follows: “Experts [agree] those readers, no matter which reading
Five Stages of Reading Development philosophy is followed, have to practice, practice, practice.” (You
Literacy is not something that just happens. One does not wake up
literate nor does one become literate in the same way that one learns
to walk. It is not intuited from the environment nor is it simply a matter
of physical maturation. Literacy learning requires instruction and
practice, and this learning occurs across discrete stages. The
following notes explore the five stages of reading development as
proposed by Maryanne Wolf (2008) in her book Proust and the squid:
the story and science of the reading brain. These five stages are:
 the emerging pre-reader (typically between 6 months to 6
years old);
 the novice reader (typically between 6 to 7 years old);
 the decoding reader (typically between 7 - 9 years old);
 the fluent, comprehending reader (typically between 9 - 15
years old); and
 the expert reader (typically from 16 years and older).
Please explore, and also visit the Stages of Literacy Development
page for a more detailed discussion. Before we begin with the stages,
there are two preliminary notes to make.
Preliminary Note #1: “As every teacher knows, emotional
engagement is the tipping point between leaping into the reading
life ... An enormously important influence on the development of
comprehension in childhood is what happens after we remember,
predict, and infer: we feel, we identify, and in the the process we
understand more fully and can’t wait to turn the page. The child ...
often needs heartfelt encouragement from teachers, tutors and
parents to make a stab at more difficult reading material.” (Wolf, 2008,
p 132)
“Without an affective investment and commitment, our words become
unintelligible and empty; with that commitment words begin to show
other manners of signification beyond the realm of literal meaning and
correspondence.” (Krebs, 2010, pg 138)
Preliminary Note #2: Across this lengthy period of development,
leaners are required to consolidate certain skills only to encounter
new challenges. The one rule that applies equally is as
Need /r/ /ee/ /d/ to Read). There is no better way to exemplify this
than in the following anecdote from Maryanne Wolf's book Proust and
the squid: the story and science of the reading brain.
“I do not remember that first moment of knowing I could read, but
some of my memories - of a tiny, two-room school with eight grades
and two teachers - evokes many pieces of what the language expect
Anthony Bashir calls the ‘natural history’ of the reading life. The
natural history of reading begins with simple exercises, practices, and
accuracy, and ends, if one is lucky, with the tools and the capacity to
‘leap into transcendence.’” (Wolf, 2008, p 109)
“My other vivid memory of those days’ centers on Sister Salesia,
trying her utmost to teach the children who couldn’t seem to learn to
read. I watched her listening patiently to these children’s torturous
attempts during the school day, and then all over again after school,
one child at a time ... My best friend, Jim, ... looked like a pale version
of himself, haltingly coming up with the letter sounds Sister Salesia
asked for. It turned my world topsy-turvy to see this indomitable boy
so unsure of himself. For at least a year they worked quietly and
determinedly after school ended.” (Wolf, 2008, p 111 - 112)
Stage 1: The Emergent Pre-reader (typically between 6 months to
6 years old)
“The emergent pre-reader sits on ‘beloved laps,’ samples and learns
from a full range of multiple sounds, words, concepts, images, stories,
exposure to print, literacy materials, and just plain talk during the first
five years of life. The major insight in this period is that reading never
just happens to anyone. Emerging reading arises out of years of
perceptions, increasing conceptual and social development, and
cumulative exposures to oral and written language.” (Wolf, 2008, p
115)
“Although each of the sensory and motor regions is myelinated and
functions independently before a person is five years of age, the
principal regions of the brain that underlie our ability to integrate
visual, verbal, and auditory information rapidly -- like the angular gyrus
-- are not fully myelinated in most humans until five years of age and
after ...What we conclude from this research is that the many efforts to
teach a child to read before four or five years of age are biologically
precipitate and potentially counterproductive for many children.” (Wolf,
2008, p 94 - 96)
By the end of this stage, the child “pretends” to read, can - over time -
retell a story when looking at pages of book previously read to
him/her, can names letters of alphabet; can recognizes some signs;
can prints own name; and plays with books, pencils and paper. The
child acquires skills by being dialogically read to by an adult (or older
child) who responds to the child’s questions and who warmly
appreciates the child’s interest in books and reading. The child
understands thousands of words they hear by age 6 but can read few
if any of them.
