is given by, E = 𝐾𝐵 T, where KB is Boltzmann constant.
2
h
But the de-Broglie wavelength λ = √2mE ;
3
Substitute the expression of E = 𝐾𝐵 T in above equation then,
2
h
The de-Broglie wavelength λ = √3m𝐾
𝐵T

Properties Or Characteristics of Matter Waves:
❖ The de-Broglie wavelength λ = m𝑣

ℎ ℎ
= √2𝑚𝐸 ℎ
= √2𝑚𝑒𝑉 ℎ
= √3𝑚𝐾
𝐵T
1. The lighter the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
2. Lesser the velocity of the particle, longer the wavelength associated with it .
3. When v =0 then λ = ∞ and v = ∞ then, λ = 0
4. Matter waves produced when the particles in motion are charged or
uncharged
5. Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves.
6. Matter waves travel faster than the velocity of light.
Wave function (Ψ) and Physical Significance of a Wave function (Ψ):

Wave function (Ψ): It is the variable quantity that mathematically describes the
wave characteristics of a particle at any position (x, y, z) at any time ‘t’. (Or)
A function which satisfies a wave equation and describes the properties of a wave
associated with a particle is called as wave function (Ψ).
1) The wave function of a particle is represented by Ψ(x, y, z, t) =
Ψ0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) .
2) Wave function (Ψ) explains the motion of microscopic particles.
3) Wave function (Ψ) gives the information about the particle behavior.
4) Wave function (Ψ) is a complex quantity and it does not have any meaning.
5) |Ψ|2 = ΨΨ*, is real and positive. It has physical meaning.
6) |Ψ|2 represents the probability of finding the particle.
7) For a given volume dГ, the probability of finding the particle is given by,
Probability density (P) = ∭| Ψ|2dГ, where dГ = dxdydz.
8) If P = 0, then there is no chance for finding the particle i.e., there is no
particle, within the given limits.
9) IF P=1, then there is 100% chance for finding the particle i.e., the particle is
definitely present, within the given limits.
10) If P=0.7, Then there is 70% chance for finding the particle and 30% no
chance for finding the particle.
11) ’P’ values are between 0 to 1.
12) If P = ∭ | Ψ|2dГ = 1, then ‘Ψ’ is called normalized wave function.
Properties/Limitations of a Wave Function ( Ψ ):

❖ There are certain Properties / limitations to take ‘Ψ’ as a solution for the
Schrödinger wave equation. They are,
✓ Wave function must be finite for all values of x, y, z.
✓ Wave function must be single valued i.e., for each set of values of x, y & z.
✓ Wave function must be continuous.
✓ Wave function vanishes at the boundaries.
Schrödinger Wave Equations:
❑ Schrödinger wave equation describes the wave nature of a particle in the

mathematical form. This is the basic equation of motion of matter waves.
❑ Schrödinger used the expression of de-Broglie wavelength for a moving
particle and obtained a new type of wave equation which is known as
Schrödinger wave equation.
Schrödinger wave equation is of 2 types, they are:
(a) Time independent Schrödinger wave equation,
(b) Time dependent Schrödinger wave equation.
❖ Schrödinger Time-independent wave equation:

Schrödinger, in 1926, developed wave equation for the moving particles. One of
its forms can be derived by taking the consideration of de-Broglie wavelength.
Consider a system of wave associated with a particle. Let x, y, z be the
coordinates of the particle and Ψ, the wave displacement for the de-Broglie
matter wave at any time t. Ψ is called as wave function and is given by
Ψ = Ψ0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) -------- (1)
Differentiating the above equation (1) with respect to ‘x’ by twice
𝜕Ψ
= (i𝑘)Ψ0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕2 Ψ
= (i𝑘)2 Ψ0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) = -𝑘2 Ψ0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕2 Ψ
= -𝑘2 Ψ -------- (2) [since Ψ = Ψ0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) ]
𝜕𝑥 2
2𝜋
W K T, 𝑘 = substitute this in above equation, we get
𝜆

𝜕2 Ψ 2𝜋 𝜕2 Ψ 4𝜋2
= - ( )2 Ψ➔ =- Ψ
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜆 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜆2
𝜕2 Ψ 4𝜋2
+ Ψ =0 -------- (3)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜆2
h
But de Broglie wavelength is given by λ = mv by substituting this in eqn (3) we get
𝜕2 Ψ 4𝜋2
+ 𝑚2 𝑣 2 Ψ = 0 ------- (4)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
If E and V be the total and potential energies of the particle respectively, then its
kinetic energy ½ mv2 is given by ½ mv2 = E – V ➔ m2v2 = 2m(E-V) substitute this in
equation (4) then we have,
𝜕2 Ψ 8𝑚𝜋2
+ (E − V) Ψ = 0 ------- (5)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
The equation (5) is known as 1-Dimensional Schrödinger Time-independent wave
equation.
3-Dimensional Schrödinger Time-independent wave equation is,
𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎
𝛁2 Ψ + (𝐄 − 𝐕)𝚿 = 0 ------- (6)
𝒉𝟐
𝜕2 Ψ 𝜕2 Ψ 𝜕2 Ψ
[where 𝛁2 is a Laplacian Operator and 𝛁2 Ψ=( + + )]
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
ℎ
We know that the reduced Planck’s constant i.e., ℏ = by substituting this is, the
2𝜋
equation (6) can be written as,
𝟐𝒎
𝛁2 Ψ + (𝐄 − 𝐕)𝚿 = 0 we can re-write this equation as
ℏ𝟐
ℏ2
( ) 𝛁2 Ψ + (E − V)Ψ = 0
2𝑚
ℏ2
[− 𝛁2 +V]Ψ = E Ψ
2𝑚
𝐻Ψ=EΨ
ℏ2
Where, H = [− 𝛁2+V] is known as Hamiltonian Operator.
2𝑚
For a free particle V = 0, hence the Schrödinger wave equation for a free particle
2𝑚𝐸
can be expressed as 𝛁2 Ψ + Ψ = 0.
ℏ2

❖ Schrödinger Time-dependent wave equation:

The Schrödinger Time-dependent wave equation may be obtained from
Schrödinger Time-independent wave equation by eliminating the E.
Considering Ψ to be a wave function of space coordinates of the particle and time
and is given by
Ψ = Ψ0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) -------------(1)
Differentiating the equation (1) with respect to ‘t’, then we get
𝜕Ψ
= (-i𝜔)Ψ0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕Ψ
= - i𝜔Ψ --------- (2) [since Ψ = Ψ0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) ]
𝜕𝑡
2𝜋E
WKT, 𝜔 = 2𝞹ν & E = hν ➔ ν = E/h ➔ 𝜔 = substitute in above equation,
ℎ
𝜕Ψ 2𝜋E
=-i Ψ --------- (3)
𝜕𝑡 ℎ
ℎ 𝜕Ψ E
Substitute reduced Planck’s constant i.e., ℏ = in equation (3) then =-i Ψ
2𝜋 𝜕𝑡 ℏ
Multiply with “iℏ“ on both sides we get
𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ
➔iℏ = EΨ or EΨ = iℏ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Substitute this in Schrödinger Time-independent wave equation and we get
2𝑚 𝜕Ψ
𝛁2 Ψ + [𝑖ℏ − VΨ] = 0 we can re-write this as
ℏ2 𝜕𝑡
2𝑚 𝜕Ψ
𝛁2 Ψ = - [𝑖ℏ − VΨ]
ℏ2 𝜕𝑡
ℏ2 𝜕Ψ
− 𝛁2 Ψ +VΨ = 𝑖ℏ -------- (4)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑡
This equation (4) is known as Schrödinger Time-dependent wave equation.
ℏ2 𝜕
We can re-write this equation (4) as [− 𝛁2+V] Ψ = 𝑖ℏ Ψ
2𝑚 𝜕𝑡
𝐻Ψ=EΨ
ℏ2
where, H = [− 𝛁2 Ψ +V] is known as Hamiltonian Operator and
2𝑚
𝜕
E = 𝑖ℏ is known as Energy Operator.
𝜕𝑡

Apply Schrödinger Time-independent wave equation to Particle in a 1-

Dimensional Box (Or) particle enclosed in one dimensional potential box of
infinite height:
❑ Let us consider a particle or electron of mass ‘m’ moving along X-axis,

enclosed in a one-dimensional potential box as shown in figure. The particle is
free to move between the walls at x=0 and x=L.
❑ Since the walls are of infinite potential, the particle does not penetrate out
from the box i.e., potential energy of the particle V = ∞ at the walls.
❑ The potential energy of the particle between the two walls is constant
because no force is acting on the particle. Therefore, the potential energy is
taken as zero for simplicity i.e., V = 0 between x=0 and x = L.
The potential energy V(x) = 0 , when 0 ˂ x ˂ L
V(x) = ∞, when 0 ≥ x ≥ L
The Schrödinger one - dimensional time-independent equation of the particle
𝜕2 Ψ 8𝜋2 𝑚
along x-axis is given by, + (𝐸 − 𝑉)Ψ = 0.
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
But for freely moving particle between the walls, V = 0 then the above equation
𝜕2 Ψ 8𝜋2 𝑚
will become + EΨ = 0 ------ (1)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
2
8𝜋 𝑚 𝜕2 Ψ
Consider, E = k2 ------ (2) then equation (1) becomes + k2Ψ = 0 ----- (3)
ℎ2 𝜕𝑥 2
The general solution of above equation (3) is given by,
Ψ(x) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 ----------(4) Where, A, B are two constants and k is a
propagation constant (or) wave vector which are determined by applying
boundary conditions.
The boundary conditions are (i) Ψ(x) = 0 at x = 0 and (ii) Ψ (x) =0 at x = L

(i):- Apply 1st boundary condition, from equation (4),

0 = A + B ➔ B = -A
Substitute B value in equation (4), then Ψ(x) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 − 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
Ψ(x) = 2𝑖𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 and let 2iA = C is a constant then, Ψ(x) = 𝐶𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 ----------(5)
(ii):- Apply 2nd boundary condition, from equation (5),
0 = CSinkL
SinkL = 0 (since C ≠ 0)
SinkL = Sinn𝞹 where n=1, 2, 3, ………
kL = n𝞹
𝑛π
k= --------- ( 6 )
𝐿
𝑛πx
Substitute equation (6) in (5), we get Ψ(x)= C sin( ) ------------- (7)
𝐿
If n=0, then Ψ(x) = 0 which is not possible because Ψ(x) must be finite valued.
𝐿
To find the “C” value let apply the normalization condition, i.e.,∫0 |Ψ 2 |𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝐿
𝑛πx
∫ 𝐶 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 ( )𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝐿
0
𝐿1 2𝑛𝞹x 𝐶2 𝐿 𝐿 2𝑛𝞹x
𝐶 2 ∫0 [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠( )𝑑𝑥 = 1; ➔ [∫0 𝑑𝑥 − ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠( )𝑑𝑥] = 1;
2 𝐿 2 𝐿
𝐶2 2
By solving, we get, L = 1 ➔ C= √ -------- (8)
2 𝐿
Substitute equation (8) in equation (7) we get
2 𝑛πx
Ψ(x)= √ Sin( ) --------- (9)
𝐿 𝐿
This is the wave function of particle enclosed in a 1-Dimensional Box.
Energy of the particle: -
8𝜋2 𝑚 𝑛π
From, equations (2) and (6) , E = ( )2
ℎ2 𝐿
8π2 𝑚 𝑛2 π2
E=
ℎ2 𝐿2
𝑛2 ℎ 2
En = (where n= 1, 2, 3, …….) --------(10)
8𝑚𝐿2
ℎ2
for n = 1, E1 = (it is known as Zero point energy)
8𝑚𝐿2
4ℎ2 9ℎ2
for n = 2, E2 = = 4.E1 ; for n = 3, E3 = = 9.E1 etc.
8𝑚𝐿2 8𝑚𝐿2

It is clear from the above energy expression the particle can have only discrete set
of energy values in the 1D box and the energy values are quantized.
The point at which the wave function has zero value is called a node.
Probability of the location of particle:
The probability of finding a particle over a small distance is given by

2 𝑛πx
P(x)dx = |𝛹𝑛 |2 dx➔ P(x)dx = sin2( )dx
𝐿 𝐿
2 𝑛πx
Thus, the probability density for one dimensional motion is P(x) = sin2( )
𝐿 𝐿
𝑛πx π 3π 5π
The probability density is maximum only when = , , , …….
𝐿 2 2 2
L
For n = 1, the most probable position of the particle is at x =
2
L 3L
For n = 2, the most probable positions of the particle at x = and .
4 4

PROBLEMS:
Example.1: Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron raised to a
potential of 100 V.
Given data: V= 100 V;
h
Formula: de-Broglie wavelength λ = √2meV
Substitute h = 6.6 X 10-34 J-S, m= 9.1 X 10-31 Kg, e = 1.6 X 10-19 C and V = 100 V
h
Solution : λ (Å) = √2meV =
Ans: 1.23Å
Example.3: What is the wavelength in meters of a proton traveling at

255,000,000 m/s (which is 85% of the speed of light)? (Assume the mass of the
proton to be 1.673x 10-27 kg.)
Given Data: V= 255,000,000 m/s = 2.55 X 108 m/s, m= 1.673 x 10-27 kg
1) Calculate the kinetic energy of the proton:
KE = (1/2)mv2 = (1/2) (1.673 x 10-27 kg) (2.55 x 108 m/s)2
= 5.43934 x 10-11 J
h
2) Use the de Broglie equation: λ = √2mE
Ans: λ = 1.55 x 10-15 m
Example.2 An electron is confined to a one dimensional potential box of length

2 Å. Calculate the energies corresponding to the second and fourth quantum
states (in eV).
Given Data : Potential box length a = 2 Å = 2 x 10-10m
Second quantum state , n = 2 and Fourth quantum state , n = 4
Energy of second E2= ? And Energy of second E4= ?
𝑛2 ℎ 2
Formula: En = 8𝑚𝑎2
Solution :
4ℎ2
For n=2 , E2 = 8𝑚𝑎2 Substitute h = 6.6 X 10-34 J-S, m= 9.1 X 10-31 Kg, and a = 2 Å values then we
get,
Ans: E2 = 0.1137 x 1026 eV
4ℎ2
For n=4, E4 = 8𝑚𝑎2 Substitute h = 6.6 X 10-34 J-S, m= 9.1 X 10-31 Kg, and a = 2 Å values then we
get,
Ans: E4 = 0.455 x 1026 eV
Electromagnetic Theory
❑ Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is a form of energy.
❑ Electromagnetic Theory covers the basic principles of electromagnetism

❑ Electromagnetism is the phenomenon which deals with the interaction
between an Electric field and a magnetic Field.
❑ Stationary charges in a system lead to an electric field and moving charges
in a system lead to a magnetic field.
❑ The direction of electric field and Magnetic field is always perpendicular to
each other (i.e., They are transverse waves).
❑ They do not require a material medium for propagation. They travel at the
speed of light which is 3 x 108 m/s.
❑ Maxwell brought the correlation between electricity and magnetism for the
first-time using Maxwell’s equations consists of existing basic laws of
electricity and magnetism.
Basic laws of electricity and magnetism:-

The basic equations of electricity and magnetism are:
1. Gauss law for Electrostatics:
q
∮ E .dS =
ε0

