j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 5 1 7 7 e5 1 9 2

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Investigation of microstructure and mechanical

properties in dissimilar-metal welding between
ferritic stainless steel and Co-based superalloy
using electron beam welding

Xin Wen a,b, Shuai Liu a, Xinyu Gao a,b, Bing Zhang a,b,
Yongqiang Wang a,b, Yipeng Chen a,b, Shichang Qiao a,b,
Fengzhen Wang a,b, Na Li a,b, Yuanbao Shi a,**, Chao Yuan a,b,*
a
Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 72
Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
b
School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, 72 Wenhua Road,
Shenyang 110016, PR China

article info abstract

Article history: This research investigates the relationship between the microstructure and mechanical
Received 20 June 2023 properties of electron beam welding joints, with a particular emphasis on the influence of
Accepted 26 August 2023 varying electron beam currents on AISI 410L stainless steel plates and NS163 Co-based
Available online 29 August 2023 superalloy wires, which is a rare and novel form of welding. An increase in beam cur-
rent led to a gradual transformation of the weld microstructure from columnar to equiaxed
Keywords: grains, creating finer and more homogeneous grains. Macrosegregation was also observed,
Dissimilar-metal welding a consequence of the liquidus temperature difference between the weld metal (WM) and
Stainless steel base metal (BM). The segregation structure exhibited irregularly shaped beaches near the
Co-based superalloy fusion line and islands of unmixed and partially mixed NS163 within the WM. This phe-
Electron beam welding nomenon was more pronounced in samples with a lower beam current. Given the limi-
Nanoindentation tations in BM shape and WM size, nanoindentation was employed to characterize the
strength of welded joints. In conjunction with microhardness measurements, it was
confirmed that the weld is strengthened under different electron beam currents, with
higher current resulting in a more significant strengthening effect. This study also un-
derscores the value of nanoindentation in evaluating the weld strength of brush seals
without destruction.
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

