Explain the chromosomes and DNA

SIBGHATULLAH

SAP ID 70151201

BS BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(2023-2028)

SUBMETTED TO

MUHAMMAD AZIZ

LECTUREAR

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNOLOGY
 Chromosome
Chromosomes are thread-like structures composed of DNA and proteins found in the nucleus of
a cell. They are essential components of cells that carry genetic information in the form of genes.
Genes are specific sequences of DNA that encode instructions for building and maintaining the
organism.

Structure: Chromosomes consist of long strands of DNA tightly coiled around histone proteins.
This coiling helps to organize and compact the genetic material, allowing it to fit within the cell's
nucleus.
Number of Chromosomes: The number of chromosomes varies among different species.
Humans, for example, have 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. Each
parent contributes one set of 23 chromosomes to their offspring during reproduction.
Types of Chromosomes: In humans, chromosomes are categorized into two types: autosomes
and sex chromosomes. Autosomes are the non-sex chromosomes (1-22), while the sex
chromosomes (X and Y) determine an individual's sex.
Genes and Genetic Information: Genes are segments of DNA located on chromosomes that
provide instructions for the synthesis of proteins, which are essential for the structure and
function of cells. Each chromosome contains many genes.
Cell Division: Chromosomes play a crucial role in cell division, particularly during mitosis and
meiosis. Mitosis is the process by which somatic cells divide to produce two identical daughter
cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis is a specialized type of
cell division that occurs in reproductive cells, resulting in the formation of gametes (sperm and
egg cells) with half the number of chromosomes.
Homologous Chromosomes: In diploid organisms like humans, each chromosome has a
homologous partner, meaning there is a similar chromosome inherited from the other parent.
These homologous chromosomes carry the same genes but may have different variants (alleles)
of those genes.
Karyotype: A karyotype is a visual representation of the chromosomes in a cell, arranged by
size and shape. Karyotypes can be used to detect chromosomal abnormalities and genetic
disorders.
Understanding chromosomes is fundamental to comprehending genetics, inheritance, and the
mechanisms behind the transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next.

DNA
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions necessary for
the development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of all known living organisms. It serves
as the hereditary material and encodes the information required to build and maintain an
organism's cells and structures.

Molecular Structure: DNA is a long polymer composed of repeating units called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide consists of three components:
A phosphate group
A deoxyribose sugar molecule
One of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), or guanine (G)
Double Helix Structure: The DNA molecule has a distinctive double helix structure, resembling
a twisted ladder or spiral staircase. This structure was elucidated by James Watson and Francis
Crick in 1953, with contributions from Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins. The double helix
consists of two long strands of nucleotides running in opposite directions, held together by
hydrogen bonds between complementary pairs of nitrogenous bases.
Base Pairing: Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T), and cytosine (C) always pairs with
guanine (G). This complementary base pairing is crucial for the faithful transmission of genetic
information during processes like DNA replication and protein synthesis.
Genetic Code: The sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA forms the genetic code. This code
contains the instructions for the synthesis of proteins, which are essential for the structure and
function of cells.
Genome: The complete set of DNA in an organism is known as its genome. Genomes vary in
size and complexity among different species. Human DNA, for example, is organized into 23
pairs of chromosomes.

DNA Replication: DNA has the ability to replicate itself, ensuring that genetic information is
passed from one generation of cells to the next during cell division. This process is fundamental
for growth, development, and the maintenance of multicellular organisms.
Gene Expression: The information in DNA is used to direct the synthesis of RNA molecules in
a process called transcription. These RNA molecules, in turn, guide the synthesis of proteins in a
process called translation. Together, transcription and translation constitute gene expression.
Mutations: Changes in the DNA sequence, known as mutations, can occur spontaneously or be
induced by various factors. Mutations can lead to genetic diversity and evolution but can also
result in genetic disorders.
Understanding DNA is essential for advances in genetics, molecular biology, and biotechnology.
The ability to manipulate and study DNA has led to breakthroughs in areas such as genetic
engineering, gene therapy, and the diagnosis and treatment of genetic diseases.