Technology in Society 68 (2022) 101914

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Technology in Society
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc

Impact of business analytics and π-shaped skills on innovative performance:

Findings from PLS-SEM and fsQCA
Jamal Abdelrahman .M. Hayajneh a, **, Malek Bakheet Haroun Elayan b,
Mamdouh Abdallah Mohamed Abdellatif a, A. Mohammed Abubakar c, *
a
Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Saudi Arabia
b
The Institute of Public Administration, Saudi Arabia
c
College of Business and Social Sciences, Antalya Bilim University, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper proposes that the relationship between business analytics and innovative performance is somewhat
Big data more complex than originally thought, as firms still struggle to leverage the benefits of business analytics and
Business analytics artificial intelligence capabilities. To expand on the scholarship in this area of knowledge, our paper cross-
π-shaped skills
fertilizes the literature by amalgamating business analytics capabilities with π-shaped skills. We draw on
Innovative performance
resource orchestration theory to examine the effects of business analytics and π-shaped skills on a firm’s inno­
Saudi vision 2030
vative performance, and the moderating role of π-shaped skills. Field data (n = 450) were obtained from in­
dividuals with supervisory positions in large Saudi firms and SMEs and analyzed with PLS-SEM and fsQCA
techniques. PLS-SEM results reveal that business analytics and π-shaped skills are relevant antecedents for
innovative performance. However, the expected moderating role of π-shaped skills on the relationship between
business analytics and innovative performance did not hold. FsQCA results reveal that business analytics and
π-shaped skills are sufficient but not necessary conditions for high innovative performance. This paper con­
tributes not only to empirical evidence, but also to theory by furthering our understanding of the emergent
π-shaped skills concept. Our findings echo the need to expand inquiry into business analytics and skill sets ca­
pabilities for better innovative outputs. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

1. Introduction
Artificial intelligence (AI) technologies are necessary multidomain
resources including a unique combination of organizational, physical,
and human resources that are better than a competitor’s [1]. Theoretical
discussions illustrate that developing new, unique, and inimitable ca­
pabilities by blending and employing an array of complementary re­
sources is the best way to achieve competitive gains [2]. In the last
decade, big data and business analytics gained popularity by rising to
the top of the business agenda with assertions that “data is the new oil”
that must be “processed” to extract business value. Organizations across
the world have made business analytics investments a major priority
(Gartner, 2016). Business analytics represents a set of applications,
technologies, and techniques for collecting, storing, accessing, and
analyzing data to generate useful business information that results in
better decision-making [3]. Seddon and Currie [4] also see business
analytics as the “use of data to make sounder, more evidence-based business
decisions” through descriptive, predictive, and prescriptive model
building using diverse, real-time, and “big” data sources [5].
The descriptive phase of business analytics describes “What has
happened?“, “Why did it happen?“, and “What is happening now?“. The
predictive phase of business analytics describes “What will happen in the
future?” and “Why will it happen?“, and the prescriptive phase of business
analytics describes “What should be done?” and “Why the action should be
taken?” [6]. The excitement about AI and business analytics as well as
their capacities for solving business problems and generating value
comes with several societal challenges [7,8]. Especially how to blend
human resources and skills to support the functionality of business an­
alytics capabilities in congruence with the socio-materiality framework,
which purports that the interactions between humans and non-humans

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author. Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Saudi Arabia.
E-mail addresses: jahayajneh@imamu.edu.sa (J.A..M. Hayajneh), Elayanm@ipa.edu.sa (M.B.H. Elayan), maabdallatif@imamu.edu.sa (M.A.M. Abdellatif),
mohammed.abubakar@antalya.edu.tr (A.M. Abubakar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2022.101914
Received 14 September 2021; Received in revised form 17 January 2022; Accepted 24 January 2022
Available online 29 January 2022
0160-791X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.A..M. Hayajneh et al. Technology in Society 68 (2022) 101914