* Corresponding author. School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, 72 Wenhua
Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China.
** Corresponding author. School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, 72 Wenhua
Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China.
E-mail addresses: shiyuanbao@imr.ac.cn (Y. Shi), ychao@imr.ac.cn (C. Yuan).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.08.254
2238-7854/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
5178 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 5 1 7 7 e5 1 9 2
1. Introduction
As an avant-garde approach within the sphere of next-
generation sealing solutions, brush seals have demonstrated
substantial effectiveness in mitigating leakage, enhancing
overall efficiency, and bolstering rotor stability. These attri-
butes have spurred their widespread adoption in turboma-
chinery, spanning aviation engines, industrial gas turbines,
and steam turbines [1,2]. The structure of a brush seal com-
prises a front panel, a rear panel, and densely arranged brush
wires sandwiched between these panels. These wires are
primarily crafted from Co-based superalloys, recognized for
their low brittleness, exceptional toughness, and superior
weldability, ensuring their durability throughout operation.
Additionally, AISI 410L stainless steel is widely utilized due to
its outstanding bending properties, ductility, efficient thermal
conductivity, and resistance to high-temperature oxidation
[3]. Leveraging the impressive characteristics of these mate-
rials, electron beam welding (EBW) is enlisted to fuse Co-based
superalloys with AISI 410L. This technique engenders a solid-
state bond between metals, obviating the requirement for
additional materials or melting processes, thereby circum-
venting certain drawbacks and constraints inherent in tradi-
tional methodologies [4e6]. The utilization of this technique
across a range of materials including steel [7], titanium alloy
[8], aluminum alloy [9], superalloy [10], and others has
attracted escalating attention.
Nevertheless, during the welding of disparate metals,
unique microstructures may form due to differences in the
thermal properties of the base metals (BMs), leading to dis-
parities in the mechanical properties of the weldment [11e15].
Shakil [12] successfully applied optimized welding parameters
to achieve electron beam welding of Inconel 625 and SS 304L
alloys, disclosing two distinct structures-columnar dendrites
and cellular dendrites-in the fusion zone following welding.
Shamanian [13] executed EBW on Inconel 617 and AISI 310
alloys, revealing significant heat-affected zone (HAZ) expan-
sion due to severe thermal cycling. AISI 310 alloy exhibited
epitaxial growth near the fusion line, while this phenomenon
was absent on one side of Inconel 617. Liu [15] detected
layered structures at the welded joint of heterogeneous steel,
echoing findings by Yang [16e18] and Wang [19,20]. These
unorthodox structures were classified as macrosegregation
Fig. 1 e Assembly of AISI 410L stainless steel and NS163 Co-based superalloy: (a) original photograph; (b) schematic
illustration of the welding method.
[21]. Soysal [22] ascribed the formation of macrosegregation in
FeeCu dissimilar welded joints to discrepancies in liquidus
temperature between BM and weld metal (WM). Wang [23]
proposed that the macrosegregation near the fusion line pri-
marily arises from heat flux and element diffusion during
welding.
The research mentioned above predominantly pertains to
welding between two plates. For the welding of plates and
wires used in brush seals, Ding [24] explored the microstruc-
ture evolution of AISI 410 and W-rich Co-based superalloys
post-welding and throughout various aging treatments,
without assessing performance. Previous studies [25,26] have
shown that macrosegregation is commonplace in dissimilar
metal welding and can significantly undermine the strength,
toughness, corrosion resistance, and other properties of wel-
ded joints. Currently, most weld performance evaluations
involve tests like tensile and impact testing [13,23,27e33].
However, these tests are complex and limited by the size and
shape of the weld joint, making them unsuitable for evalu-
ating the performance of brush seal samples. The recent
evolution of the nanoindentation technique [34e37,37e39]
presents a new pathway for thorough analysis of composite
materials at the micro and nanoscales. Carlsson [35,36]
employed nanoindentation testing in tandem with theoretical
and numerical analysis methods to ascertain residual stress
and strain fields. Sawant [39] carried out nanoindentation
studies on the hardness and modulus of <001> and <110>
orientation Ni-based single-crystal superalloy CMSX-4 within
the range of 303e673 K, yielding values consistent with pre-
vious reports. Dao [37] developed a comprehensive algorithm
to compute properties from load-depth curves. Based on this
theory, an increasing number of studies have successfully
predicted the stress-strain behaviors of stainless steel [27,40],
Q&P steel [38], and high entropy alloys [41]. However, the
scope of application of this theory remains to be expanded.
To date, the primary focus on Co-based superalloys has
been their wear resistance, with scant research conducted on
their weldability. As a component of brush seals, the com-
bined method involving wire and plate welding has also been
seldom investigated in existing studies. This situation has
resulted in performance characterization being limited by is-
sues such as the small size of the weldment and difficulties
associated with sampling. In light of these challenges, this
study joins an AISI 410L stainless steel plate and NS163 Co-
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 5 1 7 7 e5 1 9 2
Table 1 e Chemical compositions of AISI 410L and NS163 (wt.%).
C Fe Cr Ni
AISI 410L 0.02 Bal. 12.00 0.10
NS163 0.09 21.60 26.92 8.02
based superalloy wire using EBW. The objective of the current
work is to utilize advanced techniques and theories, like
scanning electron microscopy with electron backscatter
diffraction, microhardness testing, and nanoindentation
analysis, to conduct a comprehensive investigation into the
microstructural evolution mechanism and its correlation with
the mechanical properties of the weld under two distinct
electron beam currents. Ultimately, the reliability of nano-
indentation in characterizing stainless steel and Co-based
superalloy weld joints is discussed, thereby providing a
theoretical foundation for subsequent performance studies.
2. Experimental procedures
2.1. Methods and process parameters of EBW
The welding study employed AISI 410L stainless steel,
configured as an 8 mm thick plate, and NS163 Co-based su-
peralloy, fashioned into a 0.5 mm diameter wire, as depicted
in Fig. 1(a). The respective chemical compositions of these
materials are detailed in Table 1. The welding method was
chosen with the operational conditions of the brush seal in
mind, as shown in Fig. 1(b). A groove, approximately 1 mm
thick, was meticulously carved into the interior of the AISI
410L plate. Subsequently, NS163 wires were inserted longitu-
dinally into the groove. A process of chemical cleansing was
carried out prior to the welding. Thereafter, electron beams
were directed laterally to facilitate the fusion of the two alloys.
This was achieved using EBW equipment, operated under a
range of parameters which are outlined in Table 2.
2.2. Measurement of microstructure and mechanical
properties
After welding, cross-sections of the two groups of samples
were cut by wire-electrode cutting, followed by mechanical
grinding and polishing to achieve a mirror finish. The micro-
structure of the samples was revealed using Kalling's reagent
(100 ml HCl þ 100 ml C2H5OH þ 5 g CuCl2). Moreover, the op-
tical microscope (OM, Zeiss Observe Z1m) and scanning elec-
tron microscope (SEM, FEI Quanta 600) equipped with energy
dispersive spectrometer (EDS) was utilized at 20 kV to observe
the metallographic structure and element distribution. The
Table 2 e The welding parameters of EBW.
Sample Accelerating Beam Heat Welding
voltage (kV) current input (J/ speed (m/s)
(mA) m)
1 110.00 12.00 9.90  105 1.33  102
2 110.00 14.50 1.20  106 1.33  102
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Ti Nb Si Al Co V Mn
e e 0.60 e e 0.10 0.20
0.96 1.04 0.16 0.35 Bal. e e
electron backscatter diffraction analysis (EBSD) was con-
ducted with the voltage of 20 kV and step size of 0.5 mm. The
samples for the EBSD study were prepared following the
standard metallographic polishing techniques, which include
grounding up to 2000# SiC emery paper and subsequently
cloth polished with 2.5 mm diamond solution. The samples
were further polished for 9 h by 50 nm colloidal silica sus-
pension. The results were analyzed using Channel 5. Micro-
beam X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was carried out with a
Rigaku SmartLab SE with Cu Ka radiation to identify the
phases in the WMs of the two groups of samples. Scintilation
counter detector was used with a scan range of 10e90 and
scan rate of 2 $min1.
The Vickers microhardness tests were conducted by
traversing a line through the WM of both plate and wire at
regular intervals of 100 mm, with a loading force of 0.5 kg for
20 s at ambient temperature. Nanoindentation was utilized as
an alternative mean for assessing strength. The measure-
ments were performed on the Agilent G200 instrument
equipped with a Berkovich diamond indenter. During the
tests, load control was applied with a maximum load of
100 mN. Fig. 2(a) illustrates the load-depth (P-h) curves of an
elasto-plastic material subjected to instrumented sharp
indentation, with a loading, holding and unloading time of
20 s selected. To minimize errors, no less than five points were
taken in each micro-region including BM, HAZ and WM of the
two groups of samples. Subsequently, reverse analysis algo-
rithms (RAA) and dimensional analysis methods (DAM), as
proposed by Dao [37], were employed to unveil the stress-
strain curves of samples with different beam currents. Each
result is an average of 5 samples with a confidence level of
0.95.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microstructural characterization of base metal
The OM and SEM images corresponding to 410L stainless steel
and NS163 superalloy are displayed in Fig. 3. The ferrite matrix
of 410L exhibits an average grain size of 50 ± 20 mm. Black
cementite, partially following the grain boundary, is also
observable [3] as demonstrated in Fig. 3(a). Conversely, the
austenitic microstructure of NS163 features equiaxed grains
with an average size of 15 ± 10 mm, notably smaller than that
of 410L. SEM analysis uncovers a substantial number of bright
precipitates scattered along the grain boundaries and the
intragranular regions, as depicted in Fig. 3(b). EDS analysis
verifies these precipitates as carbides composed of Ti and Nb,
as referenced in Table 4. The interplay of various factors, such
as grain size, strengthening elements, and precipitates, not
only secures the remarkable mechanical properties of the
NS163 alloy but improves its weldability [11].
5180 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 5 1 7 7 e5 1 9 2

