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His blog Shtetl-Optimized is known both for its humor and as the most reliable source of
information on news in quantum computing. The human brain is the product of all these weird
evolutionary pressures, including the width of the birth canal and how much food was available in
the ancestral environment and all this stuff. So really, what you would like for it to have happened is
that instead of just fizzling off from the on or very near the event horizon. Because this is often not
what people want to hear, but I feel like we should be telling the truth. And the reason polynomial
space is contained in exponential time is that, well, if I have, let’s say, N bits of memory, then my
computer can pass through at most 2 to the N power possible states before either it halts or else it
gets into an infinite loop, an infinite recurrence. So we’re talking about enormously larger objects
here. But, so now, there are many websites already that will give you public randomness. Except, if
someone actually gave you that choice would you actually take it. For an exponential quantum
speedup you have to choreograph an interference pattern that boosts the amplitude of the right
answer. Now, what I’d like to say is that if it turned out that there’s some deep reason why this could
never be done, and if the attempt to build quantum computers were to lead instead to the discovery
of that new impossibility principle, well then that’s awesome. Give some general argument why none
of them could work. So in particular if I drop an encyclopedia into a black hole, then the
information, what was written on the pages cannot be deleted from the universe. You keep track of
its exact quantum state with some super-duper powerful quantum computer. Where they could spell
out an argument by composing some paragraphs of text. I mean, of course it could also be simulated
with a classical computer. The game tree is the thing that says, is there a move I can make such that
for every move that the opponent makes there is a move I can make and so on, such that I win.
Where every minute they release 512 new random bits to the world, right. But, I remember telling
them at the time, look, my social life already stinks. It is sort of seeing whether nature actually has
this computational ability beneath the surface. If we can’t even answer this, than we’re not going to
answer the more refined questions either. Because, look, Plato wrote all kinds of really weird trippy
stuff, and I don’t want to give him a blank check that I agree with whatever he said. Sometimes I
write a post that’s just some stupid joke or procrastination. You merely need to get them ridiculously
well isolated from their environment. We also know that BQP is contained in PSPACE, which means
anything that you can do in polynomial time with a quantum computer, you can also do in
polynomial space with a classical computer, okay. He is founder of the Harvard Microrobotics Lab,
which leverages expertise in microfabrication for the development of biologically inspired robots
with feature sizes on the micrometer to centimeter scale. We would have given ourselves Nobel
Prizes for our discovery of the law. This has various implications; it solves various theoretical
questions that I cared about. Now, a perfect example of that is provided by quantum computers.
Which is a program for high school students who can take courses at Clarkson University and then
apply to college from there. But on the other hand, that also means trying to rule out that you can do
any better than some limit.
I give colloquia in physics departments where they just want to know, like, what are P and NP.
These are things that lots of people are thinking about and the good thing is that we can try things out
in the real world. So like a multiplying of two integers, for example. You don’t know. But if I give
you some huge composite number, than no matter how hard it is to factor, you know in advance that
it has one and only one prime factorization. I think we can see plenty of examples on both ends of
the political spectrum of Twitter being used for what I think of as really nasty purposes. I mean, of
course it could also be simulated with a classical computer. Because this is a Y Combinator podcast, I
should mention that one of the most influential essays that I ever read was Paul Graham’s “Why
Nerds are Unpopular.” It has an enormous amount of insight. On the other hand, if I ask that electron
for its momentum, well then its momentum might have been much more determinate. I could have a
little particle over here inside of the bulk and yet in the boundary theory that would correspond to
some enormous smeared out thing. And you do the same kinds of things to get gentle measurements
of quantum states. So a good example of an NP problem would be factoring. Aaronson received an
apologetic email from the agency in which they claimed to have sought legal advice and did not
believe that they were in violation of his copyright. And, you know, my response tends to be, “Well,
why haven’t you made billions of dollars from mining Bitcoin?” You could say, since 2008 that’s