(technology) are shaped by each other. As a result, firms are now turning (i.e., IT investments, data, business analytics etc.) to enable quick re­
their attention to prophecies that are knowledge and skills-centric such sponses to shifting commercial demands and opportunities.
as the acquisition of employees with T-shaped and π-shaped skills
[9–11]. Individuals with π-shaped skills are those with the capability to
2.2. Business analytics, π -shaped skills, and innovative performance
utilize ‘left brain’ and ‘right brain’ concurrently. This allows them to
solve business problems using both logical and creative perspectives.
Firms must innovate in response to shifting consumer expectations,
Pi-shaped skills represent the spirit of agility and adaptability, as they
technological opportunities, and shifting marketplace structures and
lead to value generation and a competitive advantage [12].
dynamics. Innovative performance is the use of novel ideas to enhance
The attributes that provide a basic explanation of the concept of
the importance, usefulness, and performance of products, services, and
competitive advantage in terms of strategic resources are valuable, rare,
processes [21,25]. Additionally, a firm’s capacity to transform innova­
unique, and incommutability [13]. Despite a general consensus, Hansen,
tion inputs into outputs that lead to commercial success is labelled
Perry, and Reese [14] argued that “what a firm does with its resources is at
innovative performance [26]. AI gained prominence as an important
least as important as which resources it possesses” (p. 1280). Simply,
technological infrastructure for firms in the last few decades due to
ownership of strategic resources is necessary but not sufficient for su­
advances in big data and technological breakthroughs [27]. Gartner
perior business performance. Resource orchestration theory (ROT) is
reported huge growth in AI usage among firms, citing an increase of
interested in how firms select, structure, bundle, and configure resources
about 270% in the last four years [28].
and capabilities (i.e., human, social, financial, and technological re­
AI capability has been heralded by many as the next source of
sources) to exploit business opportunities and/or attain competitive
business value [1]. Business analytics is an application area within AI.
advantages [15]. Studies exploring how technology has transformed our
According to Davenport and Harris [29]; business analytics is “the
society and the business atmosphere have independently linked business
extensive use of data, statistical and quantitative analysis, explanatory and
analytics capabilities [16–20] and human skills [21–23] with higher
predictive models, and fact-based management to drive decisions and ac­
levels of a firm’s performance and innovation. However, there is little
tions” (pg. 7). Knowledge-intensive industries face a dynamic and
theoretically grounded knowledge on how the extant concepts interact
fiercely competitive environment, and as such, firms must exploit their
and/or function in the Arabian context.
resources and capabilities to survive. Interestingly, one of these re­
Building on the theoretical lens of ROT, this paper argues that firms
sources is human knowledge embodied in the organizational human
can “orchestrate” and “configure” IT resources and capabilities (i.e., IT
resource practices [30]. There is a scholarly consensus on the ability of
investments, data, business analytics systems etc.) with other resources
HR practices to motivate employee willingness to absorb, transfer,
and capabilities (i.e., HR practices, π-shaped skills etc.) to gain a
share, and create knowledge [31,32].
competitive edge. The present work addresses three important ques­
The educational and coaching styles in the ’80s were designed to
tions. Are business analytics capabilities associated with innovative
build quantitative and technical-skilled professionals with deep knowl­
outcomes in the context of Saudi Arabia? Are π-shaped skills associated
edge and experience in a single domain, the I-shaped skills. These in­
with innovative outcomes, and do π-shaped skill sets enhance the as­
dividuals have limited knowledge and skills in other disciplines, and
sociation between business analytics capabilities and innovative out­
they prefer to work one single job type; this sounds familiar. In the
comes? To answer these questions, partial least squares structural
1990s, firms around the globe stressed the importance of T-shaped
equation modelling (PLS-SEM) and fuzzy sets qualitative comparative
professionals, who are generalists (i.e., characterized as having suffi­
analysis (fsQCA) were deployed. The methods are complementary to one
cient skills, experience, and communication abilities across various
another because fsQCA uses counterfactuals to eliminate redundant
disciplines) on one side, but have deep knowledge and experience in just
conditions while SEM focuses on empirical observations.
one area on the other side [10,11]. Recently, firms have turned their
attention toward π-shaped skill sets due to technological breakthroughs
2. Literature and hypotheses development
and the increase in demand for an innovative and skillful workforce.
Several commentaries defined π-shaped skill sets as follows:
2.1. Resource orchestration theory
“… professionals who have deep specialization in two areas” [33].
According to resource-based theory (RBT), the possession of rare,
valuable, and inimitable resources can guarantee superior business “… this group will have a broad mastery of general management skills
atop a few spikes of deep functional or domain expertise” [34].
performance [13]. Recent arguments have challenged these assertions,
more specifically, “mere possession of valuable strategic resources is insuf­ “… professionals have broad mastery of general knowledge but also deep
ficient to guarantee competitive advantage” (Sirmon & Hitt, 2009; [15]. functional or domain expertise in two or more knowledge areas” [35].
ROT argues that in addition to the possession of valuable strategic re­
sources, a firm’s ability to effectively manage and configure resources “… is the idea that you are a generalist on one side, but a specialist at two
through “structuring, bundling, and leveraging” is necessary and suffi­ or even more things” [36].
cient for value creation [15]. Structuring is the process of building a
“… are those “marketers with a broad base of knowledge in all areas, but
firm’s resource portfolio through procurement, assembling, and divest­
capabilities in both ‘left brains’ and ‘right brain’ disciplines. They are both
ing resources according to need [15,24]. Bundling is the process of
analytical and data-driven, yet understand brands, storytelling, and
integrating resources to establish core capabilities such as (i) minor in­
experiential marketing” [37]; pg. 1).
cremental improvements to existing capabilities, (ii) extending current
capabilities, and (iii) inventing new capabilities [15,24]. In the context of this study, π-shaped professionals are generalists (i.
Leveraging is the process of exploiting the bundled capabilities to e., characterized as having sufficient skills, expertise, and communica­
seize business opportunities by (i) mobilizing the capabilities to form an tion abilities across various disciplines) on one side, and are considered
essential business or strategic configuration, (ii) coordinating and specialists at two or more disciplines on the other side [12]. Employees
merging the essential capability configurations, and (iii) deploying ca­ with π-shaped skills are those that can utilize both the ‘left brain’ and
pabilities in areas where there are business opportunities [15]. In this ‘right brain’ simultaneously [12]. According to Nielsen et al. [38];
view, the possession of π-shaped skilled employees allows firms to “left-brained individuals have cognitive style that is associated with a
reconfigure and rearrange resources at their disposal to become agile logical and methodical approach; while right-brained individuals have
and innovative. In that, such employees are not only able to interpret cognitive style that is associated with creative and intuitive approach”
business scenarios better but can also orchestrate data and IT resources (pg. 8). For example, a π-shaped skilled professional can function as a