Fig. 2 e Schematics of: (a) P-h curves obtained from instrumented sharp indentation on an elasto-plastic material; (b)
Berkovich indentation with pile-up effect; (c) the power law elasto-plastic stress-stain behavior exhibited by the intended
material.

3.2. Microstructural characterization of dissimilar Ni/Cr (%) in 410L * x þ Ni/Cr (%) in NS163 * (1-x) ¼ Ni/Cr (%) in
welded joints WM (1)

Fig. 4 exhibits the cross-sectional morphology of the weld for
the two beam currents. The base metals (BMs) and weld
metals (WMs) were separately etched to unveil their respec-
tive structures, revealing a pin-shaped weld devoid of any
visible cracks post-welding. An increase in the electron beam
current results in a higher aspect ratio of the weld seam [42].
Nonetheless, a significant discrepancy in microstructure is
evident between the two groups of samples. A comprehensive
analysis of the weld's structure and performance necessitates
an initial determination of its phase composition. The phase
that forms in the WM through fusion of dissimilar alloys is
dependent on their dilution ratio [43]. A microchemical anal-
ysis was conducted at 10 arbitrary points within the WM using
EDS, with an average subsequently calculated to ascertain the
primary content of the main substitutional elements (Cr, Ni).
The results for the two groups of samples are tabulated in
Table 4. The microchemical compositions of the two groups of
samples serve to calculate the fraction of weld dilution from
each BM. This is achieved through a mass balance equation,
denoted as Eq. (1), under the assumption that no filler metal is
introduced during the welding process.
where x is the 410L fraction of mixing [43]. Based on the
composition listed in Table 3, the value of ‘x’ can be estimated
using Eq. (1) to be 0.90 of Sample 1 and 0.78 of Sample 2.
Therefore, the dilution ratio of 410L to NS163 in the WM is
determined to be 9 : 1 and 7 : 2 of Sample 1 and 2, respectively.
Subsequently, calculate the mean composition of WMs based
on the dilution ratio as illustrated in Table 5. The impact of
two distinct beam currents is reflected in the element content
of WM, particularly Fe, Co, Cr and Ni. As the beam current
increases, so does electron beam energy and penetration
ability. This intensifies agitation within the molten pool [33],
resulting in more uniform mixing of elements. Consequently,
under the higher beam current there is a noticeable increase
in Co, Ni and Cr elements from NS163 while Fe decreases.
The relationship between carbon content and organiza-
tional evolution can be observed through the pseudo-binary
diagram shown in Fig. 5. For the samples in this study,
calculated and listed in Table 5 as 0.02 and 0.03 respectively,
indicates that the microstructure evolution during solidifica-
tion can be summarized as follows: L / L þ d / d / g þ d / a
/ a þ C1. At the lower carbon content, the WM consists

