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© Institute of Environmental Science & Meteorology,

College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman

Module 4
University of the Philippines Diliman

Agriculture & the

Environment
© CSPascua
 Learning Outcomes

!
Discuss the benefits of agriculture to
human societies

! Discuss the environmental effects of

agriculture

! Explain sustainable agriculture

! Describe alternative agricultural methods &

their environmental benefits

Agroecosystems
agroecosystems differ from natural ecosystems. It
converts complex ecosystems of high structural &
species diversity to a monoculture of uniform structure, &
greatly modifies the soil

4
© CLRingor

An Ecological Perspective on
Agriculture
Ecological succession is halted to keep the agroecosystem in
an early-successional state. Most crops are early-
successional species, which means that they grow fast,
spread their seeds widely & rapidly, & do best when sunlight,
water, & chemical nutrients in the soil are abundant. Under
natural conditions, crop species would eventually be replaced
by later-successional plants. Slowing or stopping natural
ecological succession requires time & effort on our part.
Biological diversity & food chains are simplified.
The focus is on monoculture, one plant species rather than
many. Large areas are planted with a single species or even a
single strain or subspecies. The downside of monoculture is
that it makes the entire crop vulnerable to attack by a single
disease or a single change in environmental conditions.
Repeated planting of a single species can reduce the soil
content of certain essential elements, reducing overall soil
fertility.
Crops are planted in neat rows & fields (see photo below
left). These simple geometric layouts make crops vulnerable to
pests since they are exposed. In natural ecosystems, many
different species of plants grow mixed together in complex
patterns, so it is harder for pests to find their favorite crop
plants (see photo below right).
Agroecosystems require plowing, which is not a natural
process. Plowing exposes the soil to erosion & damages its
physical structure, leading to a decline in organic matter & a
loss of chemical elements.
They may include genetically modified crops or organisms
(GMC/GMO).
Botkin & Keller (2011)

5
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-world-leaders-in-coconut-production.html https://today.uconn.edu/2016/05/natural-regrowth-tropical-forest-helps-reach-climate-goals/#

Soil carbon cycle. Topsoil underlies all

Foundation of life on land
Soil is the natural medium for the
growth of plants. It consists of layers
(soil horizons) composed of weathered
mineral materials, organic material, air,
water, & billions of living organisms,
most of them microscopic
decomposers. Soil is the end product
of the combined influence of climate,
topography, organisms (flora, fauna &
human) on parent materials (original
rocks & minerals) over time (FAO).
Soil formation begins when bedrock is
slowly broken down into fragments &
particles by physical, chemical, &
biological processes, called
weathering. Soil, on which all
terrestrial life depends, is one of the
most important components of the
earth’s natural capital. It supplies most
of the nutrients needed for plant
growth & purifies & stores water.
Organisms living in the soil remove
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere &
store it as organic carbon
compounds, thereby helping control
the earth’s climate as part of the
forests & grasslands, as well as
croplands.
Most soils that have developed over
long periods of time, called mature
soils, contain horizontal layers, or
horizons, each with a distinct texture &
composition that vary with different
types of soils (see figure on next
page). Most mature soils have at least
three of the four possible horizons.
The roots of most plants & the majority
of a soil’s organic matter are
concentrated in the soil’s two upper
layers, the O horizon of leaf litter & the
A horizon of topsoil. In healthy soils,
these two layers teem with bacteria,
fungi, earthworms, & small insects, all
interacting in complex food webs.
Bacteria & other decomposer
microorganisms break down some of
the soil’s complex organic compounds
into a mixture of the partially
decomposed bodies of dead plants &
animals, called humus, & inorganic
materials such as clay, silt, & sand.
Soil moisture carrying these dissolved
nutrients is drawn up by the roots of
plants & transported through their
stems & into their leaves as a key
component of chemical cycling.
The B (subsoil) & the C horizons
(parent material) contain most of a
soil’s inorganic matter, mostly broken-
down rock consisting of varying
mixtures of sand, silt, clay, & gravel.
Much of it is transported by water
from the A horizon. The C horizon lies
on a base of parent material, which is
often bedrock.
The spaces, or pores, between the
solid organic & inorganic particles in
the upper & lower soil layers contain
varying amounts of air (mostly N2 & O2
gas) & water. Plant roots use the
oxygen for cellular respiration. As long
as the O & A horizons are anchored by
vegetation, the soil layers as a whole
act as a sponge, storing water &
nutrients, & releasing them in a
nourishing trickle.
Although topsoil is a renewable
resource, it is renewed very slowly,
which means it can be depleted. Just
1 cm of topsoil can take hundreds of
years to form, but it can be washed or
blown away in a matter of weeks or
months when we plow grassland or
clear a forest & leave its topsoil
unprotected.
Miller & Spoolman (2016)

6
 ell as croplands. mixtures of sand, silt, clay, and gravel. How does soil contribute to each of
ils that have developed over Much of it is transported by water the four components of biodiversity
s of time, called mature soils, from the A horizon. The C horizon lies described in Figure 4.2 (p. 65)?
izontal layers, or horizons
A), each with
Oak Fern
exture and Moss and Organic tree Millipede
n that vary lichen debris Honey
Rock Grasses and fungus Earthworm
ent types of fragments small shrubs Wood
mature soils sorrel
st three of the O horizon
le horizons. Leaf litter
A horizon
ts of most
Topsoil
the majority Mole
organic matter Bacteria
trated in the
B horizon
Subsoil

D FIGURE 10.A
soil profile Fungus
on of soil. C horizon
: What role do Parent
material
e tree in this Bedrock
in soil forma-
Immature so Mite
might the soil il
Young soil
rocess change Mature soil
ere removed? Nematode
Root system
earning Red earth mite Beetle larva

Generalized soil profile & formation of soil. The biosphere, geosphere, atmosphere, & hydrosphere all contribute together to form soil. Image adapted from Miller & Spoolman
(2016).

opyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
al review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

genetic diversity through monoculture agriculture (Crist et

Major Environmental
Effects of Agriculture
Industrialized agriculture has greater overall harmful
environmental effects than any other human activity, which
may limit future food production (Miller & Spoolman, 2016).
One of these environmental effects is biodiversity loss
(review lecture on Biodiversity) resulting from habitat loss &
degradation from clearing forests (see photo below left) &
grasslands, & draining wetlands; fish kills from pesticide
runoff; killing of wild predators to protect livestock; & loss of
8/13/14 8:42 AM
al., 2017). It is largely responsible for the world’s 400 dead
zones. Dead zones are hypoxic (low-oxygen) areas in the
world's oceans & large lakes, caused by "excessive nutrient
pollution from human activities coupled with other factors
that deplete the oxygen required to support most marine life
in bottom and near-bottom water. At least 50% of world’s
species-rich wetlands were drained largely for agriculture, &
aquaculture drive mangrove decline (see photo below right).
Coastal seas are critically endangered due to overfishing,
now trawlers turned to deeper waters. Small fishes are not
only harvested for human consumption but also for feeds
for large-scale aquaculture & livestock operations. There is
also a high risk of extinction of large ocean animals due to

Forest cut to make way for an oil palm plantation in Papua, Indonesia in April 2018. Image Fishponds in former mangrove areas, Philippines. Image retrieved from https://
credit: Ulet Ifansasti/Greenpeace https://e360.yale.edu/features/conflicting-data-how-fast- www.zsl.org/blogs/conservation/returning-ponds-to-mangrove-forests-in-the-philippines
is-the-worlds-losing-its-forests

8
 gency it deserves not only will help on the
implausible idealization when trends are tallied. fertility is 2.2 (59). These figures signal
front
FIGURE 2.1 of ecological challenges but also advances ensuring educational opportunities for girl
Global solutions human rights, especially women’s and children’s women can move the world more swiftly to
The world is demographically diverse. Many re-LANDrights AREA (23, BY MAJOR LAND-USEwomen
28). Wherever CLASS,are 2010 empow- a smaller population. Indeed, achieving ful
gions are experiencing moderate to rapid growth, ered educationally, culturally, economically, der equality would, in all likelihood, eventuall
while developed countries and
industrial fishing. On land, steep population declines of big several emerging politically,
100% and legally, fertility rates fall (59). to global fertility below—and possibly well bel
economies have entered
herbivores & carnivores are linked to crop & animal a phase of low to negative Populations tend to move toward states of zero the replacement value of roughly 2.1 chil
growth (98). Despite this diversity, a common or 80%
negative growth when women achieve equal Such a development could result in a popu
agriculture (Crist et al., 2017).
thread links policies promoting ecologically as standing
60% with men, as long as family planning trajectory even lower than the United Nations