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J.A..M. Hayajneh et al.
data analyst and a marketer or a financial analyst and a designer
concurrently. Although π-shaped skilled professionals can focus on one
or both skill sets, being conversant with other domains offers opportu­
nity for innovative exploration and exploitation, and the ability to
occupy various roles within a team or working on projects [12]. It is
important to note that skill overlaps, and redundancy make
innovation-oriented teams more successful (Nonaka, 1990). The dis­
cussed skill sets are illustrated in Fig. 1.
ROT explains how business analytics capabilities draw on firm re­
sources (i.e., IT investments, resources, and data) to enhance innovative
performance. This paper argues that firms can orchestrate, configure,
and exploit resources and capabilities, such as business analytics and
their employees’ π-shaped skills, to seize business opportunities and also
attain a competitive edge over their rivals. Several pieces of research
from Western nations and advanced countries with affluent resources
argue that business analytics ensure that firms acquire a competitive
advantage [39,40]. On the other hand, the π-shaped skill set is a meta­
phor that embodies the spirit and journey of agility and adaptiveness
which progresses to value creation and innovative performance [9,12].
Building on the extant literature and ROT, we propose the following
hypotheses:
H1. Business analytics capability has a positive influence on innovative
performance.
H2. π-shaped skills have a positive influence on innovative performance.
2.3. Moderating role of π-shaped skills
Even though business analytics can boost a firm’s innovative capa­
bility through products and services differentiation (Davenport et al.,
2001; [40], most firms are still struggling to understand how, where,
and when business analytics results in a competitive advantage [16,39].
Recently, scholars observed that competitive advantage can be guar­
anteed if big data and analytics capabilities are complemented with
other capabilities relative to the environment [41]. To shed new light on
the antecedents of innovative performance among Arabian firms, we
cross-fertilize the literature with insights from technology in society,
strategic information management, HR, and KM. The HR literature has
long established the link between human capital and innovative per­
formance [23,31,42]. The KM, technology in society, and strategic in­
formation management literature have linked knowledge acquisition,
business analytics, and KM with innovative performance [16,17,19,43,
70] and decision-making [44].
Unfortunately, these research efforts overlooked the contextual and
interactive nature of business analytics and human skills, and their
contributions towards innovative performance. Rialti et al. [45] sug­
gested further investigation on contextual factors that play a key role on
the relationship of business analytics and competitive advantage. Bres­
ciani et al. [46] stated that “innovation teams require a set of new skills,
capabilities, and mechanisms in order to integrate digital technologies in
the innovation process” (pg. 205). Research calls to explore the inter­
action between analytics and π-shaped skills in determining a firm’s
Fig. 1. Skill sets.
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Technology in Society 68 (2022) 101914
level of innovation were recently issued by Elayan et al. [12]. According
to ROT, firms with IT investments, resources, and data can orchestrate,
exploit, and coordinate them to build business analytics capabilities
[15]. Consequently, firms can combine these capabilities with other
resources and capabilities, such as π-shaped skill sets, not only to build
new, unique, and valuable capabilities necessary for innovative perfor­
mance, but also to operationalize new and existing capabilities. The
present study theorizes that π-shaped skills will strengthen the positive
association between business analytics and innovative performance.
Building on the extant literature and ROT, we propose the following
hypothesis:
H3. π-shaped skills have a moderating role on the effect of business ana­
lytics capability on innovative performance; such that, the influence of
business analytics capability will be stronger when π-shaped skills are high.
3. Methodology
3.1. Sample and procedures
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is planning to diversify and has
reduced its dependence on an oil-based economy. As competitive dis­
sectors, we argue that business analytics and manpower skills (i.e.,
π-shaped skills) can empower and increase the competitiveness of firms
in the Kingdom. To test the proposed hypotheses, the measures and
indicators were first adapted in English and translated into Arabic
following the Brislin [47] guidelines. There are 161,348 registered large
firms and SMEs in Riyadh, the capital of Saudi Arabia [48]. The re­
searchers contacted the firm’s top management to seek permission to
conduct the study; 320 firms using business analytics and artificial in­
telligence in their operations agreed to participate in the study (118
large and 220 SMEs). Past studies related to business analytics, inno­
vative performance, and the like mostly sought out informants with
managerial positions because they are more knowledgeable on the
firm’s strategic concepts [1,17,23].
The recruited informants in this study held managerial positions in
their firms. The key informant technique, where a single informant is
recruited from a firm, has several drawbacks. For instance, it can result
in response bias, social desirability bias, and systematic errors [49]. To
avoid these drawbacks, the current study utilizes a multiple informant
technique (1–3 informants from a firm) as it has been shown to produce
more reliable results compared to the key informant technique [49]. The
informants’ informed consent was solicited; privacy and anonymity
were assured to lessen the inclination of editing answers in a socially
acceptable manner [50]. Finally, the survey items were positioned
creatively to appear unrrelated to the informants, in line with MacK­
enzie and Podsakoff’s [50] psychological and proximal strategies to
depress common method bias (CMB). The final survey was conducted in
two formats, physically and online, using simple random technique. At
the end of the field work, 479 responses were obtained, with only 450
deemed fit for data analysis due to missing and incomplete forms.
J.A..M. Hayajneh et al. Technology in Society 68 (2022) 101914