Fig. 3 e Microstructural characterization of BMs by different means: (a) OM of 410L; (b) SEM of NS163.
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Table 3 e Energy dispersion spectrum analysis of NS163
in Fig. 2(b) (wt.%).
Spectrum Element
C Ti Cr Fe Co Nb
1 0.09 1.01 28.09 22.10 40.97 13.90
2 2.12 39.43 1.55 e 1.54 55.36
entirely of ferrite (d) at high temperatures. Upon rapid cooling,
some of the high-temperature ferrite is retained while
austenite (g) transforms into martensite (a0 ), resulting in
mixed structures of ferrite and martensite in the WM.
The XRD scanning ranges are circled with dotted lines in
Fig. 4 and the patterns are shown in Fig. 6. It can be observed
that the WMs of the two groups of samples are mainly
composed of BCC structural phases. The peak locations are
similar to those of 2205DSS/Q235 welding seam, which was
investigated and confirmed the presence of martensite in the
weld using XRD and subsequent TEM by Du [44]. Therefore, it
can indirectly prove the existence of martensite in this study.
It is worth noting that the presence of the (111) peak in
Sample 1 does not prove the presence of an FCC phase in the
WM, but can be interpreted as the scanning area contains
NS163-BM of the FCC structure which is limited by the size of
samples.
Based on the results of XRD, the discussion on the micro-
structural evolution during solidification becomes reasonable.
Fig. 7 depicts the microstructure of Sample 1, revealing that
the crystalline structure of WM in the 410L is primarily
composed of columnar grains growing perpendicular to the
fusion line and equiaxed grains located at its center as shown
in Fig. 7(a). Observation at higher magnifications, as shown in
Fig. 7(b), reveals that the HAZ grains on both sides of the 410L
are connected to columnar grains, indicating continuous grain
boundaries at the fusion zone. However, this is not observed
in the WM at NS163, as depicted in Fig. 7(c). An EDS line scan
across the WM at NS163 intuitively illustrates differences in
Fig. 4 e Macrostructure of the two groups of samples: (a) Sample 1; (b) Sample 2.
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Fe, Co, Cr and Ni content between the WM and BM, as shown
in Fig. 7(d). However, as the electron beam hits 410L first, the
chemical composition and lattice type of both WM and HAZ
are similar. The grains in HAZ serve as a pre-existing surface
Ni for WM crystallization, allowing it to attach to the BM with
7.74 minimal subcooling and grow against the direction of heat
e flow [32]. This leads to the development of columnar grains
with a strong directional orientation, known as epitaxial
growth, which has been previously documented in the EBW
studies on Inconel 617 and AISI 310 steel [13].
The micromorphology during solidification is dependent
on the degree of component supercooling at the solid-liquid
interface frontier, which in turn is correlated with both tem-
perature gradient G and solidification rate R as said frontier.
Generally speaking, a smaller value of G/R indicates a greater
degree of subcooling for the component, thereby promoting
equiaxed grain formation [7,43]. The solidification behavior of
the molten pool is closely related to the weld structure, as
illustrated in Fig. 8. In regions near the center of the weld
where supercooling is significant and temperature gradient is
small, equiaxed grains are formed due to a low G/R value [32].
From the welding boundary to the central regions, grains grow
towards the center of the molten pool in response to tem-
perature gradients. This results in epitaxial growth and the
formation of long columnar grains.
The microstructure of Sample 2 differs significantly from
that of Sample 1, as illustrated in Fig. 9. The increase in beam
current results in a higher welding heat input, which creates
sufficient undercooling and nucleation conditions at the
crystallization front [33]. Furthermore, with regard to metal-
lurgical factors, the content of Ti and Nb in Sample 2 shown in
Table 4 has more than doubled compared to Sample 1. These
alloying elements, which have a tendency to form high-
melting-point particles, can facilitate non-spontaneous
nucleation during the solidification process of the molten
pool and significantly refine the grain structure [13,43]. Due to
the aforementioned factors, columnar grain formation is
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Table 4 e Energy dispersion spectrum analysis in the WM of the two groups of samples (wt.%).
Element Spectrum
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Average
Sample 1 Cr 12.63 11.99 14.26 14.66 12.84 13.90 13.89 13.56 12.63 13.30 13.37
Ni 0.49 1.10 0.86 0.45 0.49 0.03 e 0.89 1.02 e 0.53
Sample 2 Cr 16.21 15.78 14.61 15.85 14.45 15.38 13.94 15.19 15.42 16.43 15.33
Ni 1.51 2.09 1.88 1.02 1.63 2.32 1.62 0.10 0.47 2.18 1.48