PERCENT
well as socially sustainable population change services and contraceptives are readily available variant” projection, which suggests a popul
worldwide.is the major driver of deforestation
Agricultural expansion (13).40%
Female education has been singled out as peak at 8.7 billion in mid-century (111).
globally, & agricultural,
A commonplaceforestry &misperception
land policies are oftenpop-
is that at key. Although other factors play important roles, As women achieve full equality and fe
20%
odds (FAO, 2016).
ulationA growthstudy bywill FAO revealed
resolve that
itself as in 2010
economic the number of years of a girl’s or woman’s edu- declines follow, societies tend to move thro
(see figure ondevelopment
the right, above), about 38%encourage
and urbanization of the world’s
smaller 0%
cation, on average, varies inversely with the num- period where the elderly population bec
land area wasfamilies
used for (99).agriculture while roughly
Several 20th-century cases,31% was
however, ber of children Africa
she willAsia Europe
have (108–110). North Oceania
large relative South
to theWorld
active workforce. This
and Central America
allocated for demonstrate
forest. Asia has the highest
the efficacy proportionpolicies
of population of MakingAgricultureeducation Forest for girlsOther and women Americaan present challenges for public pensions
agricultural land (52%) & the
in reducing lowest
fertility in proportion
the absence of of
forest
strong ambitiously pursued international policy is laud- healthcare programs (98). But these chall
(19%). Europe, has thedevelopment
economic lowest proportion (100). Suchof agricultural able
policies simul-Note: “Other The in
land” itself as well
is all land not
proportions as
of categorizedpivotal
the total land for
as agricultural the future
or forestby
area occupied land. of are tractable
agriculture, forests & other land(112),
usesand
in when they arise the
land (21%) & taneously
the second-highest
promote human proportion
rights andof forest
support im-SOURCE: FAO, 2015a,
various 2016a.of the world, as of 2010. Image adapted from FAO, 2016.
regions best faced directly rather
Net annual tha
average c
(46%). Their portant
study also showedgoals.
development that from
Lessons2000-2010,
from successful in forest area, 2000−2
reverting to pronatalist pol
most of the 33 countries
population & territories
strategies indicatingasnet
in countries lossesas
diverse Each country will need to ad
FIGURE 2.2 Net annual average c
in forest areaThailand,
& net gains in agricultural
Bangladesh, CostaareaRica,are in Africa,
South Korea, potential problems accompan
in agricultural area, 2
South & Central America, & South & SE Asia (see figure onNET ANNUAL AVERAGE CHANGE IN FOREST AND AGRICULTURAL LAND, BY
and Iran, among others, reveal that the most ef- an aging population accordi
the next page).fective transcultural
Cambodia, approach
Indonesia, to lowering fertilityCLIMATIC DOMAIN, 2000–2010
Myanmar, its specific economic, social
rates is to embark on comprehensive,
Philippines, Sri Lanka, & Thailand have a combined net well-designed, 8 000
cultural circumstances. Gener
and well-funded campaigns that
forest loss of 10,562 ha & a net agricultural gain of 13,484 support that pur- proaches include encouraging h
pose while simultaneously
ha. In another study, the agricultural expansion & declines promoting women’s 6 000 savings rates, extending the r
and overall well-being (13,
in forest cover in Neotropics, Africa, & SE Asia threatened 27). ment age, raising taxes, and sh
4 000
Wherever human rights–promoting policies
60% of primate species with extinction while 75% of them Net annual average change to to governmental food policie
lower fertility rates have been
have already declining population (see figure on the right, implemented, birth in forest area, 2000−2010 2 000 support longer but also hea

000 HA
below). rates have declined within a generation or two. and more productive lives.
0
Policies include prominent public discourse on Net annual average change
in agricultural area, 2000−2010
tionally, in a century where
the issue; prioritizing the education of girls and -2 000 stantial movements of peopl
The irony is that with biodiversity losses, we also lose
women; establishing accessible and affordable all but certain in response t
pollinators, which
familyare responsible
planning for assisting
services; provisioningover modern
80% of -4 000
vironmental degradation an
the world's flowering
8 000 plants to reproduce
contraceptive methods through diverse outlets; (US Forest -6 000
Boreal
mate change, as well as econ
Service). Without 6 000 them,health
deploying our diets wouldforbegrassroots
workers severely limited,
educa- Fig. 3. Agricultural
Agricultural expansion &expansion
forest cover declineand declines
in Neotropics,in Africa,
forest& SEA Temperate
cover dislocation
Asia threatens as muchand conflict, neg
& it would betion more SOURCE: FAO, 2015a, 2016a.
anddifficult to making
acquirecounseling
the varietyfor of couples
vitamins -8 000
support; as 60% of primate
(1990–2010) species with
in primate rangeextinction.
regions. Graph adapted
Sixty
Boreal from
percent Crist
of et Subtropics
al. (2017);
primate
Temperate population
photos Tropicsgrowth in devel
Subtropics
& minerals that 4 000
we need to stay healthy. retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/18/science/almost-two-thirds-of-primate-
available; eliminating governmental incentives species are threatened with extinction and 75% have declining Tropics
nations could encourage gr
FIGURE species-near-extinction-scientists-find.html
2.3
for large families; and making sexuality educa-
2 000 populations. [Source: (69); original data source: FAOSTAT.] tolerance toward immigratio
000 HA

tion mandatory in school curricula (101). lowances and thus less politic
9 0 NET ANNUAL AVERAGE FOREST AREA CHANGE, BY CLIMATIC DOMAIN (000 ha per year)
High priority on the international agenda heaval around this sensitive
must
-2 000 be that people everywhere have ready 6 000 (113). At the same time, by prio
access and unhindered agency to use family ing strategies for slowing or en
-4 000 4 000
ANNAUL FOREST CHANGE (000 ha)

FIGURE 2.8
FIGURE 2.8 planning services and contraceptive technolo- population growth in rapidly g
gies,
NET CHANGES IN AGRICULTURAL along
AND
-6 000 FORESTwith counseling
AREA, to assist individuals’
BY COUNTRY/TERRITORY, 2000–2010 2 000 ing countries, the resulting econ
and couples’ preferences (102). International 0
and environmental dividends
-8 000
funding for
BorealfamilyTemperate
planning Subtropics
declined inTropics the Boreal will counter pressures on peo
past two decades, even though the financial Temperate -2 000 emigrate.
backing to bring services that allow women Subtropics -4 000 Pursuing policies that will c
to control their fertility has been pivotal in conditions encouraging the d
GRAPHICS: ADAPTED BY H. BISHOP/SCIENCE

Tropics -6 000
countries where fertility rates have fallen (103). eration of the global population
Reversing the recent shortfall and investing -8 000 alone not suffice to stave of
financially and in technology transfer in this diversity destruction and other
-10 000
space are crucial, 6 000and developed nations should 2000−2015 2000−2005 2005−2010
sing ecological problems. Addre
2010−2015
SOURCE: FAO, 2015a.
lead on this front (104). Additionally, priori- excessive consumption world
4 000
ANNAUL FOREST CHANGE (000 ha)

tizing the avoidance of unintended pregnancies Fig. 4. Estimated proportions of unintended pregnancies calls for such actions as purs
in all nations is 2 000crucial. Unplanned pregnancies (those not planned or wanted by the pregnant women in the efficiency gains and conserv
are globally pervasive, and in the Americas they next 2 years or longer) vary from one-third | 13 | to more than in energy and materials use;
0
may account for more than half of all pregnancies one-half worldwide. Source: (105). ing from fossil fuels to renew
-2 000

-4 000356, 260–264 (2017)

Crist et al., Science 21 April 2017 4
-6 000

-8 000

-10 000
2000−2015 2000−2005 2005−2010 2010−2015

NET GAIN IN AGRICULTURAL AREA,

NET LOSS IN FOREST AREA

NET GAIN IN FOREST AREA,

NET LOSS IN AGRICULTURAL AREA

NET LOSS IN FOREST AND AGRICULTURAL AREA

NET GAIN IN FOREST AND AGRICULTURAL AREA

NO OR SMALL CHANGE IN THE AREA

UNDER BOTH LAND USES

NO DATA AVAILABLE
SOURCE: FAO,
SOURCE: FAO, 2015a,
2015a, 2016a.
2016a.

The various combinations of net gains or losses in forest & agricultural areas, by country/territory worldwide, in the period 2000–2010. Image adapted from FAO, 2016.
| 18 | | 19 |