This is the Gauss’s law for electrostatics. This law states that the electric flux
through a closed surface is equal to the net charge enclosed by the surface
divided by the permittivity constantε0 .
2. Gauss law for Magnetism:
∮B.dS = 0
This is Gauss’s law for magnetism. This states that the magnetic flux through a
closed surface is zero.
3. Faraday’s law of Induction:

d𝜙𝑩
∮E.dl = -
dt
This is Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction. This law states that an electric
field is produced by changing magnetic field. The line integral of the electric
field around a closed loop is equal to the negative of the rate of change of
the magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the loop.
4. Ampere’s law for magnetic field:

∮B.dl = μoi
This is Ampere’s law for magnetic field due to steady current. This law states that
the integral of magnetic field density (B) along a closed path is equal to the
product of current (i) enclosed by the path and permeability (μo) of the medium.
The line integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop is proportional to
the electric current flowing through the loop.
Derive the expression Displacement Current:

According to Basic equation from Ampere’s law ∮B .dl =μoi.
Maxwell suggested that in above equation ‘i’ is not total current. He
suggested that something must be added in ‘i’ of above equation. In order to
know this something Maxwell postulated that similar to the electric field due to
changing magnetic field, there would be a magnetic field due to changing electric
field. Thus, a changing electric field is equivalent to a current which flows as long
as the electric field is changing and produces the same magnetic effect as an
ordinary conduction current. This is known as displacement current.
It can be explained by the phenomenon observed in a capacitor. The

parallel plate capacitor is subjected with potential difference. Now, capacitor
starts charging there is no conduction of charge between the plates. However,
because of change in charge accumulation with time above the plates, the electric
field changes causing the displacement current. So, the current due to the rate of
change of electric field is termed as a displacement current.
𝑄
The Electric field is given by, E= (Q is the charge and A is the Area between
ε0 𝐴
the plates).
For changing electric fields differentiating above equation,
𝜕E 1 𝜕𝑄 1 𝜕𝑄
= = i [here, = i]
𝜕𝑡 ε0 𝐴 𝜕𝑡 ε0 𝐴 𝜕𝑡
𝜕E
i = ε0 𝐴
𝜕𝑡
𝜕E
Now The Displacement Current is id = ε0 𝐴
𝜕𝑡
𝜕D
Or id = 𝐴 where D is electric displacement field ‘D’= ε0 E
𝜕𝑡
Now Modified Ampere’s law is given by ∮B .dl = μo(i + id)
Conduction current:
Conduction current is the electric current which exists in a conductor when the
electrons flow in the conductor at a uniform rate.
So, it is the current in a conductor when the electric field remains constant with
respect to time.
iC = V/R
Differences between conduction and displacement current:
1. Conduction current obeys ohm's law as i = V/R but displacement current does
not obey ohm's law.

2. Conduction current density is represented by JC =𝜎 E where as displacement

𝜕E 𝜕D
current density is given by Jd = ε0 = .
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
3. Conduction current is the actual current whereas displacement current is the
apparent current produced by time varying electric field.
Maxwell’s Equations:-
Maxwell in 1862 formulated the basic laws of electricity and magnetism in the
form of four fundamental equations. These equations are known as Maxwell’s
equation.
The integral form of these equations is given below
q
➢ ∮ E .dS =
ε0
➢ ∮B.dS = 0
d𝜙𝑩
➢ ∮E.dl = -
dt
➢ ∮B.dl = μoi
Maxwell equations can also be stated in the differential forms as follows
𝜌 𝜌
➢ div E = or 𝛻. 𝐸 =
ε0 ε0
➢ div B = 0 or 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐵
➢ Curl 𝐸 = − or 𝛻×𝐸 =−
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕E 𝜕E
➢ Curl B = μ0 (𝑗 + ε0 ) or 𝛻 × 𝐵 = μ0 (𝑗 + ε0 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Derivations of Differential forms of Maxwell’s Equations: -

The differential forms can be obtained from the integral forms as follows:
1. Gauss law for Electrostatics:
q
∮ E .dS = -------- (1)
ε0
If ′𝜌’ charge density and ‘dV’ a small volume then the charge density is given by,
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞
𝜌= = ➔ q = 𝜌 x dV
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑉
For total charge q = ∫𝑉 𝜌𝑑𝑉 substitute ‘q’ value in eqn. (1)
1
∮ E .dS = ∫𝑉 𝜌𝑑𝑉 or ∮ε0 E .dS = ∫𝑉 𝜌𝑑𝑉
ε 0

∮𝐷.dS =∫𝑉 𝜌𝑑𝑉 ----- (2) (here, ε0 E = D)

According to Gauss divergence theorem :∫𝑆 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑉(𝛻⃗ . 𝐷)𝑑𝑉 ----- (3)
So, ∫𝑉(𝛻⃗ . 𝐷)𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑉 𝜌𝑑𝑉
𝛻⃗ . 𝐷 = 𝜌and we know that D= ε0 E
ρ 𝜌
𝛻⃗ . 𝐸 = (or) div E =
ε0 ε0
2. Gauss law for Magneto statics:
∮ B .dS = 0 -------- (1)

Transforming the surface integral into volume integral, we get using Gauss
divergence theorem,
∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ 𝛻⃗ . 𝐵 𝑑𝑉 -------- (2)
𝑆 𝑉
∫𝑉 𝛻⃗ . 𝐵 𝑑𝑉 = 0
As the volume is arbitrary, the integral must be zero (0).
𝛻⃗.B = 0 (Or)div B = 0.
3. Faraday’s law of Induction:

d𝜙𝑩
∮E.dl = - -------- (1)
dt
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥
Magnetic flux density is B = ➔ Flux = B x Area (dS)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑑𝑆)
Total flux (𝜙𝐵 ) =∫𝑆 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆

𝜕𝐵
Substitute 𝜙𝐵 in eqn.(1) then, ∮E.dl = - ∫𝑆 . 𝑑𝑆 -------- (2)
𝜕t
Applying Stoke’s theorem i.e., ∮E.dl = ∫𝑆(𝛻⃗ × 𝐸). 𝑑𝑆 ------- (3)
𝜕𝐵
From eqn (2) and (3)➔∫𝑆(𝛻⃗ × 𝐸). 𝑑𝑆 =- ∫𝑆 . 𝑑𝑆
𝜕t
As the equation is true for all the surfaces, we have
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐵
𝛻⃗ × 𝐸 = - Or curl E = -
𝜕t 𝜕t
4. Ampere’s law:
∮B .dl = μoi -------- (1) (where total current = i + id)
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡(𝑖)
If ‘j’ current density and ‘dS’ a small surface area then j =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑑𝑆)

i = jdS and the Total current ‘i’ = ∮𝑆 j . 𝑑𝑆

Substitute this in equation (1) we get, ∮B .dl = μo∮𝑆 j . 𝑑𝑆 ------ (2)
Applying Stoke’s theorem; ∮B .dl = ∫𝑆(𝛻⃗ × 𝐵). 𝑑𝑆-------- (3)
From eqn’s (2) and (3) :∫𝑆(𝛻⃗ × 𝐵). 𝑑𝑆 = μo∮𝑆 j . 𝑑𝑆
𝛻 × 𝐵 = μ0 j
𝜕E
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 i +id i +ε0 𝐴 𝜕E
𝜕𝑡
But WKT; j = = = = j + ε0
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴 𝜕𝑡
𝜕E 𝜕E
𝛻 × 𝐵 = μ0 (𝑗 + ε0 ) (or) Curl B = μ0 (𝑗 + ε0 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Now Maxwell’s Equations in differential form are:-
𝜌 𝜌
1. div E = (or) 𝛻. 𝐸 =
ε0 ε0
2. div B = 0 (or) 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐵
3. Curl 𝐸 = − (or) 𝛻×𝐸 =−
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕E 𝜕𝐷
4. Curl B = μ0 (𝐽 + ε0 ) (or) 𝛻×𝐻 =𝐽+
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Relation between D, E and P :
Let us consider a dielectric material which is placed between plates of charged

capacitor, then the induced field is EI and the induced charge is qI. When no
dielectric present, the applied field is E0 and charge is q.
The resultant electric field E between the plates is

E=E0 – EI---------------(1)
q
From Gauss law ∮ E .dS = ;
ε0
When no dielectric present, then
q q
Gauss’s law is given by, ∫ E0 .dS = => E0 ∫ 𝑑𝑆 =
ε0 ε0
Where E0 is the Electric field without dielectric and ∫ 𝑑𝑆 =A then,

q
E0 = ( )--------- (2)
ε0 𝐴
When dielectric is placed between the plates of the capacitor, then the induced
field is EI and induced surface charge is qI. Then by Gauss’s law
ql ql ql
∫ 𝐸 l .dS =ε ➔𝐸 l ∫ 𝑑𝑆 = ε ➔𝐸 l = (ε 𝐴) --------- (3)
0 0 0
Substitute eqn (2) and (3) in eqn (1), then we get

q ql q ql
E=( )-( ) ➔ε0 E = −
ε0 𝐴 ε0 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
q ql
= ε0 E + ------(4)
𝐴 𝐴
❖ Electric displacement, denoted by D, is the charge per unit area.
❖ The induced charge density which is equal to the magnitude of electric
polarization ‘P’.
Substitute electric displacement D= q/A , and Polarization P = qI/A.
Therefore, equation (4) can be written as D = 𝛆𝟎 E + P
Explanation of Vectors D, E, and P:
❑ D is connected with the free charge only. It is not altered by the

introduction of the dielectric. The lines of D begin and end on the free
charges. Unlike the electric field E and the polarization P, the electric
displacement D has no clear physical meaning.
❑ P is connected with polarization charge only. These lines begin and end on
the polarization charges i.e., induced charges due to polarization. Clearly P
is zero except inside the dielectric.
❑ The electric field intensity E is connected with all charges that are actually
present (free and polarization charge). E is reduced inside the dielectric
where there are fewer lines.

Electromagnetic Plane Wave Equations:

Maxwell equations are coupled partial differential equations in E and H, which
cannot be solved in general. In order to simplify the equations, we should
uncouple the set and obtain differential equations in E or H alone.
𝜕𝐷
Maxwell’s fourth equation is 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽 + ------ (1)
𝜕𝑡
By substituting 𝐽 = σE and D=εE, in equation (1) we get
𝜕(εE) 𝜕E
𝛻 × 𝐻 = σE + ➔𝛻 × 𝐻 = σE + ε ------ (2)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐵
Maxwell’s third equation is 𝛻 × 𝐸 = − ;By substituting B = μH, we get,
𝜕𝑡
𝜕H
𝛻 × 𝐸 = −μ --- (3)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕H
Taking curl of equation (3) we get, 𝛻 × (𝛻 × 𝐸) = 𝛻 × [−μ ]
𝜕𝑡
𝜕(𝛻×H)
𝛻 × (𝛻 × 𝐸) = −μ ------- (4)
𝜕𝑡
Substitute eqn.(2) in the above equation (4), we get
𝜕E
𝜕[σE+ε ]
𝜕𝑡
𝛻 × (𝛻 × 𝐸) = −μ -------- (5)
𝜕𝑡
From vector identity, 𝛻⃗ × (𝛻⃗ × 𝐸) = 𝛻⃗ (𝛻⃗ . 𝐸) - ∇
⃗ 2 𝐸----(6)
If the charge density 𝜌=0 [according to application of gauss law] then the first
Maxwell equation can be written as 𝛻. E = 0.
⃗ × (∇
Substitute this in eqn. (6) we get ∇ ⃗ × 𝐸) = - ∇ ⃗ 2 𝐸 ------ (7)
From eqn. (5) and eqn. (7) we can write,
𝜕𝐸 𝜕2 E 𝜕𝐸 𝜕2 E
- 𝛻2E = - μσ - με 2
➔𝛻2E - μσ - με = 0 -------- (8)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
This is the 3-Dimensional wave equation for the electric field in a conducting
medium which is homogenous and isotropic.
By the Similar procedure for magnetic field we get,
𝜕𝐻 𝜕2 H
𝛻2𝐻 - μσ - με = 0 -------- (9)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
Eqns. (8) and (9) are called Electromagnetic plane wave equations.
Electromagnetic Plane wave equations for Free space:
In order to understand the nature of waves, we consider free space, which is a
large empty volume of space. Free space is nothing but a perfect dielectric.
So, we have no free charges & no conduction current i.e., 𝐽 =0, & σ = 0.

For free space: μ = μ0 and ε = ε0 Substitute these in eqn (8) we get,

𝜕2 E 𝜕2 E
𝛻2E -μ0 ε0 2
= 0 (Or)𝛻2E =μ0 ε0 ------- (10)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
By following the similar procedure for H gives us
𝜕2 H 𝜕2 H
𝛻2𝐻 - μ0 ε0 =0 (Or) 𝛻2𝐻 = μ0 ε0 -------- (11)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Eqns. (10) & (11) are called Electromagnetic plane wave equations for free space.
1 𝜕2 Ψ
The general wave equation is represented by𝛁2 Ψ= 2
( ) -------(12)
𝑉 𝜕𝑡 2
In general, this applies to various types of travelling waves.
1
By comparing eqns. (10) and (12) we get ➔ = μ0 ε0 ➔v = √μ1 ε
𝑉2 0 0
We know that μ0 = 4𝜋 x10 N/A ; and ε0 = 8.85 x 10 C2/N.m2

-7 2 -12
By substituting these values, we get v = 3 x 108 m/s.