inhibited in the WM during cooling and instead fine mixed
grains are formed at a faster cooling rate [7]. The resulting
microstructure exhibits even distribution throughout, as
depicted in Fig. 8(a). Therefore, there is no evidence of
epitaxial growth near the fusion line, which is confirmed by
Fig. 9(b) and (c). Similar to Sample 1, the EDS line scan
decomposition results depicted in Fig. 9(d) also exhibit dis-
parities in the distribution of major alloy elements between
the WM and BM. Furthermore, at the higher beam current, the
stirring effect [33] within the molten pool of Sample 2 is more
pronounced, resulting in a more homogeneous element
mixing.
Fig. 10 displays the inverse pole figure (IPF) and phase map
of the samples in the 410L-weld and NS163-weld, respectively.
In Fig. 10(a) and (b), for the WM at NS163 of Sample 1, it is
presumed that dissimilar welds exhibit columnar grains on
the ferritic stainless steel side and equiaxed grains on the
austenitic superalloy side due to differences in thermal con-
ductivity characteristics between materials [7]. When ferritic
steels possess high thermal conductivity, the temperature
gradient in the mixed molten pool adjacent to the ferritic steel
side becomes significant. This results in a higher likelihood of
columnar grain growth at an equivalent cooling rate
compared to austenitic alloys. For Sample 2, the IPF results
depicted in Fig. 10(d) and (e) suggest that the WM at 410L and
NS163 exhibits a lath-like morphology, which are indicative of
its microstructural evolution. Therefore, a comprehensive
characterization of the WM is presented in Fig. 11.
From the SEM image presented in Fig. 11(a), discernible
martensitic structures (a0 ) are observed, characterized by
blocks of martensite formed from laths that are parallelly
aligned to each other and packets of martensite configured by
parallel blocks which share a common habit plane with the
prior-g grain [42]. The emergence of martensite has been
confirmed by XRD in Fig. 6. In addition, a small portion of d-
ferrite is localized in the selected area (marked with a red line).
This can be attributed to the phase transformation of WM
during rapid solidification, namely L / L þ d / d / d þ g /
a' þ d þ g [15]. Consequently, the aforementioned structures
are formed, and the EBSD results illustrate the IPF, band
contrast (BC) and kernel average misorientation (KAM) of WM
as depicted in Fig. 11(b)e(d). KAM measures the
misorientation of a given point related to its neighbors,
wherein, blue represents misorientation at small angles, and
red represents misorientation at large angles [4]. Therefore, it
can be utilized for assessing residual stresses in the welded
joints. The microstructure of WM exhibits lath-shaped grains
with varying sizes as can be seen from Fig. 11(b) and (c), while
the KAM map reveals a uniform distribution of residual stress.
As evident from Fig. 11(d), certain lath-like structures exhibit a
greater degree of orientation distribution, indicating their
martensitic nature resulting from the rapid cooling process
during which austenite transforms into martensite. The
dissimilarity in specific heat capacity and volume alteration
between these two phases leads to significant residual stress
upon martensitic transformation [45].
3.3. Formation of macrosegregation in welds
In the phase maps depicted in Fig. 10(c) and (f), notable mac-
rosegregation is observed within the WM at the NS163 inter-
face. In these representations, the blue regions signify the BCC
structure of the WM, while the red regions correspond to the
FCC structure of NS163. Notably, discernible areas of unmixed
NS163 zones are observed within the WM. These zones take on
a morphological manifestation, appearing as irregularly shaped
"beaches" adjacent to the fusion line, or island-like structures
located near these beaches and within the molten pool.
Prior research [15,20] has extensively explored macro-
segregation concerning the liquid temperature of dissimilar

Table 5 e The average composition of the two groups of

BMs based on the dilution ratio (wt.%).
Element C Fe Cr Ni Ti Nb Si Al Co V Mn
Fig. 5 e Schematic representation of a pseudo-binary
Sample 1 0.02 80.45 13.49 0.89 0.09 0.10 0.56 0.04 4.09 0.09 0.18
diagram for FeeCreC alloy with approximately 13 wt% Cr
Sample 2 0.03 72.60 15.28 1.84 0.21 0.23 0.50 0.08 8.99 0.08 0.16
content.
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liquidus temperatures of 1150  C, 1368  C, and 1270  C, as

Fig. 6 e X-ray diffraction patterns.
metals or alloys within welding processes. In our study,
JMatPro software was harnessed to ascertain the liquidus
temperatures of NS163 and WMs, based on their chemical
compositions outlined in Table 5. The outcomes reveal
illustrated in Fig. 12(a). These findings imply that the solidifi-
cation temperature of the WMs surpasses that of NS163.
Furthermore, it becomes apparent that TLW1 exhibits a sub-
stantial discrepancy in comparison to TLB, especially when
juxtaposed against TLW2. This difference contributes to a
heightened degree of segregation within Sample 1. Additional
insights are provided in Fig. 12(b), delineating the influence of
convection on macrosegregation [22]. Generally, the molten
pool boundary exhibits non-uniform temperatures, with so-
lidification initiating at TLW, while the layer of unmixed NS163
liquid metal commences freezing at TLB. Crucially, this layer
maintains a lower temperature in comparison to TLW, signi-
fying temperatures below the point where molten pool
freezing starts. Consequently, residual liquid metal persists
within this layer, while a portion flows into the molten pool.
The residual unmixed liquid metal within this layer sub-
sequently solidifies, manifesting as the irregularly shaped
NS163 "beach". However, liquid metal expelled from this
layer into the molten pool doesn't instantly solidify due to
the superheated state beyond its liquid phase temperature
TLB. This temporal advantage permits ample time for inter-
mixing with the molten pool, eventually leading to the for-
mation of a partially mixed zone (PMZ) adjacent to the
irregular beach of unmixed BM, as evidenced in Fig. 7(c) and

Fig. 7 e SEM images of Sample 1: (a) the microstructure of weld at both the 410L and NS163; (b, c) the detailed microstructure
on both sides of the fusion line marked as b and c in (a), respectively; (d) EDS line scan across the WM at the NS163 marked
in (a).
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Fig. 8 e The relationship between the weld structure and solidification behavior of the molten pool.