10
 Agriculture also contributes about 23% of all human-induced
greenhouse gas emissions, with the livestock sector
representing 14.5% of such emissions (UNEP). Past
estimates have also suggested that 2.5% of human-induced
climate warming can be attributed to rice farming (Kritee et
al., 2018). The main culprit is methane, a potent greenhouse
gas emitted from flooded rice fields as bacteria in the
waterlogged soil produce it in large quantities. However,
there is another gas produced by rice fields that can have a
harmful climate effect. Nitrous oxide, commonly known as
laughing gas, is also produced by soil microbes in rice fields.
Moreover, agricultural activities also cause other pollutants
from fossil fuel use & pesticide sprays to be released in the
atmosphere (Crist et al., 2017).
Another major environmental effect of agriculture is soil
erosion. It is the movement & transport of soil by various
agents (i.e., water, wind, & mass movement). It is a natural
process that can be exacerbated by human activities (e.g.
through plowing or tilling). Soil erosion has been considered
as the primary cause of soil degradation because soil
erosion leads to the loss of topsoil & soil organic matter,
which are essential for the growing of plants. The outcome is
loss of fertility, hence reduced crop yield. In addition, as the
soil is washed away, it also pollutes adjacent waterbodies
with sediments, nutrients, & agrochemicals. Soil
salinization is also one of the effects of agricultural activities.
Irrigation water contains dilute solution of various salts. When
irrigation water is not absorbed, it evaporates & leave salts.
This is widespread especially in dry climates. Another
outcome is desertification, when fertile lands are degraded
11
The 1930s Dust Bowl in the midwestern USA was a result of combined intense plowing & major drought, which loosen the soil. About 100 M acres of farmland were affected (in
comparison, the Philippines’ land area is only 74 M acre) & 2.5 M people migrated. (A) Wild ducks choked to death on the dust. The area was once a watering stop on their spring
migrations. Photo credits: A & C from http://time.com/3878664/dust-bowl-photos-from-an-american-catastrophe/; B from http://www.earthmagazine.org/article/return-dust-bowl, & D from
http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/dustbowl/photos/
A B
C D
12
to desert land due to soil exposure. Lands undergoing
desertification have progressive loss of mature, stabilizing
vegetation, or loss of crop cover during period of drought or
economic infeasibility, & loss of topsoil. Erosion by wind &
water then winnows the fine-grained particles in the soil,
which may result to dust storms such as the 1930s Dust
Bowl in American mid-west (see figure on the next page).
Water depletion & pollution may also arise because of
intensive agriculture. Approximately 80% of freshwater
resources is used for irrigation & livestock drinking as well as
to grow feed for livestock & to wash away their wastes (Crist
et al., 2017). Water bodies may be contaminated with
pesticides & fertilizers, resulting to overfertilization of lakes
(eutrophication) & ultimately fish kills. Eutrophication may
also occur due to excess fish feeds in aquaculture systems,
which introduces extra N & P directly into the water (Talbot &
Hole, 1994). Rivers, lakes, & seas may also become polluted
with sediment due to soil erosion. Furthermore, flooding
may happen because of increased runoff as a result of soil
degradation.
Human health is also affected by agricultural activities.
Drinking waters contaminated with nitrates from fertilizers
cause baby blue syndrome (methemoglobinemia). Pesticide
residues in water, food, & air are potentially toxic to humans
& can have both acute & chronic health effects such as
cancer, pulmonary & hematological morbidity, inborn
deformities & immune system deficiencies (UNEP, 1993).
Drinking & swimming waters may be contaminated with
disease organisms from livestock wastes. Bacterial
contamination of meat may also occur.
 BetweenBetween
2000 and 2000 2025, and scientists
2025, scientists
estimate, estimate,
the worldthe popula-
world popula- tion from tionirrigated
from irrigatedwater another
water another
500 billion m3, forma3,total
500 billion for aoftotal of
3 3
tion will tion
increase
will increase
from 6.6 frombillion
6.6 billion
to 7.8 billion,
to 7.8 billion,
approximately
approximately 13,800 13,800
billion m of water
billion m ofper water
yearper foryear
foodfor production,
food production, or 20%or 20%
double double
what it whatwas init1974.
was inTo 1974.
keepTo pace
keepwithpace thewith
growing
the growing
popu- popu- of the water
of theevaporated
water evaporated and transpired
and transpired
worldwide. worldwide.
By 2025, Bythere-
2025, there-
lation, lation,
the United the United
NationsNations Food and Food Agriculture
and AgricultureOrganization
Organization fore, humans
fore, humanswill be will appropriating
be appropriatingalmost almosthalf of half all the
of all
waterthe water
predicts,predicts,
that food thatproduction
food production will have willtohave
double
The
to double
Aral
by 2025, byand
Sea
2025, and
Disaster
availableavailable
to life on toland
life on
forland
growing
for growing
food forfood theirfor own their
use.ownWhere
use. Where
so will sothewill
amountthe amount
of waterofconsumed
water consumedby foodby crops.
Thefood Will
crops.
Aral SeatheWill will the
the
is located inwill
additional
the additional
Central waterbetween
Asia, come
waterfrom?
come from?
the Southern part of
Agriculture is central to fostering
supply supply
of freshwater
of freshwater
be ablebe to able
meettothismeet increased
thisKazakhstan
increased
demand, demand,
or or Although Although
the amount
the amount
of
& Northern Uzbekistan. It was once the 4th largest saline rainwater
of rainwater
cannot cannot
be increased,
be increased,
lake in
economic growth, reducing poverty, &
will thewill
waterthesupply
water limit
supplyglobal limitfood
globalproduction?
food production?
the world. In the it
1960s, can be
it
the can
used be
Soviet more
used efficiently
more
government efficiently
through
decided through
farming
to divert farming
methods
the methods
rivers such
that such
more importantly improving food
security. Measures Growing Growing
aimed crops at consume
crops consume water through
water through transpiration
feedtranspiration
the lake(lossso that as they
(loss terracing,
ascould
terracing,
mulching,
irrigatemulching,
theand contouring.
desert and contouring.
region Forty percent
surrounding Forty the percent
ofSeathe inof the
of waterof from
water
addressing these essentials need not leaves
from as
leaves
part as
of part
the photosynthetic
of the order
photosynthetic to
process) favor agriculture
process)
and global
and rather
food
global than
harvest
food supply
harvest
now the
comes
now Aral
from
comesSea basin.
irrigated
from Although
irrigated
land, and
land,someand some
evaporation
evaporation
from
cause environmental degradation. It plant
from andplantsoil
andsurfaces.
soil surfaces.
The irrigation
volume
The volume
of made
waterof the dessert
scientists
water bloom,
scientists
estimate it devastated
estimate
that thethat
volume the
the Aral
volume
of Sea.
irrigation
of These
irrigation
water series
available
water of
available
is ironic thatconsumed
the consumed
by crops
natural byworldwide—including
capital crops worldwide—including rainwater Google
rainwater Earth
and irrigated satellite
and irrigated images
to crops towill show
cropshave willthe
tohaveshrinking
tripletobytriple Aral
by Sea.
2025—to 2025—to
a volume a volume
equaling equaling
24 24
3 3 26 26
required towater—is
sustainwater—is
estimated
agriculture estimated
at -3,200
land, atbillion
3,200 m per m
billion year.perAnyear.
almost
An equal
almost equal Nile riversNileorrivers
110 or Colorado
110 Colorado
rivers. rivers.
A significantA significant
saving of saving
wa- of wa-
air, water, amount amount
of water-ofare
& biodiversity iswater
used
theisby used
onesotherbyplants
other in plants
and innearandagricultural
near agricultural ter can ter therefore
can therefore
come from comemore fromefficient
more efficient
irrigation irrigation
methods, methods,
3 3 1973 1984 1994
fields. Thus,
fields. it
being degraded. Most of all, humanThus,
takes it
7,500
takes billion
7,500 m
billion
per m
year per
of year
water oftowater
supplyto supplysuch as such
improvedas improved
sprinkler sprinkler
systems, systems,
drip irrigation,
drip irrigation,
night irriga-
night irriga-
health maycrop alsoecosystems
be
cropnegatively
ecosystems
around aroundthe world the(see
worldTable(see11.2).
Table Grazing
11.2). Grazing
and and tion, and tion,surge
andflow.surge flow.
impacted.pastureland
We are faced
pastureland
account with theanother
account
for for another
5,800 billion m3, andmevapora-
5,800 billion 3
, and evapora- Surge flow Surgeis flowthe intermittent
is the intermittent application application
of water of along
water along
challenge of feeding the world & at furrows—on furrows—on and offand periods
off periods
of waterofflow waterat flow constantat constant
or vari-or vari-
the same time protecting our natural able intervals.
able intervals.Often, Often,this canthiscompletely
can completely irrigateirrigate
a crop aincrop in
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the the
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Environment,
Environment,
and Society,” Bioscience
and Society,” Bioscience
4, no. 2 [February
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1997]: 100.
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13

many companies are producing natural & organic beauty &

Agriculture & the personal care products, with the increasing consumer
concern over chemical usage in beauty products. What are
Cosmetics Industry these natural products & where do they come from?

One example is vegetable oil, specifically palm oil, which is

What is the link between agriculture & the cosmetics
one of the many available ingredients used in making
industry? We only need to think of the ingredients used in
moisturizers. What are the trade-offs in using palm oil for
the manufacture of beauty & personal care products. They
cosmetic products? Visit this site https://www.vogue.com/
are generally mixtures of chemical compounds derived from
projects/13535833/palm-oil-controversy-beauty-products-
natural sources or maybe synthetic or artificial. Nowadays,
ingredient-sourcing-deforestation-climate-change/
Forest in Borneo, Indonesia, cut down for an oil palm plantation. In the Philippines, the vast expanse of palm oil plantations are in Mindanao. Photo by Jami
Tarris/Minden Pictures https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/09/scientists-reveal-how-much-world-s-forests-being-destroyed-industrial-agriculture