3.2. Research instruments Table 1

Factor loadings and descriptive properties of the measures.
We measured business analytics capabilities with an established 5- Construct O M SD T
item scale [51,52]. A sample item was “Decision making is based on
H1 <- Business analytics capability 0.758 0.760 0.020 37.046
rigorous analytic approaches (e.g., quantitative modelling, simulation)”. H2 <- Business analytics capability 0.801 0.799 0.024 33.563
Respondents’ answers were recorded on a 5-point scale (1 = not at all; 5 H3 <- Business analytics capability 0.783 0.781 0.026 29.952
= to a very great extent). H4 <- Business analytics capability 0.706 0.704 0.041 17.166
We measured π-shaped skills with an established 5-item scale [12]. A H5 <- Business analytics capability 0.669 0.666 0.044 15.058
C1 <- π-shaped skills 0.818 0.790 0.117 6.997
sample item was “Our firm members are specialists in at least two areas C2 <- π-shaped skills 0.753 0.717 0.142 5.322
(domain)”. Respondents’ answers were recorded on a 5-point scale (1 = C3 <- π-shaped skills _*
disagree strongly; 5 = agree strongly). C4 <- π-shaped skills 0.766 0.741 0.099 7.737
We measured innovative performance with an established 5-item C5 <- π-shaped skills 0.872 0.866 0.073 11.997
G1 <- Innovative performance 0.715 0.714 0.032 22.600
scale [21,25]. Minor changes were performed to make the items
G2 <- Innovative performance _*
match the context of this study. A sample item was “Percentage of new G3 <- Innovative performance 0.689 0.687 0.042 16.384
products in the existing product/service portfolio has increased within last G4 <- Innovative performance 0.859 0.859 0.015 57.194
years”. Respondents’ answers were recorded on a 5-point scale (1 = G5 <- Innovative performance 0.851 0.851 0.014 60.357
disagree strongly; 5 = agree strongly). The survey items are presented in Notes: _* = deleted due to low factor loadings; 0 = Original Sample factor loadings;
the appendix section. M = Sample Mean factor loadings; SD = Standard Deviation; T = T Statistics.