9(c). In certain scenarios, it might even become entrained
within the molten pool, undergoing transformation into a
partially mixed island within the BM. In cases where TLW »-
TLB, additional characteristics emerge, such as a substantial
beach of unmixed BM, a thick PMZ layer proximate to the
beach, and the emergence of large partially mixed BM islands
within the WM [15,22,24].
Under the higher beam current conditions, Sample 2
experiences a greater electron beam energy, leading to a
more pronounced convection effect in the molten pool.
Furthermore, the difference in temperature between TLW2 and
TLB is smaller than that of TLW1, resulting in significantly
reduced internal segregation compared to Sample 1 which
helps to achieve more excellent performance as demonstrated

Fig. 9 e SEM images of Sample 2: (a) the microstructure of weld at both the 410L and NS163; (b, c) the detailed microstructure
on both sides of the fusion line marked as b and c in (a), respectively; (d) EDS line scan across the WM at the NS163 marked
in (a).
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 5 1 7 7 e5 1 9 2 5185

Fig. 10 e Microstructure characterization of the two groups of samples by EBSD: (a, b) IPF map at 410L-weld and NS163-weld
of Sample 1, respectively; (c) phase map at NS163-weld of Sample 1; (d, e) IPF map at 410L-weld and NS163-weld of Sample
2, respectively; (f) phase map at NS163-weld of Sample 2.

Fig. 11 e Microstructural characterization of Sample 2: (a) SEM image of the WM; (b) BC map of the WM; (c) IPF map of the
WM; (d) KAM map of the WM.
5186 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 5 1 7 7 e5 1 9 2

Fig. 12 e Characterization of macrostructure in the two groups of samples: (a) liquidus temperatures of NS163 TLB, and that
of WMs of the two groups of samples TLW1 and TLW2 calculated by JMatPro; (b) mechanism for macrosegregation and
formation of irregular beach in dissimilar-metal welding; (c) EDS line scan conducted across the island in the WM and fusion
line at NS163/WM interface for Sample 1.

by Liu [15]. Furthermore, an EDS line scan was conducted on
Sample 1 across the fusion line and within the WM, as depicted
in Fig. 12(c). The distribution of Co, Ni, and Cr confirms that
convection causes BM pushed into the molten pool and partial
mixed with WM to form an island-like structure during
solidification.
3.4. Transverse microhardness analysis
The transverse microhardness of the 410L and NS163 welds in
samples 1 and 2 were tested, and their respective micro-
hardness profiles are presented in Fig. 13(a) and (b). By
combining the two figures, it can be observed that NS163 su-
peralloy exhibits the highest hardness (approximately 423 ± 5
HV) while 410L stainless steel displays the lowest hardness
(about 161 ± 6 HV). The significant difference in microstruc-
ture and solid-solution strengthening content accounts for
this variation in hardness between the two groups of samples.
For 410L as depicted in Fig. 13(a), the molten pool is infused
with a significant amount of strengthening elements during
welding, resulting in a reinforced WM compared to BM. With
the higher beam current processing, Sample 2 exhibits finer
and more uniform weld structure, boasting an average hard-
ness of 360 ± 7 HV-significantly higher than that of Sample 1
(approximately 234 ± 17 HV). Far from the center of the weld,
both samples exhibit a gradual decrease in hardness from the
WM to BM. In contrast, Fig. 13(b) shows different changes for
NS163. The WM of Sample 1 experiences a significant reduc-
tion in hardness compared to the BM due to grain growth
during welding and an uneven structure within the WM [7].
However, the hardness of Sample 2 exhibits a non-monotonic
variation from the BM to WM, initially decreasing and then
increasing. The HAZ undergoes softening and reaches a
minimum value of approximately 280 ± 5 HV due to the
heating and cooling process that is equivalent to heat treat-
ment [45]. This results in reduced internal solution elements,
significant changes in strengthening and other structures,
ultimately leading to a reduction in hardness. After con-
ducting a comprehensive analysis of the weld hardness be-
tween 410L and NS163, it is evident that the overall hardness
is relatively consistent with negligible differences observed
between the two groups of samples. The hardness of NS163-
BM is the highest, WM is the second, and 410L-BM is the
lowest. This is consistent with the conclusions reported by
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 5 1 7 7 e5 1 9 2
Fig. 13 e Microhardness distribution profile at different micro-regions of the two groups of samples: (a) 410L; (b) NS163.
Shamanian [13] during the EBW of Inconel 617 and AISI 310,
which was attributed to the presence of solid-solution
strengthening elements like Co and/or Mo. It has been
proved that heterogenous welding between superalloy and
stainless steel will strengthen the weld. In addition, the
comparison of the two beams can obviously demonstrate that
superior weld performance of brush seals was achieved using
the higher beam current.
3.5. Extraction of stress-strain curves from
nanoindentation tests
Nanoindentation utilizes the dynamic measurement principle
to extract a wealth of information from the indentation pro-
cess. By analyzing the P-h curve, it is possible to separate the
plastic and elastic components of the indentation [46]. The
Schematics of the nanoindentation tests are presented in
Fig. 2, which reveals a sink-in phenomenon during material
indentation as depicted in Fig. 2(b). This phenomenon is
quantified by hs, as defined by Eq. (2):
Pmax
hs ¼ ε
S
where ε is a constant that depends on the geometry of the
indenter, with a value of 0.75 for the Berkovich indenter used
in this study. Pmax represents the maximum indentation load,
while S denotes the measured stiffness of the upper portion of
unloading data. Therefore, Eq. (3) defines hc as an effective
indentation depth:
Pmax
hc ¼ hmax  ε
S [34,48]. To circumvent the above-mentioned problems, only
where hmax represents the maximum depth of indentation.
According to the method proposed by Oliver-Pharr [34] and
previously proposed equations, the hardness H can be deter-
mined using Eqs. (4) and (5):
pffiffiffi
Ac ¼ 3 3tan2 qh2c (4)
Pmax
H¼
Ac
where q represents the half-included angle, and a value of
70.3 is utilized for the Berkovich indenter. Ac denotes the
5187
nominal area function for a perfect Berkovich intender
without considering any bluntness effect or non-ideal geom-
etry during nanoindentation. The reduced modulus, E*, as
well as the elastic modulus, E, of the samples are then
calculated using Eqs. (6) and (7):
pffiffiffiffi
S p
E* ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi (6)
2b Ac
1 1  v2 1  v2i
¼ þ (7)
E* E Ei
where Ei ¼ 1141 GPa and ni ¼ 0.07 are the elastic modulus and
Poisson's ratio, respectively, adopted for the diamond
indenter in this study. The elastic modulus, E, can be deter-
mined if the Poisson's ratio for the 410L and NS163 are
assumed to be 0.30 and 0.34.
As depicted in Fig. 2(a), the P-h response of an elasto-plastic
material to instrumented sharp indentation typically com-
prises three stages: loading, load holding, and unloading.
Generally speaking, Kick's Law [37] can be employed to
describe the loading response as Eq. (8):
(2)
P ¼ Ch2 (8)
where C represents the loading curvature, which can be
calculated using software. The hardening exponent could be
overestimated due to inaccuracies introduced by the reduced
modulus and/or the compliance of the indenter tip [47].
Furthermore, the solutions cannot avoid the non-uniqueness
of the P-h curve generated from a single Berkovich indenter
(3)
part of the Dao's algorithm [37] is used in the currently pro-
posed inverse method to obtain representative stress. With
the assistance of RAA and DAM proposed by Dao, the loading
process load, P, should be determined based on both the
properties of the intended material itself and the depth of
indentation, thus the load P can be expressed as Eq. (9):
Y  E* 
(5) P ¼ s0:033 h2 (9)
1 s
0:033
By combining Eqs. (7) and (8), Eq. (10) can be derived as:
5188 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 5 1 7 7 e5 1 9 2