14
 IF RECENT TRENDS ARE NOT REVERSED, THE SDG 2.1 ZERO HUNGER TARGET WILL NOT BE MET

20% 1 000
Number of
825.6 841.4
undernourished (millions)
15% 678.1 687.8 750

Hunger is 628.9

PERCENTAGE
12.6%

MILLIONS
on the Rise
10% 500
9.8%
8.6% 8.9% 8.9%
Prevalence of
As discussed, agriculture is vital in 5%
undernourishment (%)
250

improving food security. Yet, FAO

reported that the decades long
0% 0
steady decline in world hunger as
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019* ... 2030**
measured by the prevalence of
undernourishment, has, unfortunately, YEARS
ended (see figure on the right). The
The number of undernourished people (percentage)
Prevalence of undernourishment in the world from 2005Number to 2018, with projections
of undernourished (millions) until 2019 & 2030.
number of undernourished people in Undernourishment continued to increase from 2014-2019 & if recent trends are not reversed, the SGD 2.1 zero hunger
the world has been rising slowly since target will not be met. ** Projections do not include the impact of CoViD-19 pandemic. Adapted from FAO, IFAD, UNICEF,
NOTES: &
WFP Projected
WHOvalues in the figure are illustrated by dotted lines and empty circles. The shaded area represents projections for the longer period from 2019 to the 2030 target year.
(2020).
2014. Undernourishment occurs The entire series was carefully revised to reflect new information made available since the publication of the last edition of the report; it replaces all series published previously.
when a person is not able to acquire * See Box 2 for a description of the projection method. ** Projections to 2030 do not consider the potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.
(FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO
SOURCE: FAO. of effective social protection policies;
enough food to meet the daily
2020). This rise in hunger is contrary increasing frequency of extreme
minimum dietary energy requirements
to the consensus view that current weather events, altered environmental
over a period of one year (FAO).
systems are capable of producing conditions & the associated spread of
enough food tobenefits
The assessment feed the global
from important updates pests SDG
& diseases; as well as conflicts
Indicator 2.1.1
It was estimated that almost 690 M in population. What went wrong?
for several populous countries. In particular, & violence all contribute to vicious(PoU)
Prevalence of undernourishment
the world (8.9% of the global newly accessible data for China made it possible circlesThe of poverty & hunger.
three most recent editions of this
population) were undernourished in to update estimates of inequalities in dietar y Moreover, the prevalence of evidence
report already presented hunger is that the
There are a various reasons why
2019. The number of people affected energ y consumption in the countr y. This has in decades-long decline in hunger in the world,
hunger has increased
turn allowed us to revisein the
the last prevalence
entire few of higherasinmeasured
countries withthe
using fast
PoU, had unfortunately
by hunger in the world continues to
years. Economic slowdowns
undernourishment & the countr y population
(PoU) series for ended.growth
Additional& poor access
evidence and to
several
increase slowly. This trend started in estimate hungerhealthcare & education (FAO, IFAD, a revision
downturns
back to 2000,orand
financial crises;
by extension to high important data updates, including
2014 & extends to 2019. There are in the world with greater accuracy (see Box 1). of the
UNICEF, WFPentire
& WHOPoU series
2020). for China (see Boxes 1
level of commodity-export &
nearly 60 M more undernourished and 2), show that almost 690 million people in
commodity-import
The report presents an dependence; large 2019
assessment through the world (8.9 percent of the world population)
people now than in 2014, & 10 M
inequalities
based on the in thethat
data distribution of in March
was available The next two pages
are estimated showbeen
to have the undernourished
global
people more between 2019 & 2019
income,
2020, justassets & resources;
before the absence began distribution
COV ID-19 pandemic in 2019of undernourishment.
(Figure 1, Tables 1 and 2). Revision in light
to take hold. The challenge of eradicating hunger of the new data, which results in a parallel
and ensuring access to safe and nutritious downward shift of the entire global PoU series,
food for all now appears to be more daunting. confirms the conclusion of past editions of
15 The fig ures and projections reported in this this report: the number of people affected
section and in Section 1.2 provide a picture by hunger in the world continues to increase
of how food insecurit y and malnutrition in slowly. This trend started in 2014 and extends
Prevalence of undernourishment in the total population (%) in 2016-2018
the world would have evolved had COV ID-19
not appeared. In this sense, it is an important
to 2019. There are nearly 60 million more
undernourished people now than in 2014,
assessment
The Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Fund for Agricultural to be(IFAD),
Development used as a baseline
United Nation’s against when the prevalence
International Children’s Emergency was
Fund (UNICEF), 8.6 Food
World percent – up by
Programme
(WFP), & World Health Organization (WHO) all work together to report thewhich
state to evaluate
of food the& impact
security of the
nutrition in theworld.
pandemic on
They publish 10 reports
annual million peoplemaps
& hunger between
(such 2018
as theand
maps2019.
on this »
page & on the next page) that provide vital information about the biggestfood securit
single risk to yglobal
and health.
nutrition.
Map retrieved from https://www.wfp.org/publications/2019-hunger-map

Greenland
Iceland | 4 |

Finland

Norway Russian Federation

Sweden
Est
on
ia

Latvia
Denmark
Lithuania
Russian Fed.

Netherlands
Belarus
nd

United Belgium
ela

Kingdom Poland
Ir

Germany

Canada Luxembourg
Liechtenstein
Czechia
Slovakia
Ukraine
Kazakhstan
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Rep.dova

Austria Hungary
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Switzerland
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Croatia Romania
San Bosnia and
Serb

Marino Herzegovina

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States of Rep. of
Hunger Map 2019

Gibraltar (UK) Korea

China
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Tunisia

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America
Republic and
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Lebanon
Israel Islamic Republic Afghanistan Kashmir**
oc West Bank Iraq Japan
or Gaza of Iran
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itr

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Nicaragua Burkina Cambodia
Guatemala Grenada
Guinea Bissau Faso Djibouti
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Benin

Trinidad and Tobago

Nigeria
Ghana

*** Sri Lanka

Costa Rica South Ethiopia
Togo

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oo

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Brazil Indian Ocean Timor Leste

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821 million people - more than 1 in 9 of the New Zealand

world population - do not get enough to eat

Falkland Islands (Malvinas)*

5-14.9% of Filipinos are

< 2,5% < 5% 5-14,9% 15-24,9% 25-34,9% >35% DATA NOT
AVAILABLE undernourished between 2016-2019
Undernourishment is defined as the condition in which an individual’s habitual food consumption is insufficient to provide the amount of dietary energy required to maintain a
normal, active, healthy life. The indicator is reported as the prevalence of undernourishment (PoU), which is an estimate of the percentage of individuals in the total population
that are in a condition of undernourishment. To reduce the influence of possible estimation errors in some of the underlying parameters, national estimates are reported as a

16 three-year moving average. Source: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO. 2019. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding against economic
slowdowns and downturns. Rome, FAO. Further information is available at https://www.wfp.org/publications/2019-state-food-security-and-nutrition-world-sofi-safeguarding-against-economic
16 October 2019

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this map does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of WFP concerning the legal or constitutional status of any country, territory or
sea area, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers.

Prevalence of undernourishment in the total population (percent) in 2016-18

* A dispute exists between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).
** Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.
*** Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined.

International Boundary Armistice or International Administrative Line Other Line of Separation Special boundary line
 Prevalence of undernourishment in the total population (%) in 2017-2019
Compare the data from 2016-2018 with 2017-2019. The Philippines’ overall status did not change, although we can argue that the percentage range is quite high. Which countries upgraded/
downgraded their status? Unfortunately, the number of countries that do not have available data have increased. Map retrieved from https://www.wfp.org/publications/hunger-map-2020

Iceland

Greenland

Finland

Norway Russian Federation

Sweden
Est
on
ia

Latvia
Denmark
Lithuania

Canada
Russian Fed.
Netherlands
Belarus

nd
United Belgium

ela
Kingdom Poland

Ir
Germany

Czechia Ukraine
Luxembourg Slovakia
Liechtenstein
Kazakhstan

Mo
Rep.o
Austria Hungary
Mongolia

ldo
France Switzerland

f
va
Slovenia
Croatia
Romania
Bosnia and

Serb
San Herzegovina
Marino
Uz

It
Monaco

United

ia
Montenegro Bulgaria be

a
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ly
Georgia ist Kyrgyzstan

Albania
North
Andorra Holy Macedonia an

Portugal
see
Spain
States of
Armenia Azerbaijan Dem. People’s
Gr
e ec Turkey Turkmenistan Rep. of Korea
e Tajikistan

America Rep.
of Korea

China
Gibraltar (UK)

Tunisia
Syrian
Malta Cyprus Arab Jammu
Lebanon Republic and
co Israel
Iraq Islamic Republic Afghanistan Kashmir
Japan
oc West Bank
or of Iran
Gaza

an
M

Jord
Atlantic Ocean Algeria
Kuwait
Pakistan Nep
al
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Libya Egypt Bahrain

Bahamas Qatar

Sah stern
Saudi Arabia
Pacific Ocean

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India

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M
ex Cuba Dominican Republic
United Arab Myanmar Viet Nam
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Mauritania Bangladesh

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Belize Jamaica Puerto Rico Antigua and Barbuda Mali Niger Lao People’s
(U.S.A) Cabo Verde
Chad Sudan *** Eritr
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uras Dominica ea
Hond
Saint Vincent
Senegal Philippines
and the Grenadines Barbados Gambia Cambodia
Guatemala Nicaragua Burkina
Grenada Faso Djibouti
Guinea Bissau
El Salvador Trinidad and Tobago Guinea

Benin
Nigeria

Ghana
Costa Rica South *** Ethiopia Sri Lanka

Togo
Côte
Venezuela

n
Suriname Sierra Leone Lib d’Ivoire Brunei
Central African Sudan

oo
Panama French Guiana (Fr.) eri Darussalam
Guy

Republic
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a

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m
Colombia m
ana

Ca
Equatorial So Maldives
Guinea da

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n

ng
Uga Kenya Singapore

Co
Ecuador Sao Tome and Gabon Rwanda

of
Principe
Dem. Rep.

p.
Re
Burundi
of Congo Seychelles
United Republic Solomon
Cabinda (Angola) of Tanzania
Indonesia Islands

Brazil
Timor Leste
Pe
ru

Comoros
Angola Papua
Zambia
Malawi Indian Ocean New Guinea

ue
Bolivia

biq

scar
Vanuatu Fiji

am
oz
Zimbabwe Mauritius

aga
Pa Namibia
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Mad
Botswana Réunion (Fr.)
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Chile

Pacific Ocean
Australia
ay New Caledonia (Fr.)