Stage 2: The Novice Reader (typically between 6 to 7 years old)
In this stage, the child is learning the relationships between letters and
sounds and between printed and spoken words. The child starts to
read simple text containing high frequency words and phonically
regular words, and uses emerging skills and insights to “sound out”
new one-syllable words. There is direct instruction in letter-sound
relations (phonics). The child is being read to on a level above what a
child can read independently to develop more advanced language
patterns, vocabulary and concepts. In late Stage 2, most children can
understand up to 4000 or more words when heard but can read about
600.
“Whatever her literacy environment, whatever her methods of
instruction ... the tasks for ... every novice reader begins with learning
to decode print and to understand the meaning of what has been
decoded. To get there, every child must figure out the alphabetic
principle that took our ancestors thousands of years to discover.”
(Wolf, pg 116)
“The major discovery for a novice reader is ... [the] increasingly
consolidated concept that letters connect to sounds of the language.”
(Wolf, pp 117)
“Learning all the grapheme-phoneme correspondence rules in
decoding comes next for her, and this involves one part discovery and
many parts hard work. Aiding both are three code-cracking capacities:
the phonological, orthographic, and the semantic areas of language
learning.” (Wolf, pp 117)
“Gradually they learn to hear and manipulate the smaller phonemes in
syllables and words, and this ability is one of the best predictors of a
child’s success in learning to read.” (Wolf, pp117)
“A useful method for helping novice readers with phoneme awareness
and blending involves ‘phonological recording.’ This may seem to be
just a pretentious term for reading aloud, but ‘reading aloud’ would be
too simple a term for what is really a two-part dynamic process.
Reading aloud underscores for children the relationship between their
oral language and their written one. It provides novice readers with
their own form of self-teaching.” (Wolf, pp 118)
“Reading out loud also exposes for the teacher and any listener the
strategies and common errors typical for a particular child.” (Wolf, pp
119)
“In every domain of learning - from riding a bike to understanding the
concept of death - children develop along a continuum of knowledge,
moving from a partial concept to an established concept.” (Wolf, pp
116)
Orthography
“Orthographic development consists of learning the entirety of these
visual conventions for depicting a particular language, with its
repertoire of common letter patterns and of seemingly irregular
usages ... Children learn orthographic conventions one step at a
time.” (Wolf, pp 120)
“However, one labels it, orthographic development for novice readers
requires multiple exposures to print - practice by any other name.”
(Wolf, pp 120 - 121)
“Explicit learning of common vowel patterns, morpheme units, and
varied spelling patterns in English (e.g. the prickly clusters of
consonants that precede many a word) aids the work of the visual
system.” (Wolf, pp 121)
Semantics (vocabulary)
“For some children, knowledge of a word’s meaning pushes their
halting decoding into the real thing.” (Wolf, pp 122)
“For thousands of code-cracking novice readers ... semantic
development plays much more of a role than many advocates of
phonics recognise, but far less of a role than advocates of whole
language assume.” (Wolf, pp 122)
“If the meaning of the child’s awkwardly decoded word is readily
available, his or her utterance has a better chance of being
recognised as a word and also remembered and stored.” (Wolf, pp
123)
“Explicit instruction in vocabulary in the classroom addresses some of
the problem, but novice readers need to learn much more than the
surface meaning of a word, even for their simple stories. They also
need to be knowledge and flexible regarding a word’s multiple uses
and functions in different contexts.” (Wolf, pp 124)
Stage 3: The Decoding Reader (typically between 7 - 9 years old)
In this stage, the child is reading simple, familiar stories and
selections with increasing fluency. This is done by consolidating the
basic decoding elements, sight vocabulary, and meaning in the
reading of familiar stories and selections. There is direct instruction in
advanced decoding skills as well as wide reading of familiar,
interesting materials. The child is still being read to at levels above
their own independent reading level to develop language, vocabulary
and concepts. In late Stage 3, about 3000 words can be read and
understood and about 9000 are known when heard. Listening is still
more effective than reading.
“If you listen to children in the decoder reader phase, you will ‘hear’
the difference. Gone are the painful, if exciting pronunciations ... In
their place comes the sound of a smoother, more confident reader on
the verge of becoming fluent.” (Wolf, pp 127)
“In this phase of semi-fluency, readers need to add at least 3,000
words to what they can decode, making the thirty-seven common
letters patterns learned earlier are no longer enough. To do this, they
need to be exposed to the next level of common letter patterns and to
learn the pesky variations of the vowel-based rimes and vowel pairs.”