been the easiest answer, right. And put the old ones even further onto the back burner. And this is
what we need to do, I would say, the next most famous complexity class along with P, which is
called NP. It is an entirety different approach to computing, as profoundly different as the analog
computers of yore. This is the problem known as computational complexity, and today’s guest, Scott
Aaronson, is one of the world’s experts in this field. Maybe even then, I secretly hoped it would, but
I had no basis for that hope. The hard part is reading out the answer that you want. Okay. But, if you
were to get these random bits from the internet then the question is, how do you know how they
were generated. Oh yeah and then of course I was building on early work that I and others had
done. In 1995 Grover showed that if you do a unstructured search of a giant list with a quantum
computer, you can get a sqrt-n speedup but not more than that. Whereas the theory that’s on the
boundary is a pretty ordinary quantum field theory. Because this is often not what people want to
hear, but I feel like we should be telling the truth. It used to be the tagline of my blog because I
found myself just explaining the same thing to journalists week after week after week. On some
podcast players you should be able to click the timestamp to jump to that time. It’s a lot of social
signaling, it’s a lot of building up one’s popularity, one’s presence. Every possible solution to your
optimization problem. Future US, Inc. Full 7th Floor, 130 West 42nd Street. You’d have to wait for
these bits to fizzle out and Hawking radiation, which might take 10 to the 70th years or something
like that, and then they’d be in some completely scrambled form.
But now it is very important for people to understand that you design his fast quantum algorithm for
factoring. They’ll say, well what we really mean by quantum gravity is you define this theory on the
boundary, which they more or less know how to do and then somehow there’s this thing in the bulk
that’s dual to that. Before teaching at UT, he taught Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at
MIT. And yet in some sense, we can never know the values, beyond the first few. And in fact, if
you’re an observer outside of a black hole, well, you never even see anything fall into the black hole
in the first place. So you need to arrange this interference pattern where you know for some
mathematical reason that it’s going to concentrate the amplitude on the right answer, even though
you don’t know yet which one that is. They’re not going to solve anything that is literally
uncomputable for a classical computer, but they could solve certain things up to exponentially faster.
The idea is that a black hole is just another example of this. This works for discrete logarithms and
breaks all public key crypto including elliptic curve. I have high confidence in the possibility of a
quantum speedup. Now that is a program where to determine whether that program halts or runs
forever is equivalent to solving the Riemann hypothesis. There are skeptics. I talk to them a lot, they
come on my blog often, who say this will never work. Let’s just see if the universe, let’s prove that
the universe has this capability at all. Now if all I wanted was a random answer I could’ve just
flipped a coin a few times, saved billions of dollars building this device. It will take work to see
whether that potential is realized, but we can define a class of problems that is called a BQP,
bounded-error quantum polynomial time. And the reason polynomial space is contained in
exponential time is that, well, if I have, let’s say, N bits of memory, then my computer can pass
through at most 2 to the N power possible states before either it halts or else it gets into an infinite
loop, an infinite recurrence. Let’s say, for simplicity, that each measurement has just two possible
outcomes, yes or no. And I guest blogged on some other blogs before that. And if it’s only
polynomially hard, then we say it’s easy. These are things that lots of people are thinking about and
the good thing is that we can try things out in the real world. The firewall paradox was a particular
technical puzzle about how to reconcile these two different points of view. And that’s exactly what
complexity theory is all about. The whole point of an error-correcting code, is that you take like a
local one bit and you smear it out. It wouldn’t be very smart, it wouldn’t be very useful, but you
could do it. It leads people to think that quantum computers would have capabilities that actually we
don’t think that they would have. Andrew Wiles, when he started working on Fermat’s Last
Theorem, he had no guarantee of success, right. Basically you would imagine that Google, let’s say,
has some 70 qubit quantum computer as indeed they are working to build right now, I just visited
their lab a month ago. Because this is often not what people want to hear, but I feel like we should be
telling the truth. Just like there should be people thinking about how could we prevent a catastrophic
asteroid impact. As long as that single device is able to do quantum computations that are hard to
simulate with a classical computer.