4. Results
Table 2
4.1. Demographic information Reliability and convergent validity.
Construct α Rho CR AVE
Out of 450 sampled informants, 327 (72.7%) of them work in large Business analytics capability 0.816 0.890 0.861 0.555
firms (hiring more than 250 employees), and the rest work in SMEs. Innovative performance 0.794 0.843 0.862 0.612
Forty four percent (44%) of the informants are senior managers; 38% of π-shaped skills 0.830 0.937 0.879 0.646
the informants are executives in HR and related business units; 11.1% Notes: AVE = average variance extracted; Rho = Rho coefficient; CR = composite
are executives in IT management and data analytics units; and the rest reliability; α = Cronbach’s alpha.
are CEOs and owners. The majority of the informants (70.4%) work in
firms operating for between 6 and 10 years; 17.6% of the informants
work in firms operating for more than 10 years; and the rest work in Table 3
firms operating for less than 5 years. The majority of the informants Discriminant validity.
(64.9%) work in firms with yearly revenue between 10 and 50 million Measures 1 2 3
Riyals; 28.2% of the informants work in firms with yearly revenue that is
Business analytics capability (0.745) 0.587 0.112
above 50 million Riyals; and the rest work in firms with yearly revenue Innovative performance 0.591 (0.783) 0.150
that is below 10 million Riyals. To enhance the representativeness of the π-shaped skills 0.046 0.138 (0.804)
sample, we solicited data from major sectors utilizing business analytics;
Notes: Coefficients above the diagonal are heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) ratios;
16.4% of the informants work in the transportation and storage in­ Coefficients below the diagonal are inter-construct correlation; Coefficients in bold are
dustry; 14.2% in the wholesale and retail industry; 14.0% in the elec­ square root value of each construct AVE.
tricity and gas industry; 11.6% in the petroleum and mineral industry;
9.8% in the banking and finance industry; 9.3% in the hotel, hospitality,
4.3. Structural model
and food industry; and 8.9% in the manufacturing industry; and the rest
are in the construction/building industry.
After establishing the reliability and validity of the measurement
model, the proposed hypotheses were tested using a bias-corrected
4.2. Measurement model
bootstrapping technique based on a 5000 resample bootstrap run. The
results were assessed based on beta values, t-values, p-values, the
We tested the measurement model using the PLS-SEM technique,
explained variance (r-squared), and the effect sizes (f-squared) co­
designed to test composite and exploratory models with weak theoret­
efficients. Cohen (2013) noted that effect sizes greater than 0.02, 0.15,
ical foundations. The study constructs’ dimensionality was ascertained
and 0.35 should be evaluated as weak, moderate, and strong effects,
through internal consistency reliability, convergent and discriminant
respectively. Fig. 2 shows that business analytics exerted a positive and
validity. Indicators of item factor loadings (>0.50) and significance level
significant effect on innovative performance (β = 0.585; t = 22.729; ρ <
(<0.05) are reported in Table 1; and the average variance extracted
0.01). The result suggests that 1 unit increase in business analytics will
(AVE) by each construct (>0.50) reported in Table 2 established
result in 0.585 units increase in innovative performance, which supports
construct convergent validity [53,54]. Reported in Table 2, the reli­
the prediction made in H1. Fig. 2 shows that π-shaped skills exerted a
ability of the constructs was ascertained through Cronbach’s alpha, Rho,
positive and significant effect on innovative performance (β = 0.112; t =
and composite reliability values (>0.70) based on expert suggestions
3.339; ρ < 0.05). The result suggests that 1 unit increase in π-shaped
[53,54]. Additionally, the squared AVE for each construct is higher than
skills will result in 0.112 units increase in innovative performance,
every other inter-correlation coefficient [55], and the
which supports the prediction made in H2.
heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) were less than the
As shown in Fig. 2, the findings suggest that π-shaped skills do not
threshold (<0.85) further supporting discriminant validity [56]. See
moderate the relationship between business analytics and innovative
Table 3. To control for the presence of CMB, Harman’s single factor test
performance (β = − 0.024; t = 0.585; ρ < 0.10). The results show that the
denoted that one factor accounts for only 28.87% of the variance, less
interaction effect is insignificant, which contrasts with the prediction
than the 50% threshold; thus, the effect of CMB was ruled out (Podsakoff
made in H3. We plotted the interaction slope to elaborate on the nature
et al., 2012).
of the interaction in Fig. 3. At the end, H3 did not receive empirical
support. The predictors and moderator variables explained 36.3% of the

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J.A..M. Hayajneh et al. Technology in Society 68 (2022) 101914

Fig. 2. Structural model.