(Wolf, pp 127 - 128)
“In addition, they learn to ‘see’ the chunks automatically. ‘Sight words’
add important elements to the achievements of novice readers. ‘Sight-
chunks’ propel semi-fluency in the decoding reader. The faster a child
can see that ‘beheaded’ is be + head + ed, the more likely it is that
more fluent word identification will allow the integration of this awful
word.” (Wolf, pp 128)
“Fluent word recognition is significantly propelled by both vocabulary
and grammatical knowledge. The increasingly sophisticated materials
that decoding readers are beginning to master are too difficult if the
words and their uses are seldom or never encountered by the
children.” (Wolf, pp 129)
“With each step forward in reading and spelling, children tacitly learn a
great deal about what’s inside a word -- that is, the stems, roots,
prefixes and suffixes that make up the morphemes of our language.”
(Wolf, pp 129)
“And they begin to see that many words share common
orthographically displayed roots that convey related meanings despite
different pronunciations (e.g. sign, signer, signed, signing, signature).”
(Wolf, pp 129 - 130)
“Fluency is not a matter of speed; it is a matter of being able to utilise
all the special knowledge a child has about a word -- its letters, letter
patterns, meanings, grammatical functions, roots and endings -- fast
enough to have time to think and comprehend. Everything about a
word contributes to how fast it can be read. The point of becoming
fluent, therefore, is to read -- really read -- and understand.” (Wolf, pp
130 - 131)
“To be sure, decoding readers are skittish, young, and just beginning
to learn how to use their expanding knowledge of language and their
growing powers of influence to figure out a text. The neuroscientist
Laurie Cutting of John Hopkins explains some nonlinguistic skills that
contribute to the development of reading comprehension in these
children: for example, how well they can enlist key executive functions
such as working memory and comprehension skills such as inference
and analogy.” (Wolf, pp 131)
  CV: A script you can read fluently works on you very differently
from one that you can write; but not decipher easily. You can
lock your thoughts in this as though in a casket.
“Fluency does not ensure better comprehension; rather, fluency gives
extra time to the executive system to direct attention where it is most
needed - to infer, to understand, to predict, or sometimes to repair
discordant understanding and to interpret a meaning afresh.” (Wolf,
pp 131)
“It is the moment when children first learn to go ‘beyond the
information given.’ It is the beginning of what will ultimately be the
most important contribution to the reading brain: time to think.” (Wolf,
pp 132)
“A child in this phase of development also needs to know simply that
he or she must read a word, sentence, or paragraph a second time to
understand it correctly. Knowing when to reread a text (e.g. to revise a
false interpretation or to get more information) to improve
comprehension is part of what [is referred to] as ‘comprehension
monitoring.’” (Wolf, pp 132)
“[It] emphasizes the importance of the child at this phase of
development of a child’s being able to change strategies if something
does not make sense, and of a teacher’s powerful role in facilitating
that change.” (Wolf, pp 132)
Barrier for the Decoding Reader
--- “30 to 40 percent of children in the fourth grade do not become
fluent readers with adequate comprehension ... One nearly invisible
issue ... is the fate of young elementary students who read accurately
(the basic goal in most reading research) but not fluently in grades 3
and 4.” (Wolf, pp 135)
--- “Reasons ...lend themselves to diagnosis: such as, a poor
environment, a poor vocabulary, and instruction not matched to their
needs. Some of these children become capable decoding readers, but
they never read rapidly enough to comprehend what they read.” (Wolf,
pp 136)
Stage 4: The Fluent, Comprehending Reader (typically between 9
- 15 years old)
By this stage, reading is used to learn new ideas in order to gain new
knowledge, to experience new feelings, to learn new attitudes, and to
explore issues from one or more perspectives. Reading includes the
study of textbooks, reference works, trade books, newspapers, and
magazines that contain new ideas and values, unfamiliar vocabulary
and syntax. There is a systematic study of word meaning, and
learners are guided to react to texts through discussions, answering
questions, generating questions, writing, and more. At beginning of
Stage 4, listening comprehension of the same material is still more
effective than reading comprehension. By the end of Stage 4, reading
and listening are about equal for those who read very well, reading
may be more efficient.
“The reader at the stage of fluent comprehending reading builds up
collections of knowledge and is poised to learn from every source.”