Lesotho
Eswatini
a

South
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Africa
Uruguay
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New Zealand

Falkland Islands (Malvinas)*

Hunger Map 2020 CHRONIC HUNGER If current trends continue, the number of hungry
people will reach 840 million by 2030

< 2,5% < 5% 5-14,9% 15-24,9% 25-34,9% >35% DATA NOT

Undernourishment is defined as the condition in which an individual’s habitual food consumption is insufficient to provide the amount of dietary energy required to maintain a
normal, active, healthy life. The indicator is reported as the prevalence of undernourishment (PoU), which is an estimate of the percentage of individuals in the total population

AVAILABLE that are in a condition of undernourishment. To reduce the influence of possible estimation errors in some of the underlying parameters, national estimates are reported as a

17 three-year moving average. Source: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable
healthy diets. Rome, FAO. Further information is available at https://www.wfp.org/publications/state-food-security-and-nutrition-world-sofi-report-2020

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this map does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of WFP concerning the legal or constitutional status of any country, territory or

2 September 2020
sea area, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers.
* A dispute exists between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).
** Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.

Prevalence of undernourishment in the total population (percent) in 2017-19

*** Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined.

International Boundary Armistice or International Administrative Line Other Line of Separation Special boundary line

Towards Sustainable Key Challenges

Agriculture Competition over natural resources will continue to

intensify. This may come from urban expansion,
competition among various agricultural sectors, expansion
of agriculture at the expense of forests, industrial use of
To be sustainable, agriculture must meet the needs of water, or recreational use of land. In many places this is
present & future generations for its products & services, leading to exclusion of traditional users from access to
while ensuring profitability, environmental health & social & resources & markets
economic equity. It must nurture healthy ecosystems &
support the sustainable management of land, water & While agriculture is a major contributor to climate change,
natural resources, while ensuring world food security (FAO). it is also a victim of its effects. Climate change reduces the
resilience of production systems & contributes to natural
Environmental resource degradation. Temperature increases, modified
Health rainfall patterns & extreme weather events are expected to
become significantly more severe in the future

Increasing movement of people & goods, environmental

changes, & changes in production practices give rise to
new threats from diseases (such as highly pathogenic
Sustainable avian influenza) or invasive species (such as tephritid fruit
flies), which can affect food safety, human health & the
Agriculture effectiveness & sustainability of production systems.
Threats are compounded by inadequate policies &
technical capacities, which can put whole food chains at
Economic Social risk
Profitability Equity
The policy agenda & mechanisms for production &
Sustainable agriculture gives equal weight to environmental, social, resource conservation are mostly disjointed. There is no
&economic concerns in agriculture. clear integrated management of ecosystems &/or
landscapes.
FAO
18
 What needs to be done? Alternative Farming
Methods
# Improve efficiency in the use of
resources
Organic farming. The principles of organic farming is the
Direct action to conserve, maintenance of soil fertility by bio-intensive nutrient

$ protect & enhance

natural resources
management, recycling of agricultural wastes,
vermicomposting, avoidance or reduction of external
inputs, use of natural forms of pest management & weed
control. It excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers &
Enhance the resilience of people, pesticides; plant growth regulators, livestock feed

" communities & ecosystems,

especially to climate change &
market volatility
additives, & genetically modified organisms.

Urban & peri-urban farming. It is the practice of

cultivating, processing & distributing vegetables & fruits
within urban environments for household consumption as

%
Protect & improve rural
well as for sale to urban population. Urban agriculture
livelihoods & social well-being
contributes to food security & food safety by increasing
the amount of food available to people living in cities, &
allowing fresh vegetables, fruits & meat products to be
& Good governance made available to urban consumers.

Eco-farming. Also known as site-appropriate agriculture,

where site refers to natural conditions like soil, climate &
temperature. The farming practice includes restoring
appropriate vegetation-trees & shrubs, creation of erosion-
protection strips, planting of hedges to divide a farm into
numerous small fields, intercropping, alternating with
FAO intensive fallow, organic manuring, integrated livestock

19

husbandry, improved mechanization, supplementary use of
mineral fertilizer, integrated plant protection & selective
weed control.
Polyculture. As opposed to monoculture farming,
polyculture uses multiple crops in the same space. It
promotes diversity of agroecosystems. It includes crop
rotation, multi-cropping, intercropping, companion planting,
beneficial weeds & alley cropping.
Permaculture. It is the conscious design & maintenance
of agriculturally productive ecosystems for stability &
resilience of natural ecosystems. It is the harmonious
integration of landscape, food, energy & shelter. The farm is
divided into specific zones such as orchard, poultry,
vegetable garden, native vegetation, etc. The concept is to
treat the farm as a system composed of many sub-systems
that work together to sustain the environment, much like
the natural ecosystems.

Urban farm in UP Diliman campus created by the UP Diliman Task Force on Solid Waste Management (UPD-TFSWM). Photo retrieved
from https://www.up.edu.ph/flourish-in-the-rubbish/ 12 Sep 2020

20
 Integrated Pest Brazil, IPM has reduced pesticide use on soybeans by as
much as 90%. In Japan, many farmers save money by
using ducks for pest control in rice paddies. The ducks’
Management (IPM) droppings provide nutrients for the rice plants.

A well-designed IPM program can reduce synthetic

pesticide use & pest control costs by 50–65%, without
Instead of using synthetic pesticides, the best way to
reducing crop yields and food quality. IPM can also reduce
control crop pests is through IPM, a carefully designed
inputs of fertilizer & irrigation water, & slow the development
program in which each crop & its pests are evaluated as
of genetic resistance, because pests are attacked less
parts of an ecosystem, & farmers use a carefully
often & with lower doses of pesticides. IPM is an important
coordinated combination of cultivation, biological, &
form of pollution prevention that reduces risks to wildlife &
chemical tools & techniques.
human health, applies the biodiversity principle of
sustainability, & expands our beneficial environmental
The overall aim of IPM is to reduce crop damage to an
impact.
economically tolerable level. Each year, crops are rotated in
an effort to disrupt pest infestations. When farmers detect
Despite its promise, IPM—like any other form of pest
an economically damaging level of pests in any field, they
control—has some drawbacks. It requires expert
first use biological methods (natural predators, parasites, &
knowledge about each pest situation & takes more time
disease organisms) & cultivation controls (such as altering
than does using conventional pesticides. Methods
planting time & using large machines to vacuum up harmful
developed for a crop in one area might not apply to areas
bugs). They apply small amounts of synthetic insecticides
with even slightly different growing conditions. Initial costs
—preferably biopesticides—only when insect or weed
may be higher, although long-term costs typically are lower
populations reach a threshold where the potential cost of
than those of using conventional pesticides. Widespread
pest damage to crops outweighs the cost of applying the
use of IPM has been hindered in the United States and
pesticide.
other countries by government subsidies that support use
of synthetic chemical pesticides, as well as by opposition
IPM has a good track record. In Sweden & Denmark,
from pesticide manufacturers, and a shortage of IPM ex-
farmers have used it to cut their synthetic pesticide use by
perts.
more than half. In Cuba, where organic farming is used
almost exclusively, farmers make extensive use of IPM. In
Miller & Spoolman, 2016

21

Total
Developed countries

Genetic Engineering in Developing countries

Agriculture
Genetic engineering is the process of using recombinant
DNA (rDNA) technology to alter the genetic makeup of an
organism, i.e., taking pieces of DNA & combining them with
other pieces of DNA. Traditionally, humans have
manipulated genomes indirectly by controlling breeding & Global area planted to GMCs have grown from 1.7 M hectares in 1996 to 189.8 M
selecting offspring with desired traits. Genetic engineering hectares in 2017, with an increasing proportion grown by developing countries. Adapted
involves the direct manipulation of one or more genes. Most from ISAAA, 2017.
often, a gene from another species is added to an
organism's genome to give it a desired phenotype (NHGRI).
Phenotype refers to the observable physical properties of
an organism; these include the organism's appearance,
development, & behavior.