Y  E*  Y  E* 
1 dP
C ¼ s0:033 1 s
(10) 2 s
;n ¼ * j
0:033 0:033 E hmax dh hmax
  * 3
where s0.033 represents the representative stress adopted by E
¼  1:40557n3 0:77526n2 0:15830nþ 0:06831 ln 
s0:033
Dao which fits all experimental data perfectly within the error.   * 2
Q  E*  E
The dimensionless function 1 s0:033 has a specific form as  17:93006n3 þ9:2209n2 þ2:37733n0:86295 ln 
s0:033
follows:   * 
E
79:99715n3 40:55620n2 9:00157n þ2:54543 ln 
  * 3   * 2 s0:033
Y C E E
¼ ¼  1:131 ln þ 13:635 ln  122:65069n3 þ 63:88418n2 þ9:58936n 6:20045
1 s0:033 s0:033 s0:033
  *  (11) (13)
E
 30:594 ln þ 29:267
s0:033 where S can be determined by fitting the unloading curve at
the maximum load, E is calculated using Eq. (7) and hmax is
Based on Eqs. (6), (10) and (11), s0.033 can be calculated.
obtained from indentation data. Therefore, solving Eqs. (12)
However, the material's stress-strain behavior cannot be
and (13) yields the hardening exponent n.
accurately described without knowledge of the hardening
The P-h curves of each micro-region exhibit similarity, as
exponent n, which can be obtained from unloading curve in
depicted in Fig. 14. During the initial loading stage, indenta-
Fig. 2(a). Similar to the loading process, during unloading, load
tion depth increases rapidly with increasing load. As the load
P satisfies Eq. (12):
reaches a certain threshold, work hardening effects become
dP Y  E* 
more prominent and the rate of increase in indentation depth
S¼ ¼ E* hmax 2 ;n (12)
dh s0:033 gradually diminishes. As illustrated in Fig. 14(a) and (b), the
Q  E*  displacement of BM is observed to be the largest while that of
Where 2 s0:033 ; n is also a dimensionless function as WM is found to be the smallest under identical loading con-
Q  E*  ditions for 410L. This can primarily be attributed to their
1 s0:033 with specific form as Eq. (13):