(Wolf, pp 136)
“At this time teachers and parents can be lulled by fluent-sounding
reading into thinking that a child understands all the words he or she
is reading.” (Wolf, p 136)
“Even when a reader comprehends the facts of the content, the goal
at this stage is deeper: an increased capacity to apply an
understanding of the varied uses of words - irony, voice, metaphor,
and point of view - to go below the surface of the text.” (Wolf, pp 137)
“The world of fantasy presents a conceptually perfect holding
environment for children who are just leaving the more concrete
stages of cognitive processing. One of the most powerful moments in
the reading life ... occurs as fluent, comprehending readers learn to
enter into the lives of imagined heroes and heroines.” (Wolf pp 138)
“Comprehension processes grow impressively in such places as
these, where children learn to connect prior knowledge, predict dire or
good consequences ... interpret how each new clue, revelation, or
added piece of knowledge changes what they know.” (Wolf, pp 138)
“The reading expert Richard Vacca describes the shift as a
development from ‘fluent decoders’ to ‘strategic readers’ - ‘readers
who know how to activate prior knowledge before, during and after
reading, to decide what’s important in a text, to synthesize
information, to draw inferences during and after reading, to ask
questions, and to self-monitor and repair faulty comprehension.”
(Wolf, pp 138)
“One well-known educational psychologist, Michael Pressley,
contends that the two greatest aids to fluent comprehension are
explicit instruction by a child’s teachers in major content areas and the
child’s own desire to read. Engaging in dialogue with their teachers
helps students ask themselves critical questions that get to the
essence of what they are reading.” (Wolf, pp 139)
“Van den Broek, Tzeng, Risden, Trabasso, and Basche (2001)
studied the effects of influential reading comprehension questioning
on students in the fourth, seventh, and tenth grades, as well as on
college undergraduates. They found that questions posed during the
reading of the text aided in shifting attention to specific information for
older and more proficient readers. However, it interfered with the
comprehension of the fourth- and seventh-grade students, who
performed better when the questions came after, not during, the
reading. (Fisher, Frey & Hattie, 2016, p. 38)
“[This is a] period of growing autonomy and fluent comprehension.
The young person’s task in this extended fourth phase of reading
development is to learn to use reading for life -- both inside the
classroom, with its growing number of content areas, and outside
school, where the reading life becomes a safe environment for
exploring the wildly changing thoughts and feelings of youth.” (Wolf,
pp 140)
Stage 5: The Expert Reader (typically from 16 years and older)
“All reading begins with attention -- in fact, several kinds of attention.
When expert readers look at a word (like ‘bear’), the first three
cognitive operations are: (1) to disengage from whatever one else is
doing; (2) to move our attention to the new focus (pulling ourselves to
the text); and (3) to spotlight the new letter and word.” (Wolf, pp 145)
“William Stafford expressed the first element in these changes when
he wrote how ‘a quality of attention’ is given to us.” (Wolf, pp 156)
“How we attend to a text change over time as we learn to read ...
more discriminatingly, more sensitively, more associatively.” (Wolf, pp
156)
“Cognitive neuroscientist Marcel Just and his research team at
Carnegie Mellon hypothesis that when experts make inferences while
reading, there is a least a two-stage process in the brain, which
includes both the generation of hypotheses and their integration into
the reader’s knowledge about the text.” (Wolf, pp 160)
“The degree to which expert reading changes over the course of our
adult lives depends largely on what read and how we read it.” (Wolf,
pp 156)
By this stage, the learner is reading widely from a broad range of
complex materials, both expository and narrative, with a variety of
viewpoints. Learners are reading widely across the disciplines, include
the physical, biological and social sciences as well as the humanities,
politics and current affairs. Reading comprehension is better than
listening comprehension of materials of difficult content and
readability. Learners are regularly asked to plan writing and
synthesize information into cohesive, coherent texts.
“The end of reading development doesn’t exist; the unending story of
reading moves ever forward, leaving the eye, the tongue, the word,
the author for a new place from which the ‘truth breaks forth, fresh
and green,’ changing the brain and the reader every time.” (Wolf,
2008, p 162)
References
 Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Hattie, J. (2016). Visible learning for
literacy (Grades K-12): Implementing the practices that work
best to accelerate student learning. Thousand Oaks,
CA :Corwin Literacy
 Humphrey, N. (2006). Seeing red: a study in consciousness.
Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
 Krebs, V. (2010). The bodily root: seeing aspects and inner
experience. In W. Day and V. Krebs (Eds), Seeing
 Wittgenstein anew. (pp. 120 - 139). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
 Van den Broek, P., Tzeng, Y., Risden, K., Trabasso, T., and
Basche, P. (2001) Inferential questioning: Effects on
comprehension of narrative texts as a function of grade and
timing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(3), 521-529.
 Wittgenstein, L. (1980). Culture and value. Translated by Peter
Winch. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
 Wolf, M. (2008). Proust and the squid: the story and science of
the reading brain. Cambridge: Icon Books.