Therefore, Electromagnetic wave moves with velocity of light in free space.
Poynting theorem:
❑ An electromagnetic wave carries energy with it as propagates through space
associated with electric and magnetic fields.
❑ At any point in a uniform plane wave, the cross product of electric field
intensity E and magnetic field intensity H gives measure of rate of energy
flow per unit area at that point.
❑ The energy transfer in terms of the rate of energy flow per unit area or
power per unit area, is given by a vector (S) called the Poynting vector. Units
of S will be Watt/m2.
✓ “Poynting theorem states that the Rate of energy flow through the surface
of the volume is equals to Power dissipated (loss) in volume and Rate of
decrease of stored electromagnetic energy in that volume.” The Poynting
theorem is given by,
𝜕 1 1
✓ ∫𝐴(𝐸 × 𝐻).dA = -∫𝑉(𝐸. 𝐽)dV -
𝜕𝑡
∫𝑉 (2 𝜀 𝐸 2 + 2 μ𝐻2 ) dV
1
❑ The Poynting vector is given by S = (E × H) (Or) (E × B)
μ
Derivation of Poynting Theorem and Poynting vector:
Poynting theorem can be proved by using Maxwell’s equation.
∂B
From Maxwell’s equation, ∇ × E = − ; and we know that B = μ H
∂t

∂H
➔∇ × E = −μ
∂t
∂H
Taking dot product both sides with H; H.(∇ × E) = −μ (H. ) -----(1)
∂t
∂E
From Maxwell’s fourth equation,∇ × B = μ (J + ε )
∂t
∂E
➔ ∇×H = J+ε
∂t
∂E
Taking dot product with E; E.(∇ × H) = E. J + ε(𝐸. ) ------- (2)
∂t
By using Vector identity A.(B ×C) = C.(A × B) - B.(A ×C),
∇.(E × H) =H.(∇ × E) -E.(∇ × H) ------ (3)
Using equations (1), and (2) in equation (3), we get,
∂H ∂E
∇.(E × H) = −μ (H. ) – E. J − ε(𝐸. )
∂t ∂t
∂E ∂H
∇.(E × H) = – E. J − [ε(𝐸. ) + μ (H. )] ------- (4)
∂t ∂t
∂(H.H) ∂H ∂H ∂(x . y) ∂y ∂x
Now, = H. + H. [like ] ) = x. + y.
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
∂(𝐻 2 ) ∂H ∂H 1 ∂𝐻 2
➔ = 2H. ➔H. = -------(5)
∂𝑡 ∂𝑡 ∂𝑡 2 ∂𝑡
∂E 1 ∂𝐸 2
➔ Similarly, E. = -------(6)
∂𝑡 2 ∂𝑡
Using equations (5), and (6) in equation (4) we get,
1 ∂𝐸 2 1 ∂𝐻 2
∇.(E × H) = – E. J − [ε( ) + μ( )]
2 ∂t 2 ∂t
∂ ε𝐸 2 μ𝐻 2
𝛻.(E × H) = – E. 𝐽 − [ + ] -------(7)
∂𝑡 2 2
Integrating equation (7) over the volume V enclosed by a surface of area A,
∂ ε𝐸 2 μ𝐻 2
∫𝑉 ∇. (E × H) dV = - ∫𝑉(E . J) dV - ∂t ∫𝑉[ 2
+
2
] dV
But from Gauss divergence theorem, ∫𝑉 ∇. (E × H) dV = ∫𝐴(𝐸 × 𝐻) . dA
∂ ε𝐸 2 μ𝐻 2
So, ∫𝐴(𝐸 × 𝐻) . dA = - ∫𝑉(E . J) dV - ∫𝑉[ + ] dV
∂t 2 2
(Rate of energy flow) (Power loss) (Rate of decrease of stored EM energy)
Hence Poynting theorem is proved. This is also called as the energy conservation
law in electromagnetism.
In free space, J =0, ε= ε0 , and μ = μ0 then Poynting theorem in free space will be
∂ ε0 𝐸 2 μ0 𝐻 2
∫𝐴(𝐸 × 𝐻) .dA = - ∂t ∫𝑉[ 2
+
2
] dV

Poynting Vector: In an Electromagnetic field, the flow of energy is given by the

Poynting Vector. The Cross product of electric field intensity E and magnetic field
intensity H at any point in a uniform plane wave is known as Poynting vector S. It
measures the rate of energy flow per unit area at that point.
1
Poynting Vector: S = 𝐸 × 𝐻 (Or) S = (𝐸 × 𝐵) Watt/m2
μ0
Significance of Poynting Vector:
✓ It measures the rate of energy flow per unit area at any point in an
Electromagnetic wave.
✓ The direction of S indicates the magnitude and direction of energy flow in
an Electromagnetic wave.

Maxwell’s equations: Integral form ⬄ differential form


Long Answer Questions:

1. Write de-Broglie concept of matter waves? Derive an expression for
wavelength of de-Broglie matter wave in different forms?
2. (a) Derive Schrodinger Time independent wave equation?
(b) Apply Schrodinger Time independent wave equation to the particle in
1Dimensional Box?
3. What is Poynting theorem? Deduce an expression for Poynting Vector?
4. What is displacement current? Obtain relation between D, E, and P
Vectors?
5. (a) Derive an equation for Electromagnetic wave in a free space from
Maxwell’s equations?
(b) Obtain Maxwell equations in differential form from integral form.
Short Answer Questions:

6. Write the physical significance of wave function?
7. State Basic laws in Electricity and magnetism?
8. Write Maxwell’s equations in integral and deferential forms?
9. Distinguish between conduction and displacement currents.
10. What is Poynting Vector? What is the significance of Poynting Vector?

UNIT-IV
MAGNETISM and SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
MAGNETISM
❖ Introduction:
Magnetism arises from the magnetic moment or magnetic dipole of the
magnetic materials. Any material that can be magnetized by the application of
external magnetic field is called magnetic material. Magnetic substances are
the substances having the property of attracting the magnetic materials.
❖ Basic Definitions:
Magnet: A piece of matter, which possesses a net magnetic moment and
attracts ferrous bodies towards it, is called a magnet. This property of a magnet
is called, magnetism.
Magnetic poles: The two points at the ends of a magnet at which magnetism is
maximum, are called as magnetic poles. They are of two types, i) North pole ii)
South Pole.
Magnetic dipole: It is a system consisting of two equal and opposite magnetic
poles separated by a finite distance (2lmetre).
Magnetic Moment / Magnetic dipole Moment (μ) : Magnetic moment is the
measure of the object's tendency to align with a magnetic field.
It is defined as the product of the pole strength (m) and the distance between
the two poles (2l) of the magnet. i.e., μ = m x 2l
Units: Ampere - metre2
Magnetic Flux Density or Magnetic Induction (B): It is defined as the number of
magnetic lines of force passing perpendicularly through unit area.
i.e., B = magnetic flux /area = Φ/A; Units: Weber/metre2 (or) Tesla.
Magnetic Field Intensity (H): The magnetic field intensity at any point in the
magnetic field is the force experienced by a unit North Pole placed at that
point. Units: Ampere / meter
The magnetic induction B due to magnetic field intensity H applied in vacuum is
related by B = μ0H ; where μ0 is permeability of free space = 4 Π x 10-7 H / m
If the field is applied in a medium, the magnetic induction in the solid is given by
B = μ H ; where μ is permeability of the material in the medium
μ=B/H
Hence magnetic Permeability μ of any material is the ratio of the magnetic
– Department of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College, Hyderabad.

induction to the applied magnetic field intensity. The ratio of μ / μ0 is called the
relative permeability (μr).
μr = μ / μ 0 ; Therefore, B = μ0μr H
Intensity of Magnetization (I or M):
It is the process of converting a non - magnetic material into a magnetic
material. The intensity of magnetization (M) of a material is the magnetic
moment per unit volume. The intensity of magnetization is directly related to the
applied field H.
i.e., M α H ➔ M = χ H ; Units: Ampere / meter
Magnetic Susceptibility (χ):-
The magnetic susceptibility of a material is the ratio of the intensity of
magnetization produced to the magnetic field intensity which produces the
magnetization.
i.e., χ = M / H ; It has no units.
Relation between B, H and M:
We know, B = μ H
B = μ0μr H
B = μ0μr H + μ0 H - μ0 H
= μ0 H + μ0 H( μr- 1 )
= μ0 H + μ0M ; where M is magnetization = H ( μr– 1 )
i.e., B = μ0 ( H + M ) ----------(1)
The first term on the right side of eqn (1) is due to external field. The second term
is due to the magnetization and μ0 = B / H + M.
Relation between μr and χ:
Relative Permeability μr = μ / μ0
= (B/H) / (B/H + M)
= (H + M) / H = 1 + M / H
μr = 1 + χ ---------(3)
The magnetic properties of all substances are associated with the orbital and
spin motions of the electrons in their atoms. Due to this motion, the electrons
become elementary magnets of the substance. In few materials these
elementary magnets are able to strengthen the applied magnetic field, while in
few others; they orient themselves such that the applied magnetic field is
weakened.

❖ Origin of magnetic moment:
In the atom, the magnetic moments can arise due to the following
1. The orbital motion of the electron gives rise to orbital magnetic moment.
2. The spinning motion of the electron gives rise to the spin magnetic moment.
❖ Classification of magnetic materials:
Any material that can be magnetized by the application of external magnetic
field is called magnetic material. The materials are classified into 5 types based
on their magnetic behavior in the presence of the magnetic field and they are,
1. Dia magnetic material 2. Paramagnetic material
3. Ferromagnetic material 4. Anti-Ferro magnetic material and
5. Ferri magnetic material (Ferrites).
Sl.No. Type of magnetic Magnetic Magnetic behavior Example
material susceptibility
1 Dia magnetic Negative Atoms have no magnetic Au, Cu, Bi
material moment
2 Paramagnetic Small, positive Atoms have randomly Pt, Mn, Al
material oriented magnetic
moments
3 Ferromagnetic Large, positive Atoms have parallel Fe, Co, Ni

material aligned magnetic
moments
4 Anti-Ferro Small, positive Atoms have anti parallel MnO,

magnetic aligned magnetic FeO, NiO,
material moments FeMn
5 Ferri magnetic Large, positive Atoms have anti parallel MnFe2O4,

material (Ferrites) aligned magnetic ZnFe2O4,
moments of different
NiFe2O4
magnitudes

1. Dia magnetic materials:
An electron in an orbit has an orbital magnetic moment and a spin magnetic
moment. When the shells are completely filled (i.e., an atom has even number
of electrons) the net magnetic moment becomes zero.
“The materials which when placed in an external magnetic field, it acquires
feeble magnetism in the direction opposite to the direction of the applied
magnetic field then the material is known as diamagnetic material.”
Examples: Au, Cu, Bi.
Properties
1. Permanent dipoles are absent
2. Magnetization is weak and when placed in a non-uniform magnetic field they
move from stronger field to weaker field.
3. When placed inside a magnetic field, magnetic lines of forces are repelled.
4. Magnetic susceptibility is negative.
5. Magnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature.
6. Relative permeability is slightly less than unity.
2. Paramagnetic materials:
When the shells of the atom are unfilled then there is net magnetic moment. In
the absence of the magnetic field, the net moments of the substance are zero,
since the moments of the atoms are arranged in random directions because of
thermal fluctuations. When the field is applied, there is a tendency for the
dipoles to align in the direction of the field. Hence there is a net magnetization
and this induced magnetization is the source of Para magnetism.
“The materials which when placed in an external magnetic field, it acquires
feeble magnetism in the direction of the applied magnetic field then the
material is known as Para magnetic material.”
Examples: Pt, Mn, Al
Properties
1. Paramagnetic materials possess permanent magnetic dipoles.
2. In the absence of the field, the net magnetic dipole moment is zero.
3. When placed in the non-uniform magnetic field, they move from weaker
region of the field to stronger region of the field.
4. They attract the magnetic lines of force.
5. Magnetic susceptibility is positive and greatly depends on temp
The temperature dependence of susceptibility is given by
𝐶
χ=
𝑇
This relation is known as Curie law
6. Spin alignment is random
7. Paramagnetic susceptibility is independent of the applied field
8. Relative permeability is greater than unity.
3. Ferromagnetic materials:
Ferromagnetic materials possess net magnetic moment due to spontaneous
magnetization. Spontaneous magnetization is due to the parallel alignment of
the dipoles which is due to the interaction between the dipoles. Hence the
substance possesses net dipole moment even in the absence of the field. When
the field is applied, the substance is magnetized strongly.
“The materials which when placed in an external magnetic field, it is strongly
magnetized in the direction of the applied magnetic field then the material is
known as Ferromagnetic material.”
Examples: Fe, Co, Ni.
Properties
1. The substance possesses net dipole moment known as spontaneous
magnetization.
2. Parallel alignment of the dipoles extends to small region known as domains.
3. When the substance is placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, they move
from weaker region to stronger region. The substance is strongly magnetized.
4. The magnetic lines of forces are strongly attracted by the substance.
5. Magnetic susceptibility is positive and very large.
The temperature dependence of susceptibility is given by the relation,
𝐶
χ=
𝑇−𝜃
This relation is known as Curie- Weiss law
Here θ: Currie temperature; When T >θ the substance will be paramagnetic
When T <θ the substance is ferromagnetic.
6. Spin alignment is parallel.
7. Ferromagnetic magnetic materials exhibit hysteresis.

4. Anti-ferromagnetic materials:
The substances possess permanent dipoles which are aligned anti parallel to
each other. Since the magnitude of the dipoles are equal and opposite the net
magnetization vanishes.
Anti-Ferro magnetic susceptibility is greatly temperature dependent.
𝐶
χ=
𝑇+𝜃
When T > TN
χT When T < TN
C is Currie constant, θ is the paramagnetic Curie temperature, and TN is the
Neel temperature.
The susceptibility increases slightly with the temperature and is maximum at a

temperature known as Neel temperature. Beyond the Neel temperature, the
anti-ferromagnetic material behaves like paramagnetic material. Oxides of anti-
ferromagnetic materials are used to make magnetic storage devices.
Examples: MnO, FeO, NiO, FeMn.
5. Ferri-magnetic materials:
This is a special case of anti-ferromagnetism. The magnetic moments are
unequal and antiparallel. Hence the ferri-magnetic material possesses a net
magnetic moment.
1. Ferrimagnetic materials possess net magnetic moment.
2. Above Curie temperature becomes paramagnetic while below it behaves as
ferromagnetic material.
𝐶
χ=
𝑇±𝜃
3. Magnetic susceptibility is positive and large.
Examples: MnFe2O4, ZnFe2O4, NiFe2O4.

❖ Applications of Ferrites:
1. Manganese magnesium ferrite, manganese copper ferrite etc. are used in
random access storage in computers.
2. Barium ferrite, strontium ferrite is used to make permanent magnets.
3. Manganese zinc ferrite, nickel zinc ferrite etc., are used in inductor cores,
transformer cores and rod materials.
4. Garnets and few types of ferrites are used in the devices like isolators,
circulators, switches etc.
5. Ferrites have importance in engineering and technology because they
possess spontaneous magnetic moment below the Curie temperature just as
iron, cobalt, nickel.
6. Due to very low eddy current losses, ferrites are used as a core of coils in
microwave frequency devices and computer memory core elements.
7. Due to relatively low permeability and flux density compared to iron, ferrites
are not suitable for the use in high field and high-power applications, such as
motors, generators and power transformers, but they can be used in low field
and low power applications.
8. Ferrites are used as ferromagnetic insulators in electrical circuits.
9. Ferrites like ZnO find low frequency applications in timers. They are also used
as switches in refrigerators, air conditioners, etc.
❖ Weiss molecular field theory of Ferromagnetism and Derivation of

Curie-Weiss law:
According to Weiss in a ferromagnetic material, there is internal molecular
field due to the definite magnetic moments of atoms. This molecular field is
responsible for the spontaneous magnetization in ferromagnetic material.
This internal molecular field is proportional to magnetization (M)of the
material.
𝐻𝑖 = 𝜆𝑀-------- (1) Where ‘𝜆’ is Weiss molecular field coefficient.
When a ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field the material
gets magnetized due to not only applied field but also internal molecular
field.
Then the net effective field is equal to, 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻 + 𝐻𝑖
𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻 + 𝜆𝑀 ---------- (2)
μ0 μ2 N Heff
But, according to Langevin’s theory, M = 3kT
------- (3)

μ0 μ2 N (𝐻+ 𝜆𝑀)
Substitute eqn(2) in above equation and we get, M = 3kT
μ0 μ2 N 𝐻 μ0 μ2 N 𝜆𝑀
M= 3kT
+ 3kT
μ0 μ2 N 𝜆𝑀 μ0 μ2 N 𝐻
M− 3kT
= 3kT
-------- (4)
𝜇0 𝜇2 𝑁
Let C = 3𝑘
and θ = Cλ;
where, C is Curie constant
θ CH
Then the eqn (4) can be written as M (1 −T) =
T
T− θ CH
M ( T ) =
T
M T− θ C
( T ) = -------- (5)
H T
M
We know that susceptibility χ= ; then eqn (5) becomes,
H
χ( T –θ) = C
𝐂
χ= this is known as Curie-Weiss law.
𝐓 –𝛉
❖ Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism:
1. Weiss proposed this concept of Domains in 1907 to explain the hysteresis
effects observed in ferromagnetic materials as well as to explain the properties
of Ferromagnetic materials.
2. A region in a ferromagnetic material where all the magnetic moments are
aligned in the same direction is called a domain. A magnetic domain is
completely magnetized and has definite boundaries. So a ferromagnetic
material is divided up into these small regions, called domains, each of which is
at all times completely magnetized.
3. The direction of magnetization, however, varies from domain to domain and
thus the net macroscopic magnetization is zero in a virgin specimen in the
absence of external magnetic field.
4. But when the ferromagnetic material is in the magnetic field, in the initial
stages of magnetization in the material, the domain having moment’s parallel
magnetic fields increases in area; in the final saturation stage, the other domains
are rotated parallel to the field.
5. Similarly if we demagnetize the material the regular domain arrangement is
changed and it is different from the original state. This creates the hysteresis in
the ferromagnetic substances.
Further this theory can explain the following;

1. If a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece will be a magnet with a north
and a south pole. This is because the domains continue to remain in broken
pieces.
2. A magnet heated or roughly handled tends to lose its magnetism. This is
because the alignment of the domains in the magnet is likely to be disturbed
during heating and rough handling. Hence magnetism is reduced or lost.
3. Domains of soft iron are easily rotated with a comparatively small magnetizing
force and hence they are very easily magnetized or demagnetized. In this case
of steel a large force is required for rotating the domains which explains the high
retentivity of that material.
4. A specimen when magnetized suddenly experiences a slight change in its
length which is due to rearrangement of domains inside. This is called magneto-
striction.
5. Processes of domain magnetization:
There are two possible ways to align a random domain structure by applying an
external magnetic field.
➢ By the motion of domain walls: i.e., by an increase in the volume of
domains that are favorably oriented with respect to the magnetizing field
at the cost of those that are unfavorably oriented as shown in figure (b);
figure (a) shows that arrangements of domains for zero resultant magnetic
moment in a single crystal or virgin specimen when there is no applied
magnetic field.
➢ By rotation of domains: i.e., by the rotation of the direction of
magnetization of domain along the direction of field as shown in figure
(c). In weak magnetizing fields, he magnetizing of the specimen is due to
the motion of domain walls and in stronger fields that is due to the rotation
of domains.