Fig. 14 e P-h curves obtained from nanoindentation tests at the different micro-regions of the two groups of samples: (a)
1e410L; (b) 2e410L; (c) 1-NS163; (d) 2-NS163.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 5 1 7 7 e5 1 9 2
Fig. 15 e (a) Properties data obtained by RAA and DAM; (b) engineering stress-strain curve of 410L stainless steel obtained
through the tensile test; (c, d) stress-strain curves for distinct micro-regions of 410L and NS163, respectively.
distinct microstructure and welding deformation [40]. In
contrast, NS163 superalloys exhibit dissimilarities as depicted
in Fig. 14(c) and (d). The work hardening effect of BM is sig-
nificant under both beam currents, but the weld microstruc-
ture exhibits a finer and more uniform mixture of martensite
and ferrite at the higher beam current. Therefore, compared to
the lower beam current, the influence of work hardening is
stronger than that of HAZ.
In this study, both 410L and NS163 exhibit similar plastic
behaviors that can be accurately described by a power law
model, as illustrated in Fig. 2(c). Therefore, the elastoplastic
behavior with true stress-strain relationship is taken as the
objective function to ensure uniqueness of the inverse algo-
rithm, and the expression is assumed as Eq. (14):
Eε; for s  sy
s¼
Rεn ; for s > sy
where R represents the strength coefficient, while sy and εy
respectively denote the initial yield stress and corresponding
yield strain:
sy ¼ Eεy ¼ Rεny
Here the yield stress sy is defined at zero offset strain. The
total effective strain, ε, consists of two parts, εy and εp:
ε ¼ εy þ εp
5189
where εp represents the nonlinear part of the total effective
strain accumulated beyond εy. With Eqs. (15) and (16), when
the material enters the plastic strain stage, Eq. (14) becomes:
 n
E
s0:033 ¼ sy 1 þ 0:033 (17)
sy
Where s0.033, E, and n have been calculated from the previ-
ously mentioned equations, thus, the yield stress sy is
determined.
Fig. 15(a) tabulates the calculated parameters of two groups
of samples using the aforementioned equations. Plug these
parameters into Eq. (14), then obtain the constitutive equations,
thus plot the stress-strain curves for each micro-region of the
samples under two beam currents as depicted in Fig. 15(c) and
(d). From the figures, it is evident that the NS163-BM exhibits
(14) the highest yield strength of 1067 ± 55 MPa and the lowest
strength of 273 ± 48 MPa in the 410L-BM, which is contributed to
the difference in the content of solid solution strengthening
elements, such as Co and Nb [28]. In addition, the decrease in
the grain size and micromorphology of WMs between the two
groups of samples could play a part in increasing the strength.
(15)
In general, the finer the microstructure of the weld, the better
the overall performance [32]. The grain size of equiaxed grains
under the higher beam is 10 ± 5 mm, which is much smaller
than 150 ± 80 mm of columnar grains under the lower beam as
(16)
shown in Figs. 7 and 8. On the other hand, with the increase of
5190 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 5 1 7 7 e5 1 9 2
beam current, the strain field interaction between the solute
atoms and substructure of martensite is strengthened; hence,
the strength at the WM of Sample 2 is nearly 105 ± 3% higher
than that of Sample 1 as a consequence of the effect of
strengthening. In summary, the correlation between strength
and microstructural morphology as well as grain size is in line
with the discussion on microhardness in section 3.4. To vali-
date the reliability of nanoindentation characterization, the
tensile tests at room temperature were conducted on 410L-BM
in this study, and as depicted in Fig. 15(b), its stress-strain curve
shows a yield strength of 269 ± 15 MPa which agrees well with
calculated results. This result also confirms the positive role of
nanoindentation in characterizing the strength of micro-
regions between stainless steel and Co-based superalloy used
for the brush seals.
4. Conclusion
In this study, we employed a novel approach of EBW using
varied beam currents to join AISI 410L stainless steel plates and
NS163 Co-based superalloy wires as the main structure of brush
seals. The primary discoveries are summarized as follows:
 The heat input to the samples is significantly impacted by
the beam current. Lower beam currents lead to the preva-
lence of columnar grains in the weld microstructure.
Conversely, higher beam currents induce a transformation
towards equiaxed grains, which are finer and more uni-
form in nature.
 The macrosegregation is caused by the difference in liq-
uidus temperatures between the BM and WM. When the
molten pool invades the unmixed NS163, some of it re-
mains in the partially mixed layer and solidifies into
irregularly-shaped beaches, while others are drawn into
the molten pool by convection and become partially mixed
islands within the BM. This phenomenon is more pro-
nounced in the sample with lower beam current due to
significant temperature differences.
 The hardness profile of the welded joints of AISI 410L and
NS163 follows a typical pattern, that is, NS163 has the
highest hardness, WM is close behind, and the lowest value
is in 410L. Although the HAZ is softened, it does not affect
the superior performance at the higher beam current.
 The methods of RAA and DAM play an effective role in the
calculation of strength. Extracting stress-strain curves
from P-h curves through nanoindentation data allows for a
comprehensive analysis of each micro-region of the sam-
ples. Increasing the beam current enhances the overall
strength of the weld, following a similar trend as the
microhardness. Generally, superior weld performance is
achieved with the higher beam current.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the Youth Talent Fund of Shenyang
National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal
Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences (E11SL095).
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