AS18 ECE17
Literacy Development
READING FLUENCY
 Effective reading instruction will involve a strong focus on
reading fluency, which is the ability to read text
accurately, smoothly, and with expression.
 When students can read fluently, it allows them to read
text quickly and easily, which frees up their mental energy
to focus on understanding the meaning of the words they
are reading.
 Reading fluency involves the use of decoding
skills(blending + reading).Which are the skills that
children use to match the letters (or graphemes) they see
in written words to the sounds (phonemes) they hear in
spoken words These skills are important because they
allow children to decode unfamiliar words and read them
aloud accurately.
 Decoding skills can affect reading comprehension in a
number of ways.
 If a child has strong decoding skills, they are more likely
to be able to read unfamiliar words accurately and read
with fluency. Which can make it easier for them to
understand the meaning of the words they are reading.
On the other hand
 If a child struggles with decoding, it can make it difficult
for them to read unfamiliar words accurately and to read
with fluency, which can make it harder to comprehend the
meaning of the words they are reading.
The Importance of Reading Fluency
 “Reading fluency is essential to forming reading skills
because it allows children to read text with ease and
eloquence. When children can read fluently, they are able
to comprehend text quickly and effortlessly. Allowing
them to focus their mental energy on understanding the
content.
If a student does not develop good reading fluency
1. it can make it difficult for them to read text automatically
which can make it harder to comprehend the meaning of
the words they are reading.
2. they may struggle to read text accurately, which can lead
to misunderstandings and difficulty following the story or
Information in the text.
3. They may also struggle to read text with expression,
which can make it less enjoyable and engaging.
A lack of reading fluency can have a negative impact on a
student’s overall reading skills, understanding of a passage, and
enjoyment of reading.
How to Effectively Teach Reading Fluency
 Repeated reading: Have students read a passage
several times in a row with the goal of increasing their
speed and accuracy.
 This can be done individually or in small groups.
 This can also be done silently or as oral reading Silent
reading allows students to focus on their own reading
skills and practice reading at their own pace. Reading
aloud allows students to practice reading with expression
and get feedback on their fluency from the teacher and
their classmates.
  Choral reading: Have students read a passage together.
As a class with the teacher leading and the students
following. This can help to model good fluency and can
be a fun and engaging activity.
 Timed readings: Have students read a passage for a set
amount of time, such as one minute, and then record
their words per minute (WPM) score.
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT
 Vocabulary development is the process of learning new
words and increasing one’s understanding of their
meanings.
 It is an important component of reading because a strong
vocabulary is essential for good reading comprehension.
When children are exposed to a rich vocabulary, they are
able to better understand the words they are reading and
make connections between new words and their prior
knowledge.
The Importance of Vocabulary Development
 “Vocabulary development is essential to forming reading
skills because it helps children understand the meanings
of the words they are reading and make connections
between new words and their pre-existing knowledge.
When children have a rich vocabulary, they are able to
better comprehend the text they are reading and make
sense of new and unfamiliar words.
How to Effectively Teach Vocabulary Development
 Direct vocabulary instruction: Teach children the
meanings of specific words and how they are used in
different contexts. This can be done through activities
such as sight words, word sorts, vocabulary lists, word
maps, and word walls.
 Contextualized instruction: Help children learn new
words by Providing them with context clues, such as
definitions, synonyms, and examples. This can help
children understand the meanings of words in the context
of the text they are reading.
 Word study: Teach children about the different parts of
words, such as prefixes, suffixes, and roots, and how
these parts can change the meanings of words. This can
help children understand how words are related and
learn new words more easily.
 Word associations: Help children make connections
between new words and their prior knowledge by
encouraging them to think about how the new words are
similar to or different from other words they know.
READING COMPREHENSION
 According to an article published by the Federation of
Associations in Behavioral & Brain Sciences. Reading
comprehension is one of the most complex cognitive
activities in which humans engage, making it difficult to
teach, measure, and research.”
 Reading Comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading
instruction and encompasses all the previous reading
components that have been discussed.
If a student does not develop good reading comprehension
skills
 It can make it difficult for them to not only understand the
meaning of the words they are reading but also for them,
to engage with the material and learn new information.
 A lack of reading comprehension skills can also make it
more challenging for children to express themselves and
communicate effectively with others.
How to Effectively Teach Reading Comprehension
 Previewing: Have students preview the text by looking at
the title, headings, and illustrations to get a sense of what
the text is about.