❖ Hysteresis Curve (study of B-H curve):
Hysteresis occurs in a system that involves a magnetic field. Hysteresis is the
common property of ferromagnetic substances. Generally, when the
magnetization of ferromagnetic materials lags behind the magnetic field this
effect can be described as the hysteresis effect.
Definition: The meaning of hysteresis is “lagging”. It is characterized as a lag of
Magnetization intensity (B) behind the magnetic field intensity (H).
All ferromagnetic materials exhibit the phenomena of hysteresis. To give you a
better understanding of the concept, we will take an instance where a
ferromagnetic substance is placed inside a current-carrying coil. Due to the
magnetic field that is present the substance gets magnetized. If we reverse the
direction of current then the substance gets demagnetized, this process is
known as hysteresis.
The hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the intensity of magnetization
and the magnetizing field. The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic
flux coming out from the ferromagnetic substance while changing the external
magnetizing field.
Looking at the graph, if B is measured for various values of H and if the results are
plotted in graphic forms, then the graph will show a hysteresis loop.
➢ The intensity of the magnetism (B) when the magnetic field (H) is increased
from 0(zero).
➢ With increasing the magnetic field there is an increase in the value of
magnetism and finally reaches point “a” which is called saturation point or
saturation magnetization.
➢ With a decrease in the value of the magnetic field, there is a decrease in the
value of magnetism. But when H is equal to zero (at point“b”), material
retains some amount of magnetism is called retentivity or residual
magnetism or Remanence (Br).
➢ When there is a decrease in the magnetic field towards the negative side,
magnetism also decreases. At point C the substance is completely
demagnetized.
➢ The force required to remove the retentivity of the material is known as
Coercive force (C) or Coercivity (Hc).
➢ In the opposite direction, the cycle is continued where the saturation point is
“d, retentivity point is “e”and coercive force/ coercivity is ”f”.
➢ Due to the forward and opposite direction process, the cycle is complete
and this cycle is called the hysteresis loop.

Hysteresis Loss:
The work done by the magnetizing force against the internal friction of the
molecules of the magnet produces heat. This energy which is wasted in the form
of heat due to hysteresis is called Hysteresis Loss.
Hysteresis loss is the loss of energy in taking a ferromagnetic body through a
complete cycle of magnetization and this loss is represented by the area
enclosed by the hysteresis loop.
❖ Hard and Soft magnetic materials:
Based on the area of the hysteresis, magnetic materials can be classified into
hard and soft materials. It is seen that that the process of magnetization consists
in the movement of domain walls so that favorably oriented domains grow fast
and the un favorable ones shrink. If the resistance to the movement of domain
walls is small, the coercive force is small and it is easy to magnetize the
specimen. Such materials are called soft magnetic materials. On the other
hand, if the domain wall movement is hard, the coercive force is large and the
material is called hard magnetic materials.

Sl. No. Hard magnetic materials Soft magnetic materials
1 They have large hysteresis loss due They have low hysteresis loss due
to large hysteresis area. to low hysteresis area.
2 In these materials the domain wall The domain wall movement is
movement is difficult. relatively easier.
3 The coercivity and retentivity are The coercivity and retentivity are
large. small.
4 The material cannot be magnetized The material can be magnetized
and demagnetized easily. and demagnetized easily.
5 The magnetostatic energy is large The magnetostatic energy is small
6 They have small values of They have large values of
permeability and Susceptibility permeability and susceptibility
7 Examples: Nickel aluminium alloy Examples: Ferrites, Garnets, Iron
with cobolt (Alnico), Copper nickel silicon alloys, Ferrous nickel alloy.
iron alloy (Cunife), Copper nickel
cobalt alloy (Cunico).
8 They are used to make permanent They used to make temporary
magnets, flux meters, voltage magnets, transformer cores,
regulators, magnetic detectors, and switching circuits, microwave
magnetic separators. isolators, matrix storage devices.

Problem1:
The magnetic susceptibility of silicon is −0.4 × 10−5. Calculate the flux density and
magnetic moment per unit volume when magnetic field of intensity 5 × 105 A/m
is applied.
sol:
Given: χ = –0.4 × 10‒5
H = 5 × 105 A /m
B = ? and M = ?
B = μ0(H + M) = μ0 H(1 + χ)
= 4π × 10‒7× 5 × 105 [1 - 0.4 × 10‒5]
B = 4π × 5 × 10‒2× 0.9996
B = 0.62 Wb/m2
M = χH = –0.4 × 10-5× 5 × 105
M = -2.0 A/m.
Problem 2:
The magnetic field strength in silicon is 1000 A/m. If the magnetic susceptibility is
−0.25 × 10−5, calculate the magnetization and flux density in silicon.
sol:
Magnetic field strength (H) = 1000 A/m
Magnetic susceptibility (χ) = –0.25 ×10−5
Magnetization (M) = χH = –0.25 ×10−5× 1000
= –0.25 × 10‒2 A/m.
Magnetic flux density (B) = μ0(H + M)
= 4π × 10–7(1000 - 0.25 × 10‒2)

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
❖ Introduction:
Certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero resistivity (i.e. infinite conductivity)
when they are cooled to sufficiently low temperatures. This phenomenon is
called superconductivity.
This phenomenon was first observed
by H.K. Onnes in 1911. He observed
that the electrical resistivity of pure
mercury drops suddenly to zero at
about the boiling point of helium i.e.,
4.2K. He concluded that mercury has
passed into a new state which is
called the superconducting state.
The temperature at which the
resistance disappears is called the
transition temperature or critical
temperature.
Definition of Superconductivity: The electrical resistance of a substance suddenly

drops to zero when it is cooled to sufficiently low temperature. This phenomenon
is known as superconductivity. The material exhibits this phenomenon is known
as superconductor.
Examples: Hg, Nb, Zn, Zr, Cd, Al, etc.
❖ General Properties of Superconductors:
The temperature at which the transition from normal state to superconducting
state takes place on cooling in the absence of magnetic field is called the
critical temperature (Tc) or the transition temperature.
The following are the general properties of the superconductors:
i. The transition temperature is different to different substances.
ii. For a chemically pure and structurally perfect specimen, the
superconducting transition is very sharp.
iii. For chemically impure and structurally imperfect, the transition range is
broad.
iv. The superconducting property of a superconductor will not lost by adding
impurities to it, but the critical/transition temperature varies.
v. The transition temperature (Tc) is different for different isotopes of

superconductor. It is found to vary as the square root of atomic mass i.e.,
Tc ∝ M–1/2. This is known as isotope effect.
vi. At room temperature, superconducting materials have greater resistivity than
other elements. Materials having high normal resistivity exhibit
superconductivity.
vii. Superconductivity is found to occur in metallic elements in which the number
of valence electrons lies between 2 & 8.
viii. Transition metals having odd number of valence electrons are favorable to
exhibit superconductivity while metals having even number of valence
electrons are unfavorable.
ix. There is no change in the crystal structure as revealed by X-ray Diffraction.
This suggests that superconductivity is more concerned with the conduction
electrons than with the atoms.
x. Ferromagnetic and anti-ferromagnetic materials are not superconductors.
xi. The current in a superconducting ring persists for a very long time.
xii. The photoelectric, thermal expansion and elastic properties do not change
in superconducting transition.
xiii. Specific heat of superconductor varies exponentially with temperature.
xiv. Thermal conductivity is usually lower in superconducting state.
xv. Entropy of a superconductor decrease rapidly on cooling below the
transition temperature compared to normal state. This shows that
superconducting state is more ordered than the normal state.
xvi. Thermoelectric effects disappear in the superconducting state.
xvii. When a sufficient strong magnetic field is applied to a superconducting
material below critical temperature its superconducting property is destroyed.
❖ Effect of Magnetic Field:
Superconducting state of a metal depends on temperature and strength of the
applied magnetic field. Superconducting property disappears if the
temperature of the specimen is raised above Tc or a strong enough magnetic
field is applied. At temperatures below Tc, in the absence of any magnetic field,
the material is in superconducting state. When the strength of the magnetic field
applied reaches a critical value then superconductivity disappears. The
minimum value of applied magnetic field when the superconductor loses its
superconductivity is called the critical magnetic field (Hc).

At any given temperature below Tc there is a critical magnetic field Hc
such that the superconducting property is destroyed on the application of
magnetic field. The value of Hc decreases as the temperature increase.
At T=Tc c, Hc = 0. At temperatures below Tc, Hc increases. The dependence of
the critical field upon the temperature is given by
Hc(T) = Hc(0) [1 - (T/Tc)2];Where Hc(0) is the critical field at 0K.
Hc(0) and Tc are constants of the characteristics of the material.
❖ Meissner effect:
When a weak magnetic field is applied to superconducting specimen at a
temperature below transition temperature (Tc), then the magnetic flux lines are
expelled from the specimen. Now the specimen acts as on ideal diamagnetic
material. This effect is called Meissner effect.
Meissner effect is reversible, i.e., when the temperature is raised from below Tc,
at T = Tc the flux lines suddenly start penetrating and the specimen returns back
to the normal state.
Under this condition, the magnetic induction (B) inside the specimen is given by
B = 𝜇0 (H + M) ---------------(1)

Where H is the external applied magnetic field and M is the magnetization
produced inside the specimen.
When the specimen is superconducting, according to Meissner effect inside the
superconductor, B= 0.
Hence,𝜇0 (H + M) = 0 (or)M = - H -------------- (2)
Thus the material is perfectly diamagnetic.
Magnetic susceptibility can be expressed as,
χ=M/H = -1 [since M= -H (from equation 2)] ------------ (3)
The negative value of susceptibility indicates that the superconductor is a
perfect diamagnetic.
Now consider a superconducting material under normal state. Let J be the
current density and ρ be the resistivity. From ohm’s law we know that the
electric field E = Jρ
On cooling the material to its transition temperature, ‘ρ’ tends to zero. If ‘J’ is
held finite, then E must be zero.
Form Maxwell’s equation, we know, ∇ X E = - ∂B/ ∂t -----------------(4)
Under superconducting condition since E = 0, ∂B/∂t = 0, or B= constant.
This means that the magnetic flux passing through the specimen should not
change on cooling to the transition temperature. The Meissner effect
contradicts this result.
According to Meissner effect perfect diamagnetism is an essential property of
defining the superconducting state. Therefore, the superconductors should be
judged by both the conditions independently. Thus, the superconductor,
(i) Has zero resistance below critical/transition temperature.
(ii) Shows Meissner effect below critical/transition temperature.
❖ Types of superconductors:
Based on diamagnetic response Superconductors are divided into two types,
i.e., type-I and type-II Superconductors.
Type- I superconductors:
✓ If the transition from superconducting state to normal state in the
presence of magnetic field occurs sharply at the critical value Hc then the
material is known as Type-I Superconductor.
✓ Superconductors exhibiting a complete Meissner effect are called type-1
superconductors.

✓ Type-1 superconductors also called Soft Superconductors.
✓ When the strength is gradually increased, at critical magnetic field (HC)
the diamagnetism abruptly disappears.
✓ The critical field Hc is relatively low.
✓ Materials with pure form are type I super conductors.
✓ Examples: - Al, Zn, Ga, Hg, and Sn etc.
Type- II superconductors:
✓ If the transition from superconducting state to normal state in the
presence of magnetic field occurs gradually then the material is known as
Type-II Superconductor.
✓ Type-II superconductors are also known as hard superconductors. They
have high current densities.\
✓ Materials with impurities or alloys are of type II superconductors.
✓ Type-II superconductor is characterized by two critical magnetic fields
Hc1(called the lower critical field) and Hc2(called the upper critical field).
✓ For fields below Hc1, the superconductor expels the magnetic field from
the body completely and behaves as a prefect diamagnetic.
✓ At HC1 the field begins to penetrate through the specimen. Penetration
increases until HC2 is reached.
✓ Type-II superconductors show complete Meissner effect below Hc1 and
allow the flux to penetrate the superconductor betweenHc1 and Hc2.
✓ Between HC1 and HC2 the state of the material is called the mixed or
vortex state.
✓ At HC2, the external field has completely penetrated into the body and
destroyed the superconductivity. Now the material becomes normal
state.
✓ Examples: - Zr, Nb, Lead-indium alloy, etc.