Genetic engineering in agriculture involves several different

practices: (1) faster & more efficient ways to develop new
hybrids; (2) introduction of the “terminator gene”; & (3)
transfer of genetic properties from widely divergent kinds of
life (Botkin & Keller, 2011). The jury is out as to whether the
benefits of genetically modified crops (GMCs) or organisms
(GMOs) will outweigh undesirable effects. As with many new
technologies of the industrial age, application has preceded
environmental investigation & understanding, & the As of 2017, there were 24 countries, including the Philippines, which have adopted
widespread use of GMC/Os is under way before the biotech crops. Of these, only five are developed countries. Adapted from ISAAA,
2017.
environmental effects are well understood. The challenge for
environmental science is to gain an understanding of
environmental effects of GMC/Os quickly. To know more about GMOs, watch this animation https://
ed.ted.com/best_of_web/0HAnxvLF
22
 New Hybrids
The development of hybrids within a species is a natural
phenomenon, & the development of hybrids of major crops,
especially of small grains, has been a major factor in the
great increase in productivity of 20th-century agriculture.
From an environmental perspective, genetic engineering to
develop hybrids within a species is likely to be as benign as
the development of agricultural hybrids has been with
conventional methods (Botkin & Keller, 2011)
However, some people are concerned that the great
efficiency of genetic modification may produce
“superhybrids” that are so productive they can grow where
they are not wanted & become pests. There is also concern
that some of the new hybrid characteristics could be
transferred by interbreeding with closely related weeds. This
could inadvertently create a “superweed” whose growth,
persistence, & resistance to pesticides would make it difficult
to control. Another concern is that new hybrids might be
developed that could grow on more & more marginal lands.
Raising crops on such marginal lands might increase erosion
& sedimentation & lead to decreased biological diversity in
specific biomes. Still another potential problem is that
“superhybrids” might require much more fertilizer, pesticide,
& water. This could lead to greater pollution & the need for
more irrigation (Botkin & Keller, 2011).
On the positive side, GMCs could lead to hybrids that
require less fertilizer, pesticide, & water. For example, right
23
The Terminator Gene
The terminator gene makes seeds from a crop sterile. This is
done for environmental & economic reasons. In theory, it
prevents GMCs from spreading. It also protects the market
for the corporation that developed it: Farmers cannot avoid
purchasing seeds by using some of their crops’ hybrid
seeds the next year. This poses social & political problems.
Farmers in less-developed nations, & governments of
nations that lack genetic-engineering capabilities, are
concerned that the terminator gene will allow few countries
& their major corporations to control the world food supply.
Concerned observers believe that farmers in poor nations
must be able to grow next year’s crops from their own seeds
because they cannot afford to buy new seeds every year.
This is not directly an environmental problem, but it can
become an environmental problem indirectly by affecting
total world food production, which then affects the human
population & how land is used in areas that have been in
agriculture (Botkin & Keller, 2011).
Transfer of Genes from One Major
Form of Life to Another
An example of the unforeseen environmental effect involves
potatoes & corn, caterpillars that eat these crops, a disease
of caterpillars that controls these pests, & an endangered
species, monarch butterflies (Botkin & Keller, 2011).
24
now only legumes (peas & their relatives) have symbiotic
relationships with bacteria & fungi that allow them to fix
nitrogen. Attempts are under way to transfer this capability
to other crops, so that more kinds of crops would enrich the
soil with nitrogen & require much less external application of
nitrogen fertilizer (Botkin & Keller, 2011).
For the updated database of GMOs, visit http://
www.isaaa.org/gmapprovaldatabase/
Trade-Offs
Genetically Modified Crops and Foods
Projected Projected
Advantages Disadvantages
May need less Have unpredictable
fertilizer, pesticides, genetic and
and water ecological effects
May put toxins
Can be resistant to in food
insects, disease,
frost, and drought Can promote
pesticide-resistant
insects, herbicide-
© 2016 Cengage Learning
Can grow faster resistant weeds, and
plant diseases
May tolerate Could disrupt seed
higher levels of market and reduce
herbicides biodiversity
Advantages & disadvantages of GMCs. Adapted from Miller & Spoolman,
2016.
The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) is a successful
natural pesticide that causes a disease in many caterpillars.
With biotechnology, agricultural scientists studied the
bacteria & discovered the toxic chemical & the gene that
caused its production within the bacteria. This gene was
then transferred to potatoes & corn so that the biologically
engineered plants produced their own pesticide. At first, this
was believed to be a constructive step in pest control
because it was no longer necessary to spray a pesticide.
However, the genetically engineered potatoes & corn
produced the toxic BT substance in every cell—not just in
the leaves that the caterpillars ate, but also in the potatoes &
corn sold as food, in the flowers, & in the pollen. This has a
potential, not yet demonstrated, to create problems for
species that are not intended targets of the BT (see figure on
next page)
A strain of rice, known as the Golden Rice, has been
developed that produces beta- carotene, important in
human nutrition. The rice has added nutritional benefits that
are particularly valuable for the poor of the world who
depend on rice as a primary food. The gene that enables
rice to make beta-carotene comes from daffodils, but the
modification actually required the introduction of four specific
genes. That is, genes were transferred between plants that
would not exchange genes in nature. Once again, the rule of
natural change suggests that we should monitor such
actions carefully. There is much concern worldwide about
the political, social, & environmental effects of GMC/Os. This
is a story in progress.
 23 0 CHAPTER 11 Agriculture, Aquaculture, and the Environment
(a)
Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria (a
natural pecticide). The gene that
caused the pecticide (BT) was placed
in corn through genetic engineering.
(c)
FIG U R E 1 1 . 20 The flow of the BT toxin from bacteria (a) to corn
through genetic engineering (b) and the possible ecological transfer
(b)
BT corn contains its
own pesticide in every
cell of the plant.
Pollen from the BT
corn is also toxic
and when it lands on
milkweed, monarch
butterflies that eat the
milkweed may die.
Golden Rice (GR2E variety) FAQs
100,000 hectares (about 250,000 acres) of flooded rice
Can GR2E solve Vit. A deficiency? GR2E has the potential
fields. This is an ancient practice that can be traced back
to be a suitable complementary intervention to address Vit. A
to a treatise on fish culture written by Fan Li in 475
deficiency, a condition that afflicts 250 M people worldwide. It is
B.C.14 In China and other Asian countries, farmers often
intended as a complementary, food based solution for Vit. A-
growdeficient
several species of fish in the same pond, exploiting
communities such as the Philippines & Bangladesh,
theirwho
different ecological niches. Ponds developed main-
consume rice as a staple food. The average Filipino
ly forconsumes
carp, a bottom-feeding
290 g of rice every fish, also
day;contain minnows,
in Bangladesh, the average
whichdaily per capita consumption of rice is 367 g.pond.
feed at the surface on leaves added to the
Aquaculture can be extremely productive on a per-
area basis, in part because flowing water brings food from
When will GR2E be available to farmers & consumers?
outside into the pond or enclosure. Although the area of
GR2E is currently in advanced development. Product safety
Earthtesting
that can support freshwater aquaculture is small, we
has been completed but additional product testing is
can planned,
expect this kind of aquaculture to increase and be-
including the evaluation of consumer quality traits &
comehuman
a morebioefficacy
importantstudies.
source of protein.
Sometimes fishponds use otherwise wasted resourc-
es, such as fertilized water from treated sewage. Other
Will GR2E result in changed cultivation practices that
fishponds exist in natural hot springs (Idaho) or use water
could have adverse environmental impact? No changes in
warmed by being used to cool electric power plants (Long
farm management or cultivation practices are anticipated
Island, New York; Great Britain).14
should GR2E be adopted in agriculture in the future.
Mariculture, the farming of ocean fish, though
producing a small part of the total marine fish catch, has
grownArerapidly
there inany thepotential
last decades adverse
and will environmental
likely continue
to doconsequences
so. Oysters andofmusselsout-crossing
are grown from GR2E
on rafts into other rice
lowered
or weedy relatives? If the trait is transferred
into the ocean, a common practice in the Atlantic Ocean by out-crossing
from GR2E rice into other cultivated or weedy rice, progeny
in Portugal and in the Mediterranean in such nations as
France. These animals are filter feeders—they obtain foodthat could
plants will not exhibit an altered selection advantage

Theofflow
toxic substances
of the to monarch
BT toxin from butterflies
bacteria (a) (c). genetic engineering
to corn through fromcause
waterthem
that to become
moves pastmore
them. weedy or invasive
Because a smallinraft
managed or
unmanaged ecosystems. There are no anticipated adverse
(b) & the possible ecological transfer of toxic substances to monarch is exposed to a large volume of water, and thus a large
environmental consequences of introgression of the provitamin
11.8 Aquaculture
butterflies (c). Adapted from Botkin & Keller, 2011. volume of food, rafts can be extremely productive. Mus-
A trait from GR2E rice into other rice or sexually compatible
sels grown on rafts in bays of Galicia, Spain, produce
species.
In contrast to food obtained on land, we still get most 300 metric tons per hectare, whereas public harvesting
of our marine and freshwater food by hunting. Hunting grounds of wild shellfish in the United States yield only
aboutSource: IRRI
10 kg/ha https://www.irri.org/golden-rice-faqs
(that’s just a hundredth of a metric ton).12 14 Sep 2020
25 wild fish has not been sustainable (see Chapter 13), and
thus aquaculture, the farming of this important source of Oysters and mussels are grown on artificial pilings in the
protein in both marine and freshwater habitats, is growing intertidal zone in the state of Washington (Figure 11.21).
rapidly and could become one of the major ways to pro-
vide food of high nutritional quality. Popular aquacultural
animals include carp, tilapia, oysters, and shrimp, but in
many nations other species are farm-raised and culturally Agriculture, forestry, fishing Industry
Agriculture in
important, such as yellowtail (important in Japan and per-
haps just one of several species); crayfish (United States); 100
Services

the Philippines
eels and minnows (China); catfish (southern and mid-
western United States); salmon (Canada, Chile, Norway,
and the United States); trout (United States); plaice, sole,75
and the Southeast Asian milkfish (Great Britain); mussels 58.8 59.3 59.6 59.8 60.6
Impact
(Canada, to theSpain,
France, Economy
and Southeast Asian countries);
and sturgeon (Ukraine). A few species—trout and carp—
25 50
have beenissubject
Agriculture to genetic
contributing lessbreeding
to GDPprograms.
for
Although
the past 5 yearsrelatively new in the United States, aqua-
culture has a long history elsewhere, especially in China, 30.0
25 30.3 30.3 30.6 30.2
The Philippines
where at leastStatistics Authority
50 species (PSA, 2020)
are grown, including finfish,
reported
shrimp,that in 2019,
crab, othertheshellfish,
agricultureseasector
turtles, and sea cu-
contributed only about
cumbers (not 9% (PhP
a vegetable but 1.8 T) to the
a marine animal).14 In the 11.3
FI GU RE 11 .2 1 10.4 10.1 in Poulsbo,
An oyster farm 9.7 Washington.
9.2
country’s gross domestic product (GDP),
Szechuan area of China, fish are farmed on more than 0 Oysters are grown on artificial pilings in the intertidal zone.
compared to the services sector which has the 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
highest share of almost 61% (PhP 11.7 T) (see
figure on the right). In the past five years,
agriculture’s share averaged merely 10% & has Sector 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
been declining. However, this does not include
contribution of agri-food industries & other Agriculture,
services such as transport, cold storage, forestry, & 1,688,344 1,672,085 1,743,134 1,762,616 1,783,855
packaging products, restaurants & quick fishing
service restaurants.