  Asking questions: Encourage students to ask questions
about the text as they read to help them make
connections and better understand the meaning of the
words.
 Making predictions: Have students make predictions
about what they think will happen next in the text to help
them engage with the material and make connections
between the text and their prior knowledge.
 Summarizing: Have students summarize the main ideas
of the text to help them understand the key points and
make connections between the text and their pre-existing
knowledge.
CONCLUSION
Teaching children to read involves several different
components, and each component has an essential role in the
learning process. Young readers may experience reading
difficulties in any one of these areas, so knowing the aspects of
each is vital to creating effective reading instruction that meets
the needs of each individual student.
Emergent Reader and Emergent Writer
Characteristics of an Emergent Reader
 Emergent reading pertains to the first stage in a child’s
growth toward literacy. Particularly, this stage relates to
the beginning experiences or the child’s first experiences
with print in the home and continues through early years
of formal schooling. However, this reading behavior does
not begin at a particular age but emerges continually,
thus the term called emergent reading.
 Harris and Hodge (1981) refer to this period of acquiring
the specific skills and abilities that allow reading to take
place as preparedness or reading readiness. The child’s
preparedness allows him/her to cope with a learning task.
This is significantly determined by a complex pattern:
o Intellectual
o Motivational
o Maturational
o Experiential factor
Reading readiness is viewed as a set of:
o Social
o emotional,
o physical
o cognitive competencies
Stages of the Reading Process
 A number of models on reading development have been
designed and have guided reading instruction in
identifying the stages of reading where a particular child
is in and where children in a heterogeneous class belong.
What is emergent literacy?
 Emergent literacy is the term used to describe the
reading and writing experiences of young children before
they learn to write and read conventionally (Teale &
Sulzby, 1986).
 Emergent literacy begins at birth, regardless of whether
or not a child has a disability.
5 MAIN STAGES OF LITERACY DEVELOPMENT THAT
RELATES TO BOTH READING AND WRITING.
Marie Clay (1991) and Fountas and Pinnel (2001)
Stage 1: Emergent Readers (2 to 7 years old)
 they begin to familiarize themselves with the concepts of
print related to directionality.
 one to one correspondence between the spoken and the
written words.
 they begin o make text-to-world connections and may be
able to extend on what is written on the page.
 Factors that influence the development of an Emergent
Stage 2: Early Readers (5 to 7 years old) Reader
 They begin now to rely more heavily on the printed text
than on the pictures in a book.
 They begin to develop word recognition strategies such
as monitoring, searching, and self-correction.
 They begin to develop a data bank of sight words that
allows them to read more often in phrases rather than
single words.

Stage 3: Transitional Readers (5 to 7 years old)

 They make the leap into fluent reading as they are generally
able to read in meaningful phrases with comfortable pace
and appropriate voice intonation.
 They are able to read more lengthy texts with little reliance
on pictures for text meaning.

Stage 4: Self- Extending Readers (6 to 9 years old)

 Reading independence
 They often read a variety of textual genres and use reading PED 112 FS2
Micro-teaching and Alternative Mode of Teaching
as a tool for gaining new knowledge or building upon existing
knowledge.
 They are able to read more complex texts and begin to read
for variety of purposes.

Stage 5: Advanced Readers (9 years old and beyond)

 They are the readers who have attained a level of mastery
with reading.
 They are proficient in reading and comprehending various
text sources.
 They enjoy reading and use reading as means of gaining
knowledge.
 They can read fluently and can interpret texts at both
concrete and inferential level.
Qualities of a Good and Effective Micro Teacher:  Establishes and sustains an orderly environment in the
classroom.
An effective teacher loves to teach:  Increases meaningful academic learning and facilitates social
 Has a love and passion for teaching young people. and emotional growth.
 Decreases negative behaviours and increases time spent
An effective teacher demonstrates a caring attitude. academically engaged.
- “teachers teach because they care. Teaching young people is what
Varied Roles of a Teacher
they do best.
 The teacher plays varied roles in the classroom: he is the
It requires long hours, patience and care.”
manager, counsellor, motivator, leader, model, public relations
An effective teacher can relate to his or her students. specialist, parent-surrogate, facilitator, and instructor (Acero,
 Work hard to figure out how to relate to each of their students. Javier, & Castro 2000).