❖ Difference between Type-I and Type-II Superconductor:
Type-I Superconductor Type-II Superconductor
1. If the transition from 1. If the transition from
superconducting state to normal state superconducting state to normal state
in the presence of magnetic field in the presence of magnetic field
occurs sharply then the material is occurs gradually then the material is
known as Type-I Superconductor. known as Type-II Superconductor.
1. In this superconductor when the 1. In this super conductor, when
applied magnetic field is equal to applied field reaches lower critical
critical magnetic field then field, conversion starts and it is
immediately it converts in to normal completed slowly at upper critical
conductor. field.
2. It has a single critical field value 2. It has two critical field values i.e., Hc1,
(Hc). Hc2.
3. Type-I superconductors exhibit 3. Type-II superconductors show
complete Meissner effect complete Meissner effect below Hc1
and allow the flux to penetrate the
superconductor betweenHc1 and Hc2.
4. There is no mixed state. 4. There is a mixed state.
5. These are also known as soft 5. These are also known as hard super
superconductors. conductors.
6. The critical field Hc is relatively low 6. The value of Hc2 is very large.
7. Materials with pure form are type I 7. Materials with impurities or alloys are
super conductors. of type II superconductors.
8. Examples:- Zn, Hg, Sn, Al, Pb, Ga, 8. Examples:- Zr , Nb, V, Nb3Ge, Lead-
etc. indium alloys, etc.
❖ Isotope Effect:
The critical temperature of the superconductor varies with isotopic mass. This is
effect called isotope effect. The graph shows the effect of isotopic mass of Hg
on the Tc.
MαTc = constant where α = 0.5(as per BCS theory)

❖ BCS THEORY (EXPLANATION OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY):
✓ In 1957, Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer gave a theory to explain the
phenomenon of superconductivity, which is known as BCS theory. The theory
is based on the formation of Cooper Pairs.
✓ In metals, the electrical resistance arises due to the collision of conduction
(free electrons) with the vibrating ions of the lattice. In normal state, the force
between the electrons is repulsive. In superconducting state, the force
between two electrons becomes attractive due to formation of cooper pair.
The explanation is as follows:
✓ When a current flows through a superconductor, and an electron (negative
charge) comes near the positive ion core of the lattice, then the electron
experiences an attractive force. Due to interaction between electron and
ion core, the ion core is slightly displaced. This is known as lattice distortion.
The distortion in the lattice then travels away as a mechanical wave
(Phonons).
✓ Now, suppose that another electron comes near the distorted lattice. The
lattice vibration (phonon) interacts with the second electron and hence
there is a force of attraction between second electron and phonon. In this
way, two electrons interact with each other through the lattice vibration. This
process is called as electron – lattice-electron interaction via a phonon field
(Mechanical waves).
✓ When an electron with vector k distorts the lattice, the lattice gains
momentum. As a result, the momentum of the electron decreases. So a
phonon of wave vector q is emitted. When another electron with wave
vector k’ absorbs the energy from phonon it gains momentum. Therefore,
due to interaction, we have two electrons with wave vector k - q and k’ + q.
The pair of electrons is called a Cooper pair.
✓ Therefore, Cooper pair is a bound pair of electrons formed by the interaction

between the electrons in a phonon field. The two electrons which pair up
have opposite momentum and spin.
✓ The cooper pair of electrons moves on without suffering any deviation either
by impurities or thermal vibrations. Hence, there is no exchange of energy
between pair of electrons and lattice ions. If an electric field is established
inside the substance, the electrons gain additional kinetic energy and give
rise to a current. The main important point is that the pair of electrons does
not transfer any energy to the lattice. Therefore, they do not get slowed
down. As a consequence of this, the substance does not possess any
electrical resistivity and the conduction is large.
✓ When the pair of electrons flow in the form of Cooper pair, they do not
encounter any scattering and the resistance factor vanishes, i.e.,
conductivity becomes infinity which is named as superconductivity.
❖ HIGH TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTORS:

In 1986, Bednorz and Alex Muller in Zurich (Switzerland) discovered high
temperature superconductivity in ceramics. They made a particular type of
ceramic material which remained a superconductor at a temperature as
high as 30 K. The importance of the discovery was recognized immediately
and they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in1987. The high
temperature superconductors are also called as high Tc materials.
Definition: Any Superconducting material with a transition temperature
above 35K is in general called high Tc superconductor.
By 1988, the longstanding 30 K ceiling of Tc in inter metallic compound has
been elevated to 125 K in bulk superconducting oxides. All high temperature
superconductors are different types of oxides of copper. By 1994 high
temperature superconductor showed promise in pre-commercial
applications, as in thin film devices, and wires being fabricated.

Important Observations:
1) All high temperature superconductors bear a particular type of crystal
structure called the Perovskite structure.
2) The addition of extra copper oxygen layers into the structure unit of
superconducting copper oxide complexes pushes the critical temperature to
higher values.
3) The addition of any atom into copper oxide layer either brings down or
destroys the effect of superconductivity.
4) The important observation is that the formation super currents in high Tc
superconductors are direction dependent. The super currents are strong in
copper- oxygen planes and weak in direction perpendicular to the planes.
5) In bulk materials, since they are ceramics, the flow of super currents has a
restriction due to grain boundary effects. As a result, the critical current value
is pushed down.
Few High Temperature Superconductors are given below:
a. La1.85Sr0.15CuO4 with Tc of 40K
b. YBa2Cu3O7 with Tc of 92K
c. Bi-Ca-Sr-Cu-O with Tc of 110K
d. Tl-Ba-Ca-Cu-O with a Tc of 120K
e. Hg-Ba-Ca-Cu-O with a Tc of 133 K
f. Hg-Ba-Ca-Cu-O with a Tc of 164 K (under pressure)
g. C60–Fullerences (2001) with a Tc of 110 K
h. InSnBa4Tm4Cu6O18 (2005) with a Tc of 150 K
❖ Applications Of Superconductors:
1. Electric generators:
Superconducting generators are very smaller in size and weight when
compared with conventional generators. The low loss superconducting coil is
rotated in an extremely strong magnetic field. Motors with very high powers
could be constructed at very low voltage as low as 450V. This is the basis of
new generation of energy saving power systems.
2. Low loss transmission lines and transformers:
Since the resistance is almost zero at superconducting phase, the power loss
during transmission is negligible. Hence electric cables are designed with

superconducting wires. If superconductors are used for winding of a
transformer, the power losses will be very small.
3. Magnetic Levitation:
Diamagnetic property of a superconductor i.e., rejection of magnetic flux
lines is the basis of magnetic levitation. A superconducting material can be
suspended in air against the repulsive force from a permanent magnet. This
magnetic levitation effect can be used for high speed transportation.
4. Generation of high Magnetic fields:
Superconducting materials are used for producing very high magnetic fields
of the order of50Tesla. To generate such a high field, power consumed is only
10kW whereas in conventional method for such a high field power generator
consumption is about 3MW. Moreover in conventional method, cooling of
copper solenoid by water circulation is required to avoid burning of coil due
to Joule heating.
5. Fast electrical switching:
A superconductor possesses two states, the superconducting and normal.
The application of a magnetic field greater than Hc can initiate a change
from superconducting to normal and removal of field reverses the process.
This principle is applied in development of switching element cryotron. Using
such superconducting elements, one can develop extremely fast large scale
computers.
6. Logic and storage function in computers:
They are used to perform logic and storage functions in computers. The
current–voltage characteristics associated with Josephson junction are
suitable for memory elements.
7. SQUIDS (superconducting Quantum Interference Devices):
It is a double junction quantum interferometer. Two Josephson junctions
mounted on a superconducting ring forms this interferometer. The SQUIDS are
based on the flux quantization in a superconducting ring. Very minute
magnetic signals are detected by these SQUID sensors. These are used to
study tiny magnetic signals from the brain and heart. SQUID magnetometers
are used to detect the paramagnetic response in the liver. This gives the
information of iron held in the liver of the body accurately.
Problem1:
Calculate the critical current for a wire of a lead having a diameter of 1 mm
at 4.2 K. The critical temperature for lead is 7.18 K and H = 6.5 × 104A m–1.

Sol: Given data Tc= 7.18KHc(0) = 6.5 ×104 A m–1.
Temperature T = 4.2K radius of the wire r = 0.5 x 10–3 m
Hc(T) = Hc(0) [1 – (T/Tc)2]
Hc(T) =6.5 × 104 [1-(4.2/7.18)2]
Hc(T) = 4.276 ×104 A m–1
Critical Current Ic = 2πrHc
= 2x3.14x0.5 x 10–3 x 4.276 × 104
= 134.39 A
Problem2:
A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic
field and a critical field of 0.0306 Tesla at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.
Sol: Given data Tc= 3.7K Hc(0)= 0.0306 Tesla Temperature T = 2K
Hc(T) = Hc(0) [1 – (T/Tc)2]
Hc(T) = 0.0306[1-(2/3.7)2]
Hc(T) = 0.0216 Tesla.

UNIT-V
Lasers
Introduction:
➢ A device which produces a powerful monochromatic beam of light.

➢ The word ‘LASER’ is an acronym for ‘’Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation’’.
L -Light
A -Amplification by
S -Stimulated
E -Emission of
R -Radiation
➢ i.e., Laser radiation is due to stimulated emission process which amplifies
(improves) the intensity of radiation.
In 1960, T.H. Maiman invented the Ruby laser. It is the first laser. LASER has
frequency 1014 to 1016Hz.
Characteristics of LASER
❑ Lasers differ from conventional light sources in a number of ways.
The most important characteristics of a laser beam are:
1) High Monochromatic: (Laser beam is made up of a single color or a
single wave length)
2) High directionality: (Light emitted by the laser are relatively a narrow
beam in a specific direction)
3) High coherence: (The wave length of the laser light is in phase, in
space and time)
4) High Intensity: (In laser, the light spreads in small region of space and
in a small wavelength range)
1) Monochromatic:-
✓ The property of exhibiting a single wavelength by a light is called
monochromatic.
✓ Even it is sent through a prism a single line will be appeared in the optical
spectrum.
✓ The light from a laser source is highly monochromatic. Laser has only
single wave length, whereas the ordinary light sources like, tube light,
mercury vapour lamp… etc., have many wave lengths.
– Dr. KasarapuVenkataramana, KeshavMemorialEngineeringCollege, Hyderabad.

2) Directionality:-
✓ During the propagation of a laser, its angular spreading will be less and
occupies less area where it incidents. Hence, it possesses high degree
of directionality.
✓ Ordinary light spreads in all directions and its angular spread is
1m/meter. But laser is highly directional and its angular spread is
1mm/meter.
3) Coherence:-
✓ The property of existing either zero or constant phase angle difference
between two or more waves is known as coherence.
✓ When two waves (photons) having same amplitude, same frequency
and phase difference between them is constant (or) zero while moving
along the same direction, then they are called coherent waves.
✓ Coherence is a property of a wave being in phase with itself and also
with another wave over a period of time, distance and space.
Coherence is of two types:

i) Temporal coherence:
– Dr. Kasarapu Venkataramana, Asst. Prof. Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.
✓ If a wave has same amplitude and frequency at all points on the wave
over a period of time, throughout its motion, is called as temporal (or)
longitudinal coherence. (Or)
✓ If there exists either zero or constant phase angle difference between
two points on a wave front then wave is said to have temporal
coherence..
ii) Spatial Coherence:-

✓ If two waves are having same amplitude, same frequency and the phase
difference between them is zero (or) constant over a space, throughout
its motion, is called as spatial (or) transverse coherence.
4) Intensity or Brightness:-
✓ Due to high coherence and high directionality, many beams of light
incident in a small area, gives the high intensity (or) brightness of laser
beam.
✓ The Laser beam is highly bright (intense) as compared to the
conventional light because more light is concentrated in a small
region.
✓ It is observed that the intensity of 1mV laser light is 10,000 times brighter
than the light from the sun at the earth’s surface.
✓ Let there be ‘n’ no of coherent photons of amplitude ‘a’ in the emitted
laser radiation. Resultant amplitude of wave is ‘na’. Therefore, the
intensity of laser beam is, I ∝ n2a2.
(Basic Definitions in Lasers)
1. Ground and Excited States:
✓ Each type of atom can contain certain amount of energy.
✓ When an atom contains the lowest amount of energy that available to
it, the atom is said to be in its atomic ground state.
✓ If the atom contains additional energy over and above its ground
state,it is said to be in an excited state.
2. Induced (or) Stimulated Absorption:

✓ An atom in the lower energy level (or) ground state energy level E1
absorbs the incident photon and goes to excited state (E 2) as shown in
figure. This process is called an induced (or) stimulated absorption.
✓ Here the energy of absorbed photon is equal to the difference
between two energy levels. i.e., E= hν (or) E2-E1=hν
Emission:-
✓ Normally the atoms excited to higher (excited) state, will not stay for a
long time, after a short period of time (10-8sec) come to ground state
by emitting a photon of energy E= hν.
✓ This emission will takes place in two ways: Spontaneous emission and
Stimulated emission
3. Spontaneous Emission:
✓ The atom in the excited state returns to ground state by emitting a
photon of energy E= (E2-E1) = hν, without applying an external energy
(spontaneously).This process is called as spontaneous emission.
✓ An atom in an excited state is unstable and will release spontaneously
its excess energy and return to the ground state.
✓ The amount of energy equal to the difference in energy content of the
two levels must be released by the atom. This is known as Spontaneous
emission. Spontaneous emission process occurs after the life time of
excited electron.
✓ In all ordinary light sources, emission takes place due to this

spontaneous process.
4. Stimulated Emission
✓ The atom in the excited state can also return to the ground state by
applying external energy or inducement of photon there by emitting
two photons which are having same energy as that of incident photon.
This process is called as stimulated emission.
✓ The emitted photon has the same energy, same wave length and
same direction of travel as the stimulating photon. The two photons
emitted are exactly in phase.
✓ The stimulated emission process takes place before the life time of
excited electron, therefore external stimulus is required.
✓ Thus, stimulated emission light i.e., monochromatic, directional, and
coherent.
This light appears as the output beam of the laser.
❖ Distinguish between Spontaneous Emission & Stimulated Emission of

radiation:
Sl.No: Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission
1 It takes place without any It takes place with the help of
External/stimulating energy any
external/stimulating energy
2 It is incoherent radiation It is Coherent radiation
3 It is Polychromatic radiation It is Monochromatic radiation
4 It is less intense and less It is High intense and highly
directional directional
5 In a single downward In a single downward transition,
transition, Spontaneous Stimulated emission results in the
emission results in the emission emission of two photons.
of one photon.
6 In this emission, light is not In this emission, light is amplified.
amplified.
7 It is postulated by Bohr It is postulated by Einstein
8 Ex: Light from an ordinary Ex: Light from a Laser source,
electric bulb, light from (Ruby or He-Ne laser).
sodium (or) mercury lamp
❖ Einstein’s coefficients (A&B) and their Relations:-

In order to understand Einstein’s coefficients, the processes of absorption,
spontaneous emission and stimulated emission must be discussed in terms
of probability in detailed version.
Absorption: The process of excitation of an atom from ground energy level
to higher energy level by absorbing a photon of energy E= hv is known as
absorption.
The rate of absorption is proportional to energy density𝜌(ν) of incident
radiation and number of atoms in ground state(N1).
Thus R12 ∝ 𝜌(ν)N1
𝑅12 = B12 𝜌(ν)N1---------- (1); Where B12 is proportionality constant and is
known as Einstein’s coefficient of Absorption.
Spontaneous Emission: The process of de-excitation of an atom from
higher energy level to ground energy level after completion of its lifetime is
known as spontaneous emission.
The rate of spontaneous emission is proportional to number of atoms in
energy level 2. This process is independent of energy density.
Thus (𝑅21)sp𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 ∝ 𝑁2
(𝑅21)𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 ----------(2); Where A21 is proportionality constant and is
known as Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.
Stimulated Emission: The process of de-excitation of an atom from higher
energy level to ground energy level before completion of its lifetime is
known as stimulated emission.
The rate of stimulated emission is proportional to stimulated energy
densityρ(ν) and number of atoms in energy level 2.
Thus (𝑅21)stimulated ∝ 𝜌(𝜈)𝑁2
(𝑅21)𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐵21 𝜌(ν)N2---------- (3); Where B21 is proportionality constant
and is known as Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.
Under equilibrium condition, the rate of Absorption = the rate of emission
(Spontaneous + Stimulated)
From eqn’s (1), (2), and (3)➔
B12 𝜌(ν)N1 = A21N2 + B21𝜌(ν)N2
B12 𝜌(ν)N1 - B21𝜌(ν)N2= A21N2
𝜌(ν) = 𝐵12𝑁𝐴121−𝑁𝐵221𝑁2 = 𝐴21 𝑁2
𝑁 = 𝐴21
𝑁 --------- (4)
𝑁2 [𝐵12 1 − 𝐵21 ] [𝐵12 1 − 𝐵21 ]
𝑁2 𝑁2
According to Boltzmann’s distribution law, the no of atoms of any energy