Fig. 3. Slope plot for the interaction effect.

variance in innovative performance (r-squared = 0.363). Based on
expert recommendation (Cohen, 2013), the effect size of business ana­
lytics (f-squared = 0.533) and π-shaped skills (f-squared = 0.020) on
innovative performance are delineated to be large and small,
respectively.
4.4. Fuzzy sets (fsQCA)
Complex interaction of antecedents is known as “configuration,” and
the methodological approach used in determining the configuration is
called “configurational modelling”; a type of non-linear modelling
approach called fsQCA [57]. As opposed to SEM, which relies on linear
association and predictors’ net effects, fsQCA uses a distinct configura­
tion of causal antecedents to predict an outcome [58,59]. FsQCA can

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J.A..M. Hayajneh et al. Technology in Society 68 (2022) 101914

help explain situations where X has a positive impact on Y, X has a Table 5

negative impact on Y, and X and Y share no relationship. The core tenets Test for causal necessary conditions for innovative performance.
of fsQCA are “equifinality,” complementarity, and causal asymmetry, Consistency Coverage
which accounts for how different and/or combinations of causal con­
Business analytics capability .793 .880
ditions can explain an outcome [59,60]. In real life, using the direct ~Business analytics capability .276 .781
causal statistical approach might not be suitable (e.g., X is necessary and π-shaped skills .641 .859
sufficient to predict Y), because explaining an outcome variable may ~π-shaped skills .419 .825
need more than one combination of the predictor variables. Business analytics capability + π-shaped skills .917 .852
~Business analytics capability + ~π-shaped skills .553 .809
FsQCA addresses the drawbacks of traditional techniques and com­
plements PLS-SEM analysis by detecting effects caused by unobserved Notes: Necessary condition threshold (Consistency > 0.90); * = interaction between
heterogeneity [59,61,62]. To evaluate the presence of alternative solu­ conditions, ~ = low score.
tions, a test with fsQCA analyses is performed with the inclusion of
π-shaped skills and business analytics to explain innovation perfor­
Table 6
mance. In phase one fsQCA analysis, the author(s) rescaled the research
Test for causal conditions sufficiency for innovative performance.
measures through calibration into fuzzy sets (0 and 1) with three main
points, namely: full set membership, cross-over point, and full Configurations RC UC CON

non-membership. The calibration report and descriptive statistics are
illustrated in Table 4.
The second phase is the analysis for necessity conditions (NCA),
which represents the proportion of fuzzy set scores in a condition (across
all cases) that are less than or equal to the corresponding scores in the
outcome. A configuration is accepted and becomes necessary when the
consistency score is above 0.90 [63]. NCA results in Table 5 illustrate
that none of the conditions all by itself is necessary for high levels of
innovative performance. However, pairing business analytics capability
with π-shaped skills results in (consistency = 0.917; coverage = 0.852),
which implies their relevance for innovative performance.
The third phase is to construct a truth table algorithm using fsQCA
that is applied in order to produce a truth table of 2k rows, where k
denotes the number of outcomes, and every row represents every
possible combination among the causal conditions. This study utilized
fsQCA software version 3, which provides output consisting of a com­
plex solution, a parsimonious solution, and an intermediate solution.
Following suggestions from Ragin and Rihoux [57] and Fiss [58]; only
intermediate solutions were considered since they are superior and offer
benefits over the other two solutions. Consistency refers to ‘‘the degree
to which cases correspond to the set-theoretic relationships expressed in
a solution” [58]. The consistency score is fixed at 0.80 above the widely
accepted threshold of 0.75, and coverage is fixed at 0.10 for each suf­
ficient configuration [63].
FsQCA calculates both raw and unique coverage scores; compared
with raw, unique coverage controls for overlapping explanations by
partitioning the raw coverage. Consistency indicates the reliability of
the solutions, and coverage is an analogous measure of R2 in regression
analysis. It shows how a specific solution explains all variations in the
outcome variable. A sufficiency test was conducted, and causal condi­
tions for attaining high scores of innovative performances are presented
in Table 6. The results denote that the causal conditions business ana­
lytics and π-shaped skills are sufficient but not necessary conditions for
the studied outcome (high innovative performance) with an overall
solution (consistency = 0.852; coverage = 0.917). Solution 1 suggests
that business analytics (consistency = 0.880; coverage = 0.793) and
Solution 2 suggests that π-shaped skills (consistency = 0.859; coverage
= 0.641) are sufficient conditions for innovative performance.
Table 4
Calibration thresholds of the measures.
F-in CO F- Mean SD Min
out
Business analytics 4.00 3.00 2.00 3.62 0.92 1.00
capability
π-shaped skills 4.00 3.00 2.00 3.26 1.06 1.00
Innovative performance 4.00 3.00 2.00 3.86 0.89 1.00
Notes: F-in = full membership; CO = Cross-over; F-out = full non-membership; SD =
standard deviation.
S1: f (Business analytics capability) .793 .276 .880
S2: f (π-shaped skills) .641 .124 .859
Solution consistency .852
Solution coverage .917
Notes: RC = raw coverage; UC = unique coverage; CON = consistency; Frequency =
3.
5. Discussion
5.1. Summary of findings
The current study departs from the traditional emphases on human
capital and person-tool fits [17,23,42,45], which overlooks how
employee skill sets concurrently interact with business analytics capa­
bilities to determine innovation outputs. This paper expands on the Fox
[64] claims, concerning the exclusion and underemphases of techno­
logical dependencies on other factors such as skill sets. In line with
socio-materiality propositions that advocate for the intersection of
technology, practice, and organization, where humans and technology
are interlinked, and the two cannot be separated. This paper provides a
fine-grained understanding concerning the association among business
analytics, π-shaped skills, and innovative performance. We found that
business analytics and π-shaped skills have a positive effect on innova­
tive performance. Interestingly, the interaction between business ana­
lytics and π-shaped skills did not exert the expected impact on
innovative performance. The partial confirmation of our propositions
led us to explore several alternative interpretations, and the ROT theo­
retical foundation allowed us to generate informative theoretical and
practical implications.
Additionally, the present research contributes methodologically to
research in this field, by testing multiple variables and using fuzzy sets
analysis to understand their collective contributions toward innovative
performance. In line with the symmetric results, business analytics and
π-shaped skills independently emerge as sufficient but not necessary
conditions of high innovative performance (asymmetric results).
Consequently, in the asymmetric results, we found that the combination
of business analytics capability and π-shaped skills makes them become
necessary conditions for high levels of innovative performance. The test
with fuzzy sets adds auxiliary value to the literature as it considers
combination, presence, and absence of variables as opposed to SEM [60,
61].
Max
5.2. Theoretical implications
5.00
Our study makes several important theoretical advances. First, we
5.00 shed light on innovative performance, which seems to be influenced by
5.00 business analytics. The findings extend prior empirical outputs (e.g.
Refs. [5,16,17], in using other contexts and countries; the novel context
of this work helps broaden the view and relationship between business