 Find a way to connect with their students even if they have to
1) As a Manager. As manager, the teacher is responsible for the
fake it.
effective management of his class from start to finish. He
Foster individualized instruction.
carries systematic activities throughout the day to develop the
 Each student learns differently, so it’s important for teachers to
learners’ cognitive, psychomotor, and affective aspects of the
keep a variety of teaching strategies in their tool belts in order
teaching-learning process. The learners’ eagerness and
to reach all students.
interest to participate in all the learning activities prepared and
An effective teacher is an excellent communicator
facilitated by the teacher are a manifestation of an orderly
 Must be a skilled communicator to students.
classroom management by the teacher-manager.
 A strong communicator with parents as well as your
faculty/staff in your school.
2) As a Counselor. Every teacher is a guidance teacher. He acts
An effective teacher is proactive rather than reactive
as a counselor to the learners especially when they are beset
 Consider intense planning and organization
by problems. In general, teachers’ comfort and make the
 Plans ahead, looks for aspects that they might have issues
learners fee they have a ready shoulder to cry on. As
with, and proactively looking for solutions to solve problems
counselor, the teacher religiously observes all the activities of
An effective teacher strives to be better.
the earners under his care, carefully noting important
 Looks for new and better teaching strategies, new research,
information regarding their mood, health, and progress in their
new technology, and new educational tools.
studies to help him assess their overall performance.
 Seeks out professional development opportunities.
An effective teacher challenges their students. 3) As a Motivator. Encouraging and motivating learners to study
 Challenge every student and maximize time with them so that well and behave properly in and outside the classroom are an
they learn more than they ever thought they could learn. enormous task. Despite the constraints, however, the teacher
should use effective ways to awaken the drives. And motives
An effective teacher understands the content that they teach and
of the learners, as he knows fully well the role played by
knows how to explain that content in a manner that their
motivation in the learning process. Motivation sets the mood
students understand.
for learning. It arouses the interest of the learners and gets
 Highly effective teacher both understands the content and
them more involved in class activities. A dynamic teacher is
explains it on level.
Use effective classroom management
 always good at motivating learners to make them listen,
participate, and understand instructions.
4) As a Leader. A leader directs coaches, supports, and
delegates depending on the needs of the situation. A leader is
always looked up on as somebody dependable and
responsible. A teacher always assumes the position of a
leader, and he has to be credible in this regard. He should,
therefore, manifest the highest leadership. Potentials
demanded of his role as teacher and leader. The teacher
should set the example to emphasize his role of being a
leader. He should also be aware that to be a good leader, he
must first be a good follower.
5) As a Model. A teacher is an exemplar. He serves as a model
to his learners. Learners idolize their teachers; they believe the
things that they say, especially if they show kindness and are
approachable and sympathetic to their needs. As a model, the
teacher should look his best all the time, master his lessons,
show his interest in the learner’s welfare, show his good
behavior, and inculcate good work and attitudes especially
during trying moments inside the classroom. Be fair in dealing
with pupils and exhibit good judgment when the situation calls
for it.
6) As a Public Relations Specialist. The credibility of the school
is attributed most of the time to the ways the teachers deal
with people outside the school, like the schools’ benefactors,
parents or the learner, church leaders, government
employees, and others. The teacher, in his role as a public
relations specialist, will be able to solicit important donations in
cash or in kind for the development of both the school and the
learners. More than this, a teacher who has good, public
relations will always make a name for his school.
7) As a Parent-surrogate. In school, the teacher is the parent of
the learners. Parents. Have a feeling of security knowing that
their children are in good hands. Adding to the main function of
developing the learners intellectually, the teacher is also
expected to train the learners socially and emotionally and to
look after their physical and mental well-being. In school, the
teacher takes over the role of the parents, attending to the
needs of the learners and offering them the comforts away
from home. In the process, he guarantees that the individual
rights of the learners to education and safety are respected.
8) As a Facilitator. The teacher is the facilitator of learning. The
learners must be given the chance to discuss things under the
close supervision and monitoring of the teacher. As a
facilitator, the teacher prepares guidelines which will serve as
the focus of discussion and activities. He oversees the
activities inside the classroom. He allows learners to discuss
spontaneously with his very minimal affirmation and
confirmation. In the event, however, that some clarifications
are needed, he can clarify vague points and correct wrong
notions of the learners.
9) As an Instructor. The main function of the teacher is
instruction. All the other roles aforementioned are corollary to
teaching. To effectively carry out this aspect of teaching, the
pre-service education of teachers must be more than
adequate to prepare them for a job involving varied
responsibilities.