Industry 4,493,390 4,861,342 5,202,582 5,582,525 5,843,934

Services 8,809,174 9,529,249 10,230,262 10,920,048 11,740,724

Total 14,990,907 16,062,676 17,175,978 18,265,190 19,368,513

Gross domestic product by sector at constant 2018 prices, in percent (top) & in PhP
million (down). Data from National Accounts of the Philippines, PSA https://psa.gov.ph/
content/agricultural-indicators-system-economic-growth-0

26
 Total agro-based & forest products’ share in total
exports was 7%
With regards to contribution to foreign trade, the PSA
reported that the combined share of total agro-based
products & forest products was only 7% (USD 371.82 M) to
total exports in July 2020 (see figure below). In comparison,
mineral products contributed 7.7% (USD 437.85 M) while
the highest share came from manufactured goods, 83.8%
(USD 4.74 B).

July 2020 July 2019

4,738.4
Manufactured goods
5,194.5

437.9
Mineral products 1%
437.5
2%
342.6
Total agro-based products 6%
437.6
8%
105.2
Manufactured goods
Special transactions Mineral products
148 Total agro-based products
84% Special transactions
29.2 Forest products
Forest products
31.1

0.3
Petroleum products
3.3

0 1500 3000 4500 6000

FOB value in USD million
Philippine exports by major types of goods in July 2019 & July 2020 in FOB value in USD million & in percent. Data retrieved from https://psa.gov.ph/statistics/
foreign-trade/fts-release-id/163081 10 Sep 2020.

27

Fishermen & farmers remain the poorest basic sectors

Fishermen & farmers consistently posted the highest poverty

incidence among basic sectors of the society from 2006,
2009, 2012 & 2015 (PSA). Data retrieved from https://
psa.gov.ph/poverty-press-releases/nid/120251,10 Sep 2020

© clringor
28
 Is there enough local supply of rice Why does the Philippines import
in the Philippines? rice?

'
We have been a net importer of rice
since 1993 (http://nap.psa.gov.ph/headlines/
StatsSpeak/2011/080811_rav.asp downloaded 6 Oct
2016)
We ranked 1st (2.6 million MT) in 2010
The answer is obvious, the local supply cannot meet
the national domestic consumption. Why? Because
of the geographic makeup of the Philippines (Dawe et
al. undated). The Philippines is an archipelago, a
nation of islands without any major river deltas like
those in Thailand & Vietnam. The landscape is varied

(
as the world’s biggest rice importer
(http://www.riceauthority.com/rice-importing-
countries/ downloaded 6 Oct 2016)
with less arable lands i.e., land suitable for growing
crops. The land area is limited to 300,000 km2, & only
43,000 km2 (14.3%) is suitable for rice production.
The Philippines lacks two fundamental needs for rice
production - land & freshwater. Furthermore, the

'
We ranked 3rd in 2015 (1.8 million MT)
(https://www.statista.com/statistics/255948/top-rice-
exporting-countries-worldwide-2011/ downloaded 6
Oct 2016)
Philippines is also highly exposed to devastating
typhoons, making rice production more difficult &
risky. Another key factor is the increasing population.
The Philippines’ population growth rate is higher
compared to Eastern & South-Eastern Asia (recall

(
We ranked 2nd in 2018 (2.3 million MT)
(https://www.statista.com/statistics/255948/top-rice-
exporting-countries-worldwide-2011/ downloaded 7
May 2019)
Human Population lecture). Other factors that may
contribute to rice importation are conversion of
farmlands into other uses, inefficient use of irrigation
systems, & lack of good-quality roads for transport.

Trade liberalization also promotes importation. The

'
We ranked 1st in 2019 (3 million MT) Republic Act 11203, or the Rice Tariffication Law, was
https://www.philstar.com/headlines/
enacted in February 2019. It is most probably the
2019/11/11/1967753/philippine-beats-china-worlds-
biggest-rice-importer reason why the Philippines became the biggest rice
importer in 2019.

29

When rice is harvested it will contain up to 25% moisture, it is

important to dry the grains as soon as possible, ideally within
24 hr to avoid deterioration of quality & eventual losses.
Unhusked rice (palay) being dried on roads, such as this one
in San Jose, Tarlac, is common among farmers. Among the
possible reasons why this is practiced are the lack of
resources, e.g. nearby drying facilities, money to pay for
drying expenses & cargo truck for transport, etc. &/or for
more profit. However, under the Philippine Highway Act of
1953, the use of national roads for drying palay is punishable
by a fine (PhP 1,000) & a jail time (6 months).

30 © CLRingor
 results to positive feedback loop of environmental
Impact to the Environment degradation

Case Study 2: Mindanao Farms

Case Study 1: Commercial Vegetable Agriculture in
Buguias, Benguet
Nitrates in groundwater: High concentrations of nitrates in
groundwater, 50 mg/L (above WHO standard), because of
excessive application of fertilizer, both organic (chicken
dung) & synthetic, & pesticides on the farms (Pascua &
Foronda, 2001)
Total suspended solid: Soil erosion enhanced by farming
resulted to sediment pollution in the upper Agno River. As a
consequence, Ambuklao & Binga dams suffered heavy
siltation (Manueli, 2007)
Nitrates in groundwater. It is surprising that there are no
comprehensive studies on the amount of nitrates in
groundwater in Mindanao, despite the monopoly of
agribusiness transnational corporation on the region’s
plantations.
Note: I am surprised that there are limited studies related to
environmental impact of agriculture in Mindanao, hence, I
purposely included Mindanao as a case study. Most
studies are concentrated in Luzon. If you can find
literatures, do share.

Loss of aquatic life. Agricultural chemicals & surface

runoff is channeled directly to Agno River (Lewis, 1992).
Most aquatic life has disappeared & what remains is not
edible

Land conversion: From cloud forest to grassland to

vegetable farms (Lewis, 1992). Before vegetable farming,
the grasslands were used for free-ranging cattle

Air pollution. Emissions, such as ammonia (NH3) &

methane (CH4), from manure used as fertilizer (Pascua &
Foronda, 2001)

Loss of soil fertility. Soil erosion & leaching due to

industrialized farming causes decline in soil fertility. This Vegetable terrace in Buguias, Benguet. Photo by Leocadio Sebastian
results to intensive application of fertilizer, which in turn,

31

because of unjust compensation (Dawe et al., undated;

Impact to the Society
As the benefits of agriculture to society is so obvious,
this section will focus on specific reports & studies on
the unforeseen harmful effects of agriculture to
Filipinos.
Health. Constant exposure to agrochemicals poses a risk
to human health. For instance, farmers (n=701) in Mindanao
complain about skin irritation, headache, cough, dry throat,
shortness of breath, dizziness, nausea, & eye irritation after
spraying pesticides due to unsafe handling. These are
manifestations of mild pyrethroid & organophosphate
poisonings (Perez et al., 2015). In another study, it was
found that farmers in Laguna & Nueva Ecija suffered from
health problems related to the eyes, skin, lungs, kidney &
muscles (Antle & Pingali, 1995).
Oxfam Philippines). The hard physical labor is twofold for
women farm laborers. They work as hard in the farm as
their husband & also have to take care of the family after
work.
Those who have been awarded land ownership through the
government’s agrarian reform programs were forced to sell
their land to pay off their debts incurred because the
income generated from the farm is barely enough to provide
for their daily needs, e.g. most of them have no health
insurance & savings for medical expenses. Clearly, it is not
enough to award lands. Capital investment should also be
provided & the awardees should have the skills & know-how
to make the land sustainable for agriculture.
There is also an issue of child labor in farms, such as in the
case of those who work in sugar cane plantations (CNN).

Displacement of indigenous people (IP). The ancestral

lands of IP communities are encroached & converted to
monoculture plantations. As an example, the ancestral
lands of Higaonon in Mindanao were cultivated for palm oil
(Mongabay). Another case is the expansion of oil palm
plantations in Palawan, which have disadvantaged &
marginalized lowland indigenous communities (World
Rainforest Movement).