6
J.A..M. Hayajneh et al.
analytics and innovative outcomes. In addition, our findings support
(See Refs. [1,29] argumentation of business analytics as a competitive
differentiator that empowers firms with greater innovative capabilities.
Our second theoretical contribution concerns the emergent literature
on π-shaped skills. Although human capital and talent management are
flourishing research themes [23], the π-shaped skills concept has not yet
received the attention it deserves in the literature. In times of intensi­
fying competition and need for skillful employees, we proposed and
tested the concept empirically. On the one hand, we have initiated and
spurred scholarly efforts for π-shaped skills. On the other hand, while
commentaries and a few empirical claims [9,12] have demonstrated that
firms with π-shaped skilled employees are more likely to have higher
performance, we have confirmed this assertion with empirical data.
Our third theoretical contribution expands the body of knowledge on
technology and society literature, specifically, the existing work that
focuses on educating and training individuals when new technologies
are introduced into the society. We address this limitation by including
the π-shaped skills concepts, which cover communication, collaboration,
skills, and expertise in more than one domain as well as an ability to
engage in cross-functional business activities. Past work shows that
knowledge-based HR practices [23,42], plus human and intellectual
capital [21,31] can foster innovative performance. This paper un­
derscores possible limitations of knowledge-based HR practices, human
and intellectual capital due to the emphasis of knowledge-related ac­
tivities and human agency over cross-functional skills, communication,
collaboration work structure, and knowledge flow.
Fourth, this study yields important theoretical implications regarding
literature integration from technology and societal transformation per­
spectives. Antecedents of innovative performance, such as business an­
alytics [16], knowledge-based HR practices [42], and innovation culture
[65,66], have been documented, with little acknowledgement for em­
ployees’ skills. Accordingly, individuals’ vertical skills can increase
productivity and consistency, while the horizontal skills can increase
versatility [22], and too much emphasis on either the vertical or hori­
zontal skills can limit growth. Fox [22] concluded that there is a need to
combine both the vertical and horizontal skills to leapfrog traditional
skill trade-offs that limit growth. To empirically clear the air, the current
study scrutinizes π-shaped skills, which combines horizontal and vertical
skills and firms’ IT-enabled competencies.
Although, our theory for the interaction between business analytics
capability and π-shaped skills did not hold in PLS-SEM. The fsQCA re­
sults show that combining them is necessary for innovation. In essence,
π-shaped skilled employees can understand, see a holistic and complete
picture of situations due to cross-functional domain skills and knowl­
edge. They can draw conclusions from events in other units and their
potential consequences on their own and/or with other work units. And
when these skills are complemented and configured to work with busi­
ness analytics capabilities, the level of innovativeness can increase. But
unfortunately, the same cannot be said for those employees with high
human/intellectual capital due to limited cross-functional domain skills
and knowledge. Finally, the present study links business analytics and
π-shaped skills with innovative performance using ROT as a theoretical
framework. At the time of this inquiry, to the best of our knowledge, no
study has built on ROT to examine the concepts under scrutiny. There­
fore, we believe that we have extended the boundaries of ROT.
5.3. Managerial implications
Our study has several valuable implications for practice. Industry
leaders and specialists have acknowledged the importance and necessity
of a multi-skilled labor force and IT-enabled capabilities to secure
competitiveness [5,12,67,68]. The research provides answers to support
their endeavors threefold. One, industry leaders in Saudi Arabia should
invest in IT-enabled capabilities such as business analytics, as our results
show that it is vital and useful for innovative performance. It is also
important that data-driven culture is nourished in firms to support such
7
Technology in Society 68 (2022) 101914
investments; failures with business analytics have been associated with a
lack of data-driven culture [39]. Our findings posit that such an in­
vestment would boost the competitiveness of Saudi firms in the global
arena, which further supports the Saudi Vision 2030 objectives.
Two, contemporary firms are interested in various HR practices and a
knowledge-oriented culture, supported by a knowledge-sharing climate,