−𝐸
level E, at temperature ‘T’ is given by N = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
−𝐸1 −𝐸2
Then, N1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 and N2 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
(𝐸2 −𝐸1 )
𝑁1
𝑁2
= 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ𝜈
𝑁1
𝑁2
= 𝑒 𝐾𝐵𝑇 [since E2-E1 = hv]
𝑁1 𝐴21
Substituting the value of in equation (4) we get,𝜌(𝑣) = ℎ𝜈
𝑁2
[𝐵12 𝑒 𝐾𝐵𝑇 − 𝐵21 ]
𝐴21
𝐴21
𝜌(𝑣) = =
𝐵21
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 ---------- (5)
𝐵21 [𝐵
𝐵
12 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 − 1] [𝐵 12 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐵21
− 1]
21
8𝜋ℎ𝑣3
𝑐3
But according to Planck’s radiation law,𝜌(𝑣) = ℎ𝜈 ---------- (6)
𝐾 𝑇
[𝑒 𝐵 − 1]
Comparing equations(5) and (6), we get,
𝐵12 𝐴21 3
= 1 and = 8𝜋ℎ𝑣
𝑐3
𝐵21 𝐵21
𝐴21
Therefore, 𝐵12 = 𝐵21 and ∝ 𝑣3;
𝐵21
These two equations are referred to as the Einstein’s relations. The First
relation shows the rate of probability of induced absorption and
induced/stimulated emissions are equal. Second relation shows that the
ratio of A21 and B21is proportional to cube of the frequency of incident
photon.
❖ POPULATION:-
The number of atoms per unit volume in an energy level is known as
population of that energy level. Normally, N1> N2 and E2>E1.
Generally population (From Boltzmann distribution law, the no. of atoms of
−𝐸
any energy level E) is given by N = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ; Where NO is the population in
the ground energy level; KB is Boltzmann constant; T is temperature.
POPULATION INVERSION:-
The state of achieving more number of atoms in the excited state
compared to the ground state atoms is called as population inversion i.e.,
N2> N1.
Explanation: Consider a three level system in which three active energy
levels E1, E2&E3 are present and populations in those energy levels are N1,
N2& N3 respectively. In normal conditions, E1<E2< E3 and N1> N2> N3 as
shown in fig. a.E1 is the ground state; its lifetime is unlimited and it is most
stable state. E3 is highest energy state; its lifetime is very less. Whereas E2 is
an excited state and has more lifetime. Hence E2 is meta stable state.
When suitable form of energy is supplied to the system in a suitable way,

then the atoms excite from ground state E1 to excited states (E2& E3). Due
to instability, excited atoms will come back to ground state after the
lifetime of the respective energy states E2 and E3. Because E3 is the most
unstable state, atoms will fall into E2immediately. At a stage the
population in E2will become more than the population in ground state. This
situation is called population inversion and is shown in fig. b.
LIFE TIME:-
The time spent by the atom in excited state is known as life time of that
excited state/energy level. The life time of hydrogen atom is 10–8 sec.
METASTABLE STATE:-
The excited state, which has long life time is known as Meta stable state.
ℎ
According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, Δ E .Δt ≥ [where, ΔE
4𝜋
is the width of the energy level and Δt is the lifetime of the electrons in
that energy level]; i.e., Δt ∝ 1/ΔE. Thus, the life time of electron in the
meta stable is increases as the width of the energy level decreases. It is
the intermediate energy level between excited state (E3) and ground
state (E1). In Metastable state the life time is 10–3 to 10–4s. So that the
number of atoms in the Meta stable state is more than in ground state.
Hence population inversion is achieved.
Pumping:
The population inversion cannot be achieved normally. To achieve
population inversion suitable form of energy must be supplied. The process
of supplying suitable form of energy to a system to achieve population
inversion is called pumping. (Or) The process of raising more number of
atoms to the excited state by artificial means is called as pumping.
In several ways pumping can be done. Most commonly used pumping
methods are:
1. Optical Pumping
2. Electric discharge method
3. Inelastic atom-atom collision
4. Direct conversion
5. Chemical reaction
1. Optical Pumping:
Here the atoms are excited by an external optical source like- Xenon flash
lamp. The atoms absorb energy from photons of optical source & raises to
excited state.
Ex:- Ruby laser, Nd-YAG laser.
2. Electric pumping (or) Electric discharge method:
The electrons are accelerated to very high velocities by strong electric
field and they collide with gas atoms & these atoms are raised to excited
state.
Ex:- Ar-ion laser, He -Ne laser, CO2 laser.
3. Inelastic atom-atom collision:
Here, the electric discharge is used to cause collision & excitation of the
atom. In this method a combination of two types of gases is used, say
A&B, both having the same excited states A* &B*.
In first step during electric discharge A gets excited to A*. Now the excited
A* atoms collide with ‘B’ atoms, so that ‘B’ gets excited to B*.
Ex:- He -Ne laser, CO2 laser.
4. Direct conversion:
Due to electrical energy applied in direct band gap semiconductor like
GaAs etc., the combination of electrons & holes takes place and
electrical energy is converted into light energy directly.
Ex:- Semiconductor Laser.
5. Chemical reaction:
Due to some chemical reactions the atoms may be raised to excited
state.
Ex:- HF-Laser, Dye Laser.
LASING ACTION (OR) PRINCIPLE OF LASERS ACTION:-

Let us consider many no. of atoms in the excited state. Now if one
stimulating photon interacts with any one of the atoms in the excited
state, the stimulated emission will occur. It emits two photons, having same
energy, same frequency and move in same direction.
These two photons will interact with another two atoms in excited state
and emit 4-photons (as shown in fig.) of similar properties. Again these 4-
photons will interact with more four atoms in excited state as a result emits
8-photons.
In a similar way a chain reaction is produced. This phenomenon is called
as lasing action.
So, a monochromatic, coherent, directional and high intense term is
obtained. This is called laser beam. This is the principle of working of a
laser.
❖ BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A LASER SYSTEM:

The block diagram of laser system contains three important components,
they are, (1) Source of energy (or Pumping source), (2) Active medium
and (3) optical cavity (or resonator) as shown in figure.
(1) Source of energy (or Pumping source):
It supplies energy and pumps the atoms or molecules in the active
medium to excited states. As a result, we get population inversion in the
active medium which emits laser.
Eg: Xenon flash lamp, Electrical field.
(2) Active medium:
The medium in which the population inversion takes place is called as
active medium. It can be a solid, liquid, gas or p-n junction.
Active center:- The material in which the atoms are raised to excited state
to achieve population inversion is called as active center.
Optical cavity:
The active medium is enclosed between a fully reflective mirror and a
partially reflective mirror. This arrangement is called as optical cavity or
resonator.
The reflecting portions of the mirrors reflect the incident radiation back
into the active medium. This reflected radiation enhances the stimulated
emission process within the active medium. As a result, we get high
intensity, monochromatic, coherence laser light through the non-reflecting
portion of the mirror (partially reflected mirror).
TYPES OF LASERS:-
Based on the type of active medium, lasers are mainly classified into five
types. They are,
1) Solid State Laser:
Ex: Ruby Laser
2) Liquid Laser:
Ex:- Europium Laser
3) Gas Laser:
Ex: He-Ne Laser.
4) Dye Laser:
Ex:- Coumarin dye Laser
5) Semiconductor Laser:
Ex: GaAs Laser.
❖ RUBY LASER:-
Ruby laser is a three-level solid state laser, discovered by Maiman in 1960.
Ruby is a crystal made up of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) in which 0.05% of Al+3
ions are replaced by Cr+3 ions (This can be done by the doping of Cr2O3).
Characteristics of Ruby laser:
➢ Type: solid state laser.
➢ Active medium: Ruby rod.
➢ Active center: Cr+3 ions.
➢ Pumping method: Optical pumping.
➢ Source of energy/ Pumping source: Xenon flash lamp.
➢ Optical resonator: Arrangement of silver polished surfaces on either
side of ruby rod.
➢ Power output: 104 to 105 watts.
➢ Nature of output: Pulsed.
➢ Wavelength (λ): 6943 Å.
PRINCIPLE:
Due to the optical pumping chromium atoms are raised to excited states,
and then the atoms come to metastable state by non-radiative transition.
Due to stimulated emission the transition of atoms takes place from
metastable state to ground state and gives a laser beam.
CONSTRUTION:
The ruby rod is kept inside the glass tube. Xenon flash tube is spirally wound
over the surface of the ruby rod and is connected to a power supply.
Xenon flash tube emits thousands of joules of energy in few milli-seconds,
but only a part of that energy is utilized by the chromium ions while the rest
energy heats up the apparatus.
A cooling arrangement is provided to keep the experimental set up at
normal temperatures in which liquid nitrogen or water may be circulated.
The end of the rod is fully silvered and the other end of the rod is partially
silvered in such away, one becomes partially reflected and the other end
fully reflected as shown in the figure.
Working:
✓ The xenon flash lamp is switched ON and the light is allowed to fall on
the ruby rod.
✓ Optical energy excites the chromium atoms from ground state (G) to
higher excited state (H). The rest energy heats up the apparatus and
this can be avoided by the cooling arrangement.
✓ The chromium ions get excitation into higher energy levels by
absorbing of 5600 Å of wave length radiation.
✓ The excited chromium ions stay in the higher excited state (H) for short
interval of time (10–8 Sec).
✓ After their life time most of the chromium ions are de-excited and the
non-radiative transition takes place between higher excited state (H)
and metastable state (M)i.e. the chromium ions gives their energy to
the lattice in the form of heat.
✓ After few milli-seconds the metastable state (M) is more populated
than the ground state (G) and hence the desired population inversion
is achieved. The metastable state (M) has the life time about 10–
3seconds.
✓ The state of population inversion is not a stable one. The process of

spontaneous transition is very high. The Cr atoms in metastable state
come to ground state by emitting a photon ofwavelength6943Å.
✓ The photon reflects back and forth by the silver ends and until it
stimulates an excited chromium ion in M state and it emit another
photon in phase with the earlier photon.
✓ The process is repeated again and again until the laser beam intensity
is reached to a sufficient value and it emerges through the partially
silvered end of the rod. The laser light with wave length 6943Å is emitted
in the red region of the visible spectrum.
APPLICATIONS OF RUBY LASER:

➢ Ruby laser can be used for recording of holograms.
➢ It is used in LIDAR [Light Detection And Ranging].
➢ It is used in Remote Sensing.
➢ It is used in Ophthalmology.
➢ It is used in drilling small areas.
➢ Due to low output power they are class-I lasers and so may use as
toys for children’s.
➢ It can be used in schools, colleges, universities for science programs.
➢ It can be used as decoration piece & artistic display.
DISADVANTAGES:
➢ It requires a high pumping power.
➢ The efficiency is very low.
➢ Output is pulsed (it is a pulsed laser).
❖ He-Ne Laser:
✓ Ruby laser is a pulse laser, even it has high intense output.
✓ He-Ne laser is a gaseous laser system and is used to produce a
continuous laser. Using He-Ne laser gas lasers, we can achieve highly
directional, monochromatic, coherent and stable beam.
✓ The output power of the gas laser is generally in few milli-watts
(moderate when it is compared with the solid-state laser).
✓ The first He-Ne gas laser was fabricated by Ali Javan and his co-workers
in 1960. This laser gives continuous laser beam.
Characteristics of He-Ne Laser:
✓ Type: gas laser.
✓ Active medium: He-Ne in 10:1.
✓ Active center: Ne.
✓ Pumping method: Electrical pumping.
✓ Pumping source: R.F. Oscillator.
✓ Optical resonator: Silver coated mirrors.
✓ Nature of output: Continuous.
✓ Wavelength (λ ): 6328 Å.
Principle:
✓ This laser is based on the principle of stimulated emission produced in
the He-Ne. The population inversion is achieved due to the interaction
between He and Ne gases.
Construction:
✓ The experimental arrangement is shown in Figure. It consists of Quartz
discharge tube and is filled with the mixture of He under the pressure of
1mm of Hg and Ne at 0.1mm of Hg. The ratio of He and Ne gases is
10:1.
✓ Two reflecting mirrors are fixed on either ends of the discharge tube, in
that, one is partially reflecting and the other is fully reflecting.
✓ 80cm length and 1cm diameter discharge tube is generally used and
has three electrodes which are connected to the radio frequency
(R.F.) oscillator to produce electrical discharge in He- Ne mixture.
✓ The output of these lasers depends on the length of the discharge tube
and pressure of the gas mixture.
Working:
✓ The schematic energy diagram of He-Ne gas mixture is shown in Figure.
✓ In Helium (He) atom three active energy levels are present, they are
named as He1, He2, & He3, whereas in Neon (Ne) atom six active
energy levels, they are named as Ne1, Ne2, Ne3, Ne4, Ne5 & Ne6. Here, it
should be noted that Ne4 and He2 have same energy and life time and
similarly Ne6 and He3.
✓ Radio frequency oscillator is switched on and it produces the electrical
discharge in He-Ne mixture.
✓ By absorbing electrical energy, Helium atoms in the ground state are
raised to excited states.
✓ These excited He–atoms collide in-elastically with the Ne-atoms. Then
the Ne atoms get excitation into higher levels E4 andE6.Population
inversion is achieved in E4 & E6.
✓ Now Ne atoms again come to ground state through different
transitions in various states.
✓ Stimulated emission takes place between E6 & E5 and emits the
radiation of (λ)= 3.39μm
radiation of (λ)=6328 Å
radiation of (λ)= 1.15μm.
✓ Spontaneous emission takes place between E3 & E2 and emits the
radiation of (λ)= 6000Å.
✓ The Ne-atoms come to ground state by non-radiative transition.
✓ The excitations and de-excitations of He & Ne atoms is a continuous
process and produces an intense, coherent, monochromatic and
directional laser beam of wavelength (λ)= 6328 Å.
✓ The most common wavelength produced by He-Ne lasers is 6328Å (in
the visible red portion of the spectrum), although two lower power
(1.152μm and 3.391μm) infrared wavelengths can be produced if
desired.
Applications:
✓ He-Ne laser is used in open air communications.
✓ He-Ne laser used in 3D recording of objects called holography
✓ It is used to determine the size of tiny particles.
✓ He-Ne lasers also used in super market checkout counters to read bar
codes.
✓ He-Ne laser scanners are used for optical character recognition.
✓ He-Ne lasers are used by newspapers for reproducing transmitted
photographs.
✓ It is also used in Guns for targeting.
Disadvantages of He-Ne Laser:
✓ It is relatively low power device means its output power is low.
✓ To obtain single wavelength laser light, the other two wavelengths of
laser need suppression, which is done by many techniques and
devices. So it requires extra technical skill and increases the cost also.
❖ Semiconductor Laser:
The first semiconductor lasers were made by Hall and Nathan in 1962
using Gallium Arsenide (GaAs). The semiconductor laser is also called as
diode laser. It has same principle like light emitting diode (LED).
On the basis of recombination, semiconductor lasers are classified into
two types. They are,
➢ Direct band gap semiconductors in which conduction electrons
recombine directly with valence holes.
➢ Indirect band gap semiconductors in which conduction
electrons recombine with valence holes via intermediate energy
levels, called recombination centers.
❑ There is large possibility to emit electromagnetic radiation during the
direct recombination process, but not in case of indirect
recombination process. Therefore, direct band gap semiconductors
are useful to construct semiconductor laser.
❑ semiconductor laser classified into two types:
(i) Homo junction semiconductor laser.
(ii) Hetero junction semiconductor laser.
(i) Homo junction semiconductor laser (or) GaAs diode laser:-
✓ If the junction is formed between p-type and n-type semiconductors of
same type material. It is called as homo junction semiconductor laser.
Characteristics:
✓ Type: Solid state Semiconductor laser.
✓ Active medium: P-N junction diode made from single crystal of gallium
arsenide.
✓ Active center: Recombination of electrons (e–) & holes.
✓ Pumping method: Direct conversion method.
✓ Optical Resonator: Junction of diodes polished.
✓ Output power: 1mw.
✓ Nature of output: Continuous (or) pulsed.
✓ Wavelength: around 8600Å.
Principle:
➢ When the P-n junction is connected in forward biased, the width of the
depletion region decreases, allowing more no. of electrons from n-type
to cross the junction and recombine with holes in P-type.
➢ Thus recombination of electron hole pairs across the junction and emits
the radiation (photons) as shown in figures.
Construction:
➢ The GaAs laser was constructed by Hall. It is shown in figure. A
rectangular block of GaAs semiconductor is converted into p and n-
type by proper doping of impurities into the block.
➢ The upper region acts as p-type and lower region acts as n-type.
Between these two regions, a p-n junction is formed.
➢ To achieve population inversion p and n regions are heavily doped
with the impurities. Two faces of the block, one is fully polished and the
other partially polished, act as an optical resonator or cavity.
Working:
➢ When the p-type is connected to the positive (+ve) terminal of a
battery and n-type is connected to the negative (–ve) terminal of a
battery, then the junction is in forward biased condition.
➢ When the junction is forward biased, the width of the depletion region
decreases, allowing more no. of electrons from n-type to cross and
recombine with hole in P-type.
➢ Thus, the recombination of electron-hole pairs takes place across the
junction and emits the laser radiation or photons.
➢ The energy of emitted laser radiation is given by, E = hν (or)
hc hc
Energy gap Eg = hν = λ and the Wavelength of laser is, λ = ; Where, h
𝐸𝑔
is Planck’s constant and c is Velocity of light.
(*For GaAs semiconductor, Eg= 1.4eV, therefore the wavelength is, λ =
8878Å– Infrared region.)
Advantages:
➢ Its efficiency is high.
➢ Output is tunable.
➢ The laser output can be modulated within the semiconductor.
➢ Laser output is pulsed or continuous.
Disadvantages of homo junction semiconductor lasers:
➢ Threshold current density is very large (400 Amp/mm2).
➢ Laser output has large beam divergence.
➢ Poor coherence and poor stability.
(ii) HETERO-JUNCTION SEMI CONDUCTOR LASER:

➢ If junction is formed between p-type & n-type semiconductors of
different materials, it is called as hetero junction semiconductor laser.
➢ The working principle is same for the both homo & hetero junction
semiconductor lasers.
➢ It is shown in fig. it consists of various layers like1, 2, 3, 4 & 5. The laser
emission takes place between 2&4 layers.
➢ The various layers and the corresponding materials used in this type are
mentioned in the figure.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
➢ The working principle is same for the homo and hetero junction diode
laser systems.
➢ The population inversion can be obtained by injecting electrons and
holes into the junction from the n region and the p region respectively
by means of a forward bias voltage.
➢ When small forward bias is given to the pn-junction then small number
of electrons and holes will be injected into the depletion region from
respective regions.
➢ When a relatively large current is passed through the junction then
large number of electrons and holes will be injected into the depletion
region and direct recombination processes take place efficiently.
Further the emitted photons increase the rate of recombinations.
➢ Thus, a greater number of photons produced. Hence the emitted
photons from induced recombination are having the same phase and
frequency as that of original inducing photons.
ADVAN TAGES OF HETERO JUNCTION LASERS:
➢ Threshold current density is very low (10 Amp/mm2) at room
temperature.
➢ Continuous wave operation is possible.
➢ Carrier and optical confinement can be achieved simultaneously.
Thus, more efficient wave-guide structure has been achieved and
hence the beam divergence is reduced.
➢ High output power (10 MW) can be achieved even with low operating
current (<500 m A).
➢ Very narrow beam with high coherence and monochromaticity is
achieved.
➢ It is highly stable with longer life.
Hence these hetero junction laser diodes are used as optical sources in
optical Fiber communication.
❖ APPLICATIONS OF LASERS:
Due to its outstanding characteristics, laser is having a variety of
remarkable importance in different fields of Science and Technology.
1. Laser in communication:
✓ Using laser, it is possible to transmit thousands of television programs to
simultaneously the entire world.
✓ Using laser, it is possible to make communication between the moon
and the earth.
✓ Laser is playing vital role in fibre optical communication systems.
2. Laser in computers:
✓ One can transmit an entire memory bank from one computer to another
using laser.
✓ Laser is used to read the data from CD–ROM’S as well as to print
computer outputs.
3. Laser in chemistry:
✓ With the help of laser, it is possible to investigate the structure of
molecules.
✓ Using laser some chemical reactions can be accelerated.
✓ Using laser, new chemical compounds can be created by breaking
bonds between atoms or molecules.
4. Laser in photography:
✓ Laser can be used to get 3-D lens less photography.
✓ Using interference techniques, it is possible to make holograms with the
help of laser.
5. Laser in industry:
✓ High power laser is used to weld or melt any material. During the
processes of welding no crystal damage occurs.
✓ Using laser, minute holes can be made in the crystals without any
damage in crystal structure, which is highly impossible by a
mechanical drilling.
6. Laser in medicine:
✓ For the treatment of cancerous tissues, skin tumors and for detaching
retina laser is widely used.
✓ CO2 laser is commonly called non-material knife and is widely used in
microsurgery and neurosurgery.
✓ Laser therapy is completely painless and more advisable for children.
✓ Laser is used in endoscopy to scan the inner parts of the stomach.
7. Laser in metrology:
✓ Laser is used for measuring lengths and alignment. It is possible to
measure the distance between any two-space objects.
✓ Using laser interferometer, it is possible to measure a rod of length one
meter with a high degree of accuracy.
✓ Laser can be used in diamond cutting.
8. Laser in military:
✓ Laser can be used for detection and ranging like RADAR. The only
difference is it uses light instead of radio waves. Hence it is called as Light
Detecting and Ranging (LIDAR).
✓ By focusing a highly convergent laser beam on enemy targets at a short
range, vital part of enemy’s body can evaporate. A laser gun can
perform this process.
✓ A laser beam can be used to destroy very big objects like aircrafts,
missiles etc. in a few seconds by directing the laser beam into the target.
Therefore, it is called death ray or war weapon.
Problems: Example.1
A semiconductor diode laser has a peak emission wavelength of 1.55 μm.
Find its band gap in eV?
Sol: Energy gap of semiconductor, Eg = energy of emitted photon (hν)
Wavelength, λ = 1.55 μm = 1.55 × 10–6 m
Energy gap, Eg= ?
UNIT-V
Fiber Optics
Introduction:
❑ Fiber optics is a branch of physics which deals the transmission and
reception of light waves using optical fiber, which acts as a guiding
media.
❑ The transmission of light waves by fiber optics was first demonstrated
by John Tyndal in 1870.
Optical Fiber:-
✓ The optical fiber is a cylindrical wave-guide system which can be
operated at optical frequencies i.e., optical signals can be transmitted
through a fiber over long distances.
✓ Optical Fiber is an optical transmission device which works on the
principle of total internal reflection.
✓ It is playing an important role in the field of communication to transmit
voice, television and digital data signals from one place to another
place.
It has become popular because of the following reasons:
✓ Higher information carrying capacity.
✓ Light in weight, small in size, low cost.
✓ No hazards of short circuits and can safely use in explosive
environments.
✓ No possibility of internal noise and cross talk generation.
✓ Using an optical fiber, 15,000 independent speeches can be sent
simultaneously whereas using a pair of copper wires, only 48
independent speech signals can be sent.
OPTICAL FIBER STRUCTURE AND CONSTRUCTION:
An optical fiber is a very thin, flexible transparent plastic or glass in which
light is transmitted through multiple, total internal reflection.
The Optical fiber mainly consists of six following parts.
1. Core
2. Cladding
3. Silicon coating
4. Buffer jacket
5. Strength Member
6. Outer jacket
1) Core:
✓ The core is usually made of glass or plastic with high refractive index than
the cladding. So, the core acts as a denser medium.
✓ The core is the light-transmitting portion of the fiber i.e. It carries the
signal.
✓ The core of thickness 50µm is surrounded by cladding.
✓ The core is surrounded by cladding.
2) Cladding:
✓ The cladding usually is made of the same material as the core, but with
a slightly lower refractive index than the core. It acts as a rarer medium.
✓ This refractive index difference (i.e. n1> n2) causes total internal reflection
to occur. Thus, the cladding keeps the light within core because n1> n2.
✓ Cladding layer diameter of 125 to 200µm surrounded by a third layer
called the coating.
3) Silicon coating:
✓ Silicon coating is the third layer provided between cladding and buffer
jacket.
✓ It improves the quality of transmission of light.
4) Buffer jacket:
✓ Silicon coating is surrounded by buffer jacket.
✓ It is made up of plastic.
✓ It protects the fiber from damage and moisture.
5) Strength Member:
✓ Buffer jacket is surrounded by Strength member.
✓ It provides strength to the fiber cable.
6) Outer jacket:
✓ Finally, the Fiber optic cable is covered by outer jacket.
✓ This outer jacket provides one last layer of protection and also adds
strength to the fiber.
✓ Because of this arrangement fiber cable will not be damaged during
hard pulling, bending, stretching or rolling the fiber.
❖ PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL FIBER: (Total Internal Reflection)

✓ The principle optical fiber is the total internal reflection.
✓ Consider a denser and rarer media of refraction indices n1 and n2
respectively and n1> n2. The refracted ray bends away from the normal
as it travels from denser to rarer medium.
✓ Let a light ray move from denser to rarer medium with an angle of
incidence ‘i’, then the angle of refraction ‘r’ can be obtained by the
Snell’s law, n1Sin i = n2 sin r
✓ When the angle of incidence is increased then the angle of reflection
also increases.
✓ For a particular angle of incidence (i = θc) the refracted ray travels along
the interface of two mediums. This angle of incidence is known as critical
angle (θc).
✓ Case (1): When i<θc, then the light ray refracts into rarer medium as
shown in fig.1.
✓ Case (2): When i = θc, then the light ray traverses along the interface of
the two media as shown in fig.2.
✓ Case (3): When i>θc, then the light ray will be reflected back into the
denser medium, as shown in fig.3.
✓ Applying Snell’s law, we get n1Sini = n2Sinr
✓ n1Sinθc = n2 Sin90° [ since, i=θc and r= 90°]
✓ n1Sinθc = n2 . 1
✓ n1Sin θc = n2 => sin θc =𝑛𝑛2
1
✓ Therefore, Critical angle, θc = sin-1(𝑛𝑛2 ) where n1>n2

1
✓ When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle (i>θc), the
refracted ray reflects into the same medium. This phenomenon is called
total internal reflection.
❖ CONDITIONS FOR TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:
✓ The light ray should move from denser to rarer medium
✓ The refractive index of core (n1) must be greater than the refractive
index of cladding (n2), i.e., n1> n2
✓ The angle of incidence (i) must be greater than the critical angle (θ c)
i.e., i>θc and the critical angle θc = sin-1(𝑛𝑛2 )
1
❖ Acceptance angle:
Definition: Acceptance angle is defined as the maximum angle of
incidence at the interface of air medium and core medium for which the
light ray enters into the core and travels along the interface of core and
cladding.
✓ Let n0 n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of air, core and cladding
media. Let a light ray OA is incident on the interface of air medium and
core medium with an angle of incidence θ0 then the light ray refracts
into the core medium with an angle of refraction θ1, and the refracted
ray AB is again incident on the interface of core and cladding with an
angle of incident (90° – θ1).
✓ If (90° – θ1) is equal to the critical angle of core and cladding media
then the ray travels along the interface of core and cladding along the
path BC.
✓ If the angle of incident at the interface of air and core θ1 <θ0, then (90° –
θ1) will be greater than the critical angle. Therefore, the total internal
reflection takes place.
According to Snell’s law at point A

n0 sinθ0 = n1sinθ1
𝑛
sinθ0 = 𝑛1sinθ1
0
According to Snell’s law at point B
n1sin(90° – θ1) = n2 sin90°
𝑛
cosθ1=𝑛2
1
sinθ1= √(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1 )

2 2 2
sinθ1= √(1 − 𝑛𝑛22) = √𝑛1𝑛−2𝑛2
1 1
√𝑛2 − 𝑛2 √𝑛21 − 𝑛22

𝑛1 𝑛1 1 2
sinθ0 = 𝑛0
sinθ1 = 𝑛0 𝑛1
= 𝑛
0
√𝑛21 − 𝑛22
sinθ0 = 𝑛0
√𝑛21 − 𝑛22
Acceptance angle, θ0 = sin–1( 𝑛0
).
If the refractive index of the air medium is equal to unity then
Acceptance angle (θ0) = sin–1(√(𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐 )).

❖ Numerical aperture:
Definition: Numerical aperture is defined as the light gathering capacity of
an optical fiber and it is directly proportional to the acceptance angle.
✓ Numerically it is equal to the sin of the acceptance angle.
√𝑛21 − 𝑛22
NA = Sin (Sin–1( 𝑛0
))
√𝑛21 − 𝑛22
NA = 𝑛0
If the refractive index of the air medium is equal to unity then
Numerical aperture (NA) = √(𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐 )

𝑛1 −𝑛2
Fractional change in refractive index Δ = ➔ Δ𝑛1 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝑛1
NA = √(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )
NA = √𝑛1 Δ(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ) (where, 𝑛1 Δ = (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ))
NA =√𝑛1 Δ2𝑛1 (here, 𝑛1 ⁓ 𝑛2 then 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 = 2𝑛1 ))
NA = 𝑛1 √2Δ
The above equation gives a relationship between numerical aperture
and fractional change in relative refractive index.
❖ Acceptance Cone:
The light rays contained within the cone having a full angle 2θmax
are accepted and transmitted along the fiber. Therefore, the cone is
called the acceptance cone.
The cross section of an optical fiber is circular; the light waves
accepted by the core are expressed as a cone.
The rotating acceptance angle about the fiber optic axis form a
cone, known as acceptance cone.
❖ Types of Optical fibers:-

A) Based on the material used, Optical fibers are classified into two
types. They are: 1. Glass fiber and 2. Plastic fiber
(1) Glass fiber:-
These are made by fusing mixtures of metal oxide s and silica glasses.
Examples:-
➢ GeO2- SiO2 core, SiO2 - Cladding
➢ P2O5- SiO2 core, SiO2 - Cladding
➢ SiO2 core, P2O5- SiO2 - Cladding
(2) Plastic fiber:
These are made of plastics. They have low cost, toughness and
durability
Examples:- A polystyrene core (n= 1.60) & a methyl methacrylate
cladding (n=1.49)
B) Based on the number of paths or modes of propagation, the fiber
are classified into two types. They are,
1. Single Mode fibers
2. Multi-Mode fibers
1. Single Mode fibers:
✓ In single mode fibers only one mode of propagation is possible.
✓ In this fiber, the width or diameter of the core is very small.
✓ In this fiber, the width or diameter of the cladding is very large.
✓ In this fiber, no dispersion takes place. So that power loss is very
less.
✓ These are more suitable for communication.
✓ These are costly, because the fabrication is difficult.
✓ The process of launching of light into fiber is difficult.
✓ Joining of two single mode fibers is not easy.
✓ It can carry information to longer distances.
2. Multi-Mode Optical fibers:-
✓ In multi-mode fibers many number of modes of propagation are
possible.
✓ In this fiber, the diameter of core is very large.
✓ In this fiber diameter of cladding is very small.
✓ In this fiber, dispersion is large.
✓ These are not costly, because fabrication method is easy.
✓ The process of launching the light into these fibers is easy.
✓ Joining of two multimode fibers is easy.
✓ Information can be carried to shorter distances only.
C) Based on the variation of refractive index of core, the fibers are

classified into two types. They are: 1.Step index fiber and 2.Graded
index fiber
1. Step-index Optical fibers:-
In a step index optical fiber, the refractive index of the core remains
constant throughout the core and decreases from step n1 to n2 at the
core cladding interface.
Since the index profile is in the form of a step, these fibers are called
step index fibers.
The diameter of the core is about 50–200µm for multimode and 8–
10µm for single mode fibers.
It is called as Step-index fiber. The transmission of information will be in
the form of signals or pulses.
There are two types of Step Index Optical Fibers
i). Single-mode Step index fiber and ii). Multimode-Step index fiber
i). Single-mode Step index fiber:-
In this fiber, a single light ray from the signal enters into the fiber and
traverse as a single path and forms the output signal. In this fiber signal
distortion is very low.
ii). Multimode-Step index fiber:-

In this fiber due to large width of core, greater number of light rays
from the input signals enter into the core and takes multi-paths, as
shown in the figure. The light ray1 which makes greater angle with the
fiber axis suffers more reflections through the fiber and takes more
time to traverse the optical fiber, whereas the light ray2 makes less
angle with axis, suffers less number of reflections and within a short
time, it traverses the optical fiber.
At the output end we receive ray2 first and later we get ray1. Due to
the path difference between the light rays, we get signal distortion.
It is difficult to retrieve the information carried by the output signal. In
this fiber, the propagation of light ray is due to multiple reflections, so it
is of reflective type.
2. Graded Index Optical fiber:-
In this fiber, the refractive index of the core decreases from the fiber
axis to the cladding interface in a parabolic manner. This fiber is of
refractive type.
This fiber also divided into two types:-
i). Single mode-Graded index fiber
ii).Multimode-Graded index fiber
i). Single mode-Graded index fiber:
When light ray enters into the core and moves towards the cladding
interface, it encounters a more & more rarer medium due to
decrease of refractive index. As a result, the light ray bends more
away from the normal and finally bends towards the axis and moves
the core-cladding interface at the bottom. Again it bends in the
upward direction. Thus, the light due to refraction takes sinusoidal
paths.
ii). Multimode-Graded index fiber:

When two light rays 1&2 making different angles with the axis enters
into the fiber, they travel with different velocities in different paths due
to variation in their refraction indices and come to focus at the same
point. As a result, all the light rays will be received at the output end at
the same time. It is easy to retrieve the information from the signal.
❖ Drawing of Optical Fiber or Double-Crucible method:
There are several methods to fabricate moderate-to-low loss
waveguide fibers they are:
✓ Modified chemical vapor deposition (MCVD),
✓ Outside vapor deposition (OVD), and
✓ Vapor axial deposition (VAD).
✓ Low loss fibers are mostly manufactured by using double crucible
and vapor phase deposition method.
✓ The double-crucible method is the common direct melt
procedure.
Double Crucible method is a method of fabricating an Optical Wave
guide by melting the core and clad glasses in two suitably joined
concentric crucibles and then drawing a fiber from the combined
melted glass.
✓ Highly purified glass powders of various refractive indices are fed
into the inner crucible for the core and in the outer crucible for
cladding.
✓ Glass rods are used for feeding the materials into the crucibles.
✓ Silica crucibles are normally used in preparing the glass feed rods.
✓ The double concentric crucibles are made from platinum.
✓ The assembly is usually located in a muffle furnace capable of
heating the crucible contents to a temperature of between 800
and 1200°C.
✓ The electric furnace is switched on and the materials are heated
to very high temperature.
✓ The material goes to molten state and the material starts squeezing
through the orifice (opening) in the bottom of the crucible.
✓ Now the core material will start diffusing into cladding material to form
an optical fiber in a continuous production process.
✓ The fiber is drawn through the bottom surface of the crucible and
dopant such as thallium with high rate of diffusion in silica is used to
maintain the difference in refractive index.
✓ Although this method has the advantage of being a continuous
process (both melting and drawing), careful attention must be paid
to avoid contaminants during the melting.
✓ The main sources of contamination arise from the furnace
environment and from the crucible.
✓ This method has disadvantage of obtaining and maintaining
extremely pure glass which limits their ability to produce low loss fibers.
❖ Losses in Optical Fiber or Attenuation in Optical Fiber :-

When light propagates through an optical fiber, then the power of
light at the output end is found to be always less than the power
launched at the input end. The loss of power is called attenuation.
Attenuation:-
Attenuation is defined as the reduction in the signal strength or power
when it is transmitted through an optical fiber. It is measured in terms
of decibels per kilometer.
It is defined as the ratio of the optical power output (Pout) from a fiber
of length “L” to the power input (Pin).
i.e., Attenuation (α) = -10/L. Log [Pin /Pout] dB/km
When light propagates through an optical fiber, a small percentage
of light is lost through different mechanisms they are,
(1) Absorption losses (2) Scattering losses
(3) Bending losses (4) Dispersion losses
(1) Absorption losses:-The absorption of light by core and cladding
materials of a fiber during wave propagation is the main reason for this
type of attenuation. The absorption of light is caused by the following
different mechanisms.
(i) Atomic imperfections or defects: The Atomic imperfections or
defects in the atomic structure of fiber materials is due to the
missing of molecules, high density cluster of atoms, or oxygen
defects.
(ii) Intrinsic absorption: Intrinsic absorption is a natural property of fiber
materials (usually of core material which is a glass). The intrinsic
absorption due to its basic material structure.
(iii) Extrinsic absorption: The presence of impurities in the fiber
material is a major source of loss in fibers. Generally we use
dopants (or) impurities in silica to modify its refractive index. These
impurities create unacceptable losses.
(2) Scattering losses:-Scattering is a wavelength dependent loss, which
occurs inside the fibers. This type of losses arises due to the random
variations in the refractive index inside the fiber. As a result, if light is
passed through the atoms in the fiber, a portion of light is scattered.
Scattering losses are of two types:
(i) Linear Scattering losses: Linear scattering mechanism causes when
some or all of the optical power contained within one propagating
mode is the transferred linearly into a different mode. It must be
noted that there is no change in the frequency on linear
scattering.
(ii) Non-Linear Scattering losses: It is observed that optical
waveguides do not always behave as completely linear channels.
Non-linear scattering mechanism causes when the output power
does not increase in the proportion of the input power.
(3) Bending losses:- Bending losses occur due to the deformations
present in the fiber structure. There are two types of bending losses:
(i) Micro bending losses: These losses occur when the core surface
has small variations in shape. These variations change the angle at
which light strikes the core-cladding interface and can cause the
light to refract into the cladding rather than reflect into the core.
(ii) Macro bending losses: Macro bending losses depend on the core
radius and the bend radius. For slight bends, the loss is extremely
small. As the radius of curvature decreases the loss increases
exponentially.
(4) Dispersion losses:-Dispersion loss is defined as the spreading of light
pulse as it travels along the length of the fiber causing the pulses to
overlap and thus making the pulses undetectable at the receiving end.
There are two types of dispersion losses:
(i) Intra-modal Dispersion: Intra-modal (or) chromic dispersion occur
in all types of fibers. It further divided into two categories.
a. Materials dispersion: Every laser source has a range of optical
wavelengths. The refractive index of silica is different for different
wavelengths of wave. Hence, different spectra components of an
optical pulse have different speeds which lead the pulse to spread
out in time after travelling some distance in the fiber.
b. Wave guide dispersion: In general, wave guide dispersion can occur
for waves propagating through any inhomogeneous structure.
Wave guide dispersion depends strongly on the core diameter
(increase with decrease in core diameter) and on the fiber distance
(increases with distance).
(ii) Intermodal Dispersion: Intermodal Dispersion occurs due to the
propagation delay differences between the propagating modes in a
multi-mode fiber. The higher order modes travel a longer distance
and arrive at the receiver end later than the lower order modes.
Hence, different modes have different group velocities. The effect of
intermodal dispersion can be reduced by taking the parabolic
refractive index profile, as it is in the case of a graded index fiber.
❖ Differences between single mode and multi-mode fibers:
Single Mode Fiber Multi-Mode Fiber
In single mode optical fibers only one In multi-mode optical fibers many
mode of propagation is possible mummer of modes of propagation
are possible.
In this fiber, the width or diameter of In this fiber, the diameter of core is
the core is very small. very large.
In this fiber, the width or diameter of In this fiber diameter of cladding is
the cladding is very large. very small.
The difference between the refractive The difference between the refractive
indices of core and cladding is very indices of core and cladding is also
small. large compared to the single mode
fibers
In single mode fibers there is no Due to multi-mode transmission, the
dispersion, so these are more suitable dispersion is large, so these fibers are
for communication. not used for communication purposes.
The process of launching of light into The process of launching of light into
single mode fibers is very difficult single mode fibers is very easy.
Fabrication is very difficult and the Fabrication is very easy and the fiber is
fiber is costly. cheaper.
❖ Differences between step index fibers and graded index fibers:
Step Index Fiber Graded Index Fiber
In step index fibers the refractive index In graded index fibers, the refractive
of the core medium is uniform through index of the core medium is varying in
and undergoes an abrupt change at the parabolic manner such that the
the interface of core and cladding. maximum refractive index is present at
the center of the core.
The diameter of core is about The diameter of the core is about 50
10micrometers in case of single mode micro meters.
fiber and 50 to 200 micrometers in multi-
mode fiber.
The transmitted optical signal will cross The transmitted optical signal will never
the fiber axis during every reflection at cross the fiber axis at any time.
the core cladding boundary.
The shape of propagation of the optical The shape of propagation of the optical
signal is in zigzag manner. signal appears in the helical or spiral
manner
Attenuation is more for multi-mode step Attenuation is very less in graded index
index fibers but Attenuation is less in fibers
single mode step index fibers
Numerical aperture is more for multi- Numerical aperture is less in graded
mode step index fibers but it is less in index fibers
single mode step index fibers
It is of reflective type It is of refractive type
No focusing of light rays takes place. Focusing of light rays takes place
❖ Application of Optical fibers:-
Communication:
✓ Due to high band width, light can transmit information at a higher rate
up to 1014 to 1015 Hz than radio or micro frequencies.
✓ For Long distance signal transmission.
✓ It is used to transmit the audio or video signals and digital or analog
signal through the fiber.
✓ It is used in under water communication networks.
✓ Also, an optical fibre-based communication system has a significantly
large bandwidth, fewer chances of signal degradation, provides high
data security, is comparatively cost-effective, and consumes lesser
power.
Medical field:
Endoscope: It is an optical instrument used to see the internal parts of
human body. Based on application endoscopes are classified into:
✓ Gastro scope: It is used to examine the stomach.
✓ Broncho scope: It is used to see upper passages of lungs.
✓ Ortho scope: It is used to see the small spaces or fractures within joints.
✓ Couldoscope: It is used to test female pelvic organs.
✓ Peritoneoscope: It is used to test the abdominal cavity, lower parts of
liver and gall bladder.
Surgery:
✓ In surgical applications, optical fibres tend to emit a bright light that
helps light up the target surgery area and improves vision for the
doctors and medical personnel, thereby reducing the number and the
depth of the incisions.
Fairy Lights:
✓ Fairy lights and other decorative items also make use of optical fibres.
The advantages of using optical fibres for lighting and decoration
purposes include minimum chances of signal leakage and electric
shocks, lightweight, flexibility, affordable cost, long life span, etc. Also,
optical fibre based lighting and decorative items are comparatively
safer and economical.
Sensing applications (Fiber optic sensors):
✓ Sensors are devices used to measure or monitor quantities such as
displacement, pressure, temperature, flow rate, liquid level, chemical
composition etc.
✓ Ex:- Displacement sensor, Pressure sensor, Temperature sensor etc.
Defense:
✓ Used as hydrophones for seismic waves, Lidar and SONAR, as wiring in
aircraft, submarines and other vehicles and also for field networking.
Telecommunications:
✓ Fiber is laid and used for transmitting and receiving purposes
Internet
✓ Optical fibres are capable of transmitting a large amount of data from
one place to other in relatively less duration of time.
✓ The high data transmission speed, flexibility, light-weight nature, and
ability to carry bulk data easily make optical fibres suitable to be used
in internet cables in place of traditional copper wires.
Networking:
✓ Used to connect users and servers in a variety of network settings and
help increase the speed and accuracy of data transmission.
Industrial/Commercial:
✓ Used for imaging in hard to reach areas, as wiring where EMI is an
issue, as sensory devices to make temperature, pressure and other
measurements, and as wiring in automobiles and in industrial settings.
✓ For instance, in case of an accident, the network of optical fibres can
be used to transmit the signal generated by the collision detector or
sensor to the internal circuitry of the vehicle and helps quickly activate
the traction control and airbag system.
✓ Using optical fibres for communication among different parts of a
vehicle is advantageous as the optical signal travels at the speed of
light, thereby improving the response time of the control systems.
Broadcast:
✓ Broadcast/cable companies are using fiber optic cables for wiring
CATV (community antenna television), HDTV, internet, video on-
demand and other applications.

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UNIT-I

Crystallography and Crystal Defects

Difference between crystalline and amorphous solids

Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

Crystal: A crystal is a three dimensional body, which is made up of regular and

Lattice: The periodic arrangement of points is called lattice.

Space Lattice: It is defined as an array of points in three dimensional space

Figure 2. Space lattice

Basis and crystal structure:

Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

Figure 4.Unit Cell

Unit Cell Parameters:

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Figure 6. Unit Cell parameters

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Fig.7 Seven Crystal Systems

6. Monoclinic a≠b≠c α=β=90°≠ γ FeSO4, CaSO4.2H2O,

Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

1. Cubic crystal structure: (P, I, F)

Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

Crystal System Unit Cell Types of No. of Examples

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Fig. Lattice Directions

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Fig. Lattice Planes

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Significance/ importance of Miller Indices:

Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

❖ Diffraction of X-rays by crystal:

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Fig. Reflection of X-rays from the crystal planes

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X-ray diffraction methods:

❖ Powder X-ray Diffraction method (Powder method / Debye Scherer Method) :

Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

Fig. Vacancy defect.

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Fig. Schottky defect.

(b) Interstitial defect:

Fig. Interstitial defect.

• A Frenkel defect is the combination of interstitial defect i.e.

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(c) Compositional defects:

(i) Substitutional impurity:

Fig. Substitutional impurity.

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Fig. Interstitial impurity.

(d) Electronic defects:

Fig. Electronic defect.

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F = nEv – KBT [log N! – log (N-n)! – log n!]

Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

If n<<N then N-n ≈ N

Where ‘n’ represents the number of vacancies created in the crystal.

Department Of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College.

We know that, S = KB log P ----------------- (3)

Here, Ep is the energy of formation of a pair of ion vacancies.

The number of Schottky defects increase exponentially with increase of