Inequality. The bulk of work in the farms, especially in large

scale farming, are actually done by farm laborers, not the
landowners. These are landless workers or locals who share
a very small area of the farm. These workers are, ironically,
food insecure despite doing most of the labor in the farm
Dante, 14, has been working in the sugar cane field since he was 7 years old.
To know more about him, visit https://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/01/world/asia/
philippines-child-labor/index.html

32

A Case Study on Pest
Management
A major outbreak of the coconut scale insect, Aspidiotus
rigidus Reyne (locally known as “cocolisap”), occurred
between 2009 & 2015 in the provinces of Batangas, Cavite,
Laguna, & Quezon. The group of Dr. Divina M. Amalin of
DLSU discovered a new species of an encyrtid parasitoid,
now recognized as Comperiella calauanica Barrion,
Almarinez & Amalin, & its potential as a biological control
agent against “cocolisap”. They found out that this new
species eat the “cocolisap”, which resulted to the complete
recovery of the affected coconut palms. This demonstrates
that biological control is a viable & sustainable alternative to
chemical control in managing insect pest populations in the
Philippines (Almarinez & Amalin, 2017).
Samples of coconut leaves infested with cocolisap. Photo by Mar Jadina.
Retrieved from http://www.science.ph/full_story.php?key=122131:saving-the-
ph-coconut-industry&type=latest 12 Sep 2020
33
2010. The IRR was approved on January 2011. RA 10068
seeks to develop & promote organic agriculture in four key
areas: a) policy formulation on regulation, registration,
accreditation, certification & labeling; b) research,
development, & extension; c) establishment of the
infrastructure for production & commercialization; & d)
implementation of organic agricultural programs, projects, &
activities, including the provision & delivery of support
services.
GMC/Os
Biotech maize commercialization in the Philippines started
in 2003. The Philippines became the first country to plant a
biotech crop in Southeast Asia, & has become a model for
science- based & thorough regulatory policy in the region.
The Philippines ranked 13th in biotech crop
commercialization in 2017, with 642,000 hectares planted
to biotech maize (even though it declined by 21% from
812,000 hectares in 2016) (ISAAA, 2017).
Biotech maize area & adoption rate (based on actual seed
sales & farm surveys) decreased from 2016 to 2017
because of proliferation of counterfeit biotech maize seeds
locally called “ukay-ukay” & “sige-sige”. The presence of
counterfeit seeds account for close to 10% of market share
of biotech maize (ISAAA, 2017).
The farm level economic benefit of planting biotech maize in
the period 2003 to 2016 was estimated to have reached
US$724 M. For 2016 alone the net national impact of
biotech maize on farm income was estimated at US$82 M.
34
Watch this news archive on cocolisap
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1EYxRdX_-k
Organic Farming: Major Policies
Organic farms are found throughout the country. The main
organic products include staple crops (mainly rice, maize, &
some rootcrops), vegetables (cabbage, lettuce, cucumber,
tomato, pepper, bittermelon, okra, kangkong, mustard,
pechay, squash, eggplant, & carrots), fruits (banana,
mango, & papaya), herbs, & spices. Organic agricultural
inputs, e.g. fertilizers & microbial soil preparations, are also
being produced. Organic products for export include mainly
muscovado sugar, fresh Cavendish bananas, banana chips,
mango, coconut oil, & yellow corn (Salazar, 2014).
The last decade has seen major policy initiatives for organic
agriculture. In December 2005, Executive Order 481
“Promotion & Development of Organic Agriculture in the
Philippines” was signed, & in August 2006, its Implementing
Rules & Regulations (IRR) were formulated. These policies
mandated the Department of Agriculture (DA) to establish a
national organic agriculture program that would address
concerns such as certification & accreditation, market
promotion & networking, research & development, &
extension, among others.
Another breakthrough was achieved on February 2010,
when Senate Bill No. 3264 & the House of Representatives
Bill No. 7066 were consolidated into the Republic Act No.
10068, “An Act Providing for the Development & Promotion
of Organic Agriculture in the Philippines & for Other
Purposes, also known as the Organic Agriculture Act of
These immense economic gains are continuously benefiting
more than 406,000 farmers & their families in the last 14
years of biotech maize commercialization in the Philippines
(ISAAA, 2017).
The newly approved biosafety guideline makes the approval
process a little complicated. There are currently some
applications which have not been approved which were
already over the prescribed review & assessment period of
85 days. Nevertheless, the science community & farmer
groups are fully supportive of the technology & are working
together to improve the regulations to make it more
transparent & efficient.
As early as 2013, the Philippines had already achieved corn self-sufficiency,
according to Agriculture Undersecretary Segfredo Serrano due to biotech maize
(Philstar, 15 July 2018). Photo retrieved from https://www.philstar.com/business/
agriculture/2018/07/15/1833522/gm-corn-aids-philippine-self-sufficiency 12 Sep
2020
 Here are some of the biotech crops in the pipeline: Bt cotton is being developed by the Philippine Fiber
Development Administration (PFIDA), formerly the Cotton
The fruit and shoot borer resistant Bt eggplant research is Development Authority. It was tested for the first time in a
led by the Institute of Plant Breeding of the University of the confined field trial in 2010, & multi-location field trials in
Philippines Los Baños (IPB-UPLB). In December 2015, the 2012 & 2013. The evaluation confirmed the bioefficacy of
Supreme Court ruled that the Administrative Order no. 8 the Bt cotton hybrids against the cotton bollworm.
(DA-AO8) is invalid. This halted the processing of
applications for contained use, field testing, propagation &
commercialization, as well as the importation of GE
products. However, in July 2016, the Supreme Court
unanimously reversed its December 2015 decision &
granted all motions for reconsideration by Bt eggplant
proponents & other interested parties.

The Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) & the

International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) are developing
Golden Rice. On May 20, 2019, the Department of
Agriculture-Bureau of Plant Industry (DA-BPI) issued the BPI
Biosafety Permit for Field Trial. Fields trial were harvested on
September & October 2019. On 18 December 2019, official
notice of the permit approving GR2E Golden Rice for direct
use as food, feed, or for processing (FFP) in the Philippines
was published in the Manila Bulletin. Golden Rice regulatory
applications are currently under review in the Philippines. It
will only be made available to the public once all necessary Golden Rice is just another improved rice strain to address Vt. A deficiency in
permits have been received (International Rice Research communities who consume rice as staple food. Photo retrieved from http://
Institute). www.goldenrice.org/Content4-Info/info1_photos.php 12 Sep 2020.

Biotech papaya with delayed ripening & papaya ringspot

virus resistance is also being developed by IPB-UPLB. It
had undergone contained test in 2012 & the confined field
trial in 2014.

35

Summing Up
Agroecosystems differ from natural ecosystems in six ways:
the system is kept in an early-successional stage, biological
diversity & food chains are simplified, the focus is on
monoculture, crops are planted in neat rows & fields, require
plowing, & may include GMC/Os
The major environmental impacts of agriculture include
biodiversity loss, deforestation, soil erosion & degradation,
greenhouse gas emission, air pollution, water depletion &
pollution, & chronic health effects.
A genetically modified crop (GMC) is a plant that has a novel
combination of genetic material obtained through the use of
modern biotechnology. For example, a GM crop can contain a
gene(s) that has been artificially inserted instead of the plant
acquiring it through pollination. The resulting plant is said to be
“genetically modified” although in reality all crops have been
“genetically modified” from their original wild state by
domestication, selection, & controlled breeding over long
periods of time.
The advantages of GMCs include less fertilizer, pesticide, &
water; resistance to insects, disease, frost, & drought; faster
growth; & tolerance to higher levels of herbicides. However,
they may also have unpredictable genetic & ecological effects;
may put toxins in food; promote pesticide-resistant insects &
herbicide-resistant weeds; & could disrupt seed market &
reduce biodiversity.
Organic farming has several environmental benefits such
sustainability over the long term; reduction of soil, water, & air
pollution; helps mitigate GHG emission; & promotion of
biodiversity. However, notable constraints include more work to
produce goods; potential loss of crops to pest & disease that
cannot be dealt with by organic methods; soil must be fertile
enough to sustain the nutrients needed by the crops; can not
produce enough food fast enough for the rapidly growing
global population; & costs more since the yield from a land is
lower.
Sustainable agriculture meets the needs of present & future
generations for its products & services, while ensuring
profitability, environmental health & social & economic equity.
Farming is one of the most direct & large-scale ways that
people affect nature. Our own sustainability, as well as the
quality of our lives, depends heavily on how we farm. Can we
sustainably feed a world population of 11 B?
The Philippines became the first country to plant a biotech
crop (corn) in Southeast Asia.

36
Study Questions

How does soil contribute to each

How do agroecosystems differ What are the environmental
of the four components of
from natural ecosystems? impacts of agriculture?
biodiversity?

What are the advantages/ What are genetically modified

disadvantages of alternative organisms/crops/food and their
agricultural methods? possible environmental effects?

37

Learning Activities
Food Footprint
This BBC Climate Change Food Calculator shows how your
food intake compares to emissions of driving, heating/cooling a
home & consuming water. Estimate your own food footprint by
using this calculator https://www.bbc.com/news/science-
environment-46459714

How do your food choices impact the environment? How can

you lessen the impact without sacrificing your body’s daily
nutrient requirement?

Food Waste
Watch these Youtube videos about food wastes. How can we
close the gap on food wastes?

DW News Philippines: Minimizing food waste

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uK48CNff9jU

CNN Philippines Reducing food waste through food

donation program
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3CjiGa8_Tfo

These activities are not compulsory but please take time to do

it. It is not only unexpectedly enlightening but fun as well.

38
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