to enhance communication, collaboration, and information sharing
among employees. In some cases, employees are rotated to enable them
to gain skills, expertise, and know-how in other work units; all in the
vein of fostering collaboration and communication between business
units [69]. Notwithstanding, the current study points to a powerful and
feasible solution to deal with this dilemma. In that, industry leaders and
HR specialists are advised to focus on recruiting, training, developing,
and rewarding individuals with π-shaped skills to reduce cost. Also, such
individuals can use their “left and right brain,” an ability to combine
both logical and creative perspectives that is vital for innovative per­
formance. Three, this paper supports the conclusion that investments in
business analytics and π-shaped skills are beneficial and valuable for
innovative performance. Thus, we encourage firms to consider these
factors in their innovation mix efforts.
5.4. Limitations and future research course
There are a few drawbacks to our study that warrant consideration.
This study did not consider other potential antecedents and explanations
for innovative performance (e.g., data-driven culture, organizational
resources, governmental regulations, and country’s infrastructure).
Future work would harvest vital insights if these factors were considered
concurrently. Another fruitful research avenue could be investigations
into the extent by which business analytics capabilities transform a
firm’s resilience, responsiveness, and reconfiguration (3Rs) capabilities,
which is still missing in the literature. This study did not gauge for in­
dustrial differences in the research model due to overrepresentation and
underrepresentation of some industries. This could be a fruitful future
research avenue as the role and influence of π-shaped skills varies across
industries. Although efforts were exerted to reduce the threats of CMB,
the cross-sectional design and single country focus of the study data
limit our ability to draw general conclusions. Additionally, our exclusive
reliance on self-reporting instruments has the potency to influence
causal inferences. Thus, future work can benefit from alternative ap­
proaches (i.e., longitudinal, and quasi-experimental research designs)
and sample sources (i.e., replicate our findings in other cultural settings
and countries).
Author statement
Jamal Abdelrahman.M. Hayajneh - Conceptualization, Funding
acquisition, Data curation, Malek Bakheet Haroun Elayan – Concep­
tualization, Data curation, Writing – original draft,.Mamdouh Abdal­
lah Mohamed Abdellatif - Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing –
review & editing, A.Mohammed ABUBAKAR – Methodology, Formal
analysis, Writing – review & editing, All the authors have equal con­
tributions (25% each).
Declaration of competing interest
The authors have no conflict of interest. Contributions of all the
authors are equal.
Acknowledgements
The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific
Research at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Saudi Arabia
for funding this work through Research Group no. RG-21-50-01.
J.A..M. Hayajneh et al.
Appendix. Survey items
π-shaped skills [12]
1. “Our firm members can understand not only their own tasks but also
others”
2. “Our firm members can make suggestion about others’ task”
3. “Our firm members can communicate well not only with their
department members but also with other department members”
4. “Our firm members are specialists in at least two areas (domain)”
5. “Our firm members have both analytical and creative capabilities”
Business analytics capability - To what extent do you agree with
the following items in your organization [51,52].
1. “The organization predicts and prepares for the future by proactively
evaluating scenarios or potential tradeoffs”
2. “Decision making is based on rigorous analytic approaches (e.g.,
quantitative modelling, simulation)”
3. “The organization manages data to enable the ability to share and
aggregate data across departments or business units”
4. “Business information and analytics differentiate us within the
industry”
5. “Improving our information and analytics capability is a top priority”
Innovative performance - Please rate the performance of your firm
improvement due to innovation [21,25].
1. “Percentage of new products in the existing product/service portfolio
has increased within last years”
2. “Number of new product and service projects has increased within
last years”
3. “Ability to introduce new products and services to the market before
competitors has increased within last years”
4. “Innovations introduced for work processes and methods has
increased within last years”
5. “Quality of new products and services introduced has increased
within last years”
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