PROFESSIONAL ATTRIBUTES OF A TEACHER
1) Physical Characteristics
✓ health and wellness
✓ Appearance
2) Personality Characteristics
✓ Cooperation
✓ Tactfulness
✓ Flexibility and Patience
✓ Organization
✓ Enthusiasm
✓ Creativity
✓ Initiative and risk taking
3) Responsibility Characteristics
✓ Responsibility
✓ Attendance and punctuality
 ✓ Maturity
4) Communication Skill
✓ Oral Communication
✓ Written communication
5) Professional Relationship Skills
✓ Demeanor
✓ Rapport
✓ Awareness of Individual Differences
6) Commitment to the Teaching Profession
✓ Professionalism
✓ Wittiness
✓ Reflectivity
FACTORS AFFECTING COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT FOR
CHILDREN
(Dutta 2012)
✓BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
✓ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
 These are substances that affect biological systems and that
are necessary to produce a result or cause an activity in the
body. The term is used when the chemical nature of the
substance is unknown. There are many biological elements,
for example, the red Blood cells in the human system.
The Following enumerate these factors.
Senses
 Sense organs receive stimuli from the environment. Their proper
development helps in receiving correct stimuli for the formation of
stimuli, and a result, wrong concepts are formed; Hence, the
cognitive development will not be perfect.
Intelligence
 In simple terms, intelligence is the ability to learn about, learn
from, understand, and effectively interrelate with one’s
environment. This general ability consists of a number of specific
abilities that include adaptability to a new environment or flexibility
to changes in existing environment, capacity for knowledge and
the ability to acquire it, capacity for reason or logic and abstract
thought, ability to understand relationships, ability to evaluate and
decide, and capacity for original or unique and productive thought.
Heredity
 This is the process of transmitting characteristics from one
generation to the next, such as transmitting blue eyes or skin color
to one’s descendants. Hearing loss can be an inherited
characteristic. Cognitive Development is also influenced by the
hereditary traits one gets from his parents. Their parents’ cognitive
development.
Maturation
 This is the process of learning to cope and respond in an
emotionally appropriate way. It may not necessarily be realized
along with aging or physical growth, but it is a part of growth and
development, to Illustrate, a difficult situation that a person at a
young age is able to handle with emotional stability prepares him
into adulthood. Maturation is continuous; it does not stop when
physical growth ends; it continuous through adulthood. An adult
who loses a child, for instance, learns to cope with a new
emotional situation that will influence the way he deals with
situations that follow.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR
Learning opportunities
 The opportunity to for learning affects cognitive development. The
more opportunities the learner gets, the better is the cognition,
because he will be able to add to his mental capacities by letting
through these opportunities.
Economic Status
 A family’s economic status also helps in the development of
cognition. Learners from better economic status get more
opportunities and better training.
Play is important in developing cognition
 Play activities are opportunity to interact with the environment,
receive stimuli, and respond to them. Through this, as he learns
new processes, he acquires knowledge, forms new
communication, and draws irregular sketch with crayons.
Various types of Stimuli
 As child grows, he gets various stimuli from the environment
through his senses, and perceive their meanings. He gets
assistance from parents and other people around him and is able
to get the right meanings of stimuli. Instructions and motivation
also help in the cognitive development of learner.
Family and Society
 Family is important from the point of view of providing the child
hereditary traits. Family also provides good opportunities to learn
through observation and imitation of other people and members of
the family. The child’s association with other children also
influences his cognitive development.
AS21 ECE20 Children’s Literature
The importance of Children’s Literature in Early Education
Why is Children’s Literature important in Early Education?
Children’s literature is crucial for learning and development Literature
allows children to grow, imagine, and learn. Here are just a few
reasons that children’s literature is vital for early childhood education
and care. few reasons that children’s literature is vital for early
childhood education and care.
1. Language Development
 Children’s literature exposes young learners to rich vocabulary,
sentence structures, and language patterns. Reading aloud to
children helps them develop their listening and speaking skills,
expanding their vocabulary and understanding of language.
2. Cognitive Development
 Engaging with stories and books stimulates children’s
cognitive abilities. They learn to follow narratives, make
predictions, and understand cause and effect relationships It
enhances critical thinking, problem- solving, and
comprehension skills.
3. Imagination and Creativity
 Children’s literature fosters Imagination and creativity. Through
vivid illustrations and captivating stories, children can explore
different worlds, characters, and scenarios This imaginative
play supports their creative thinking and helps them develop
their own storytelling abilities.
4. Emotional Development
 Books provide a safe space for children to explore and
understand their emotions. Stories often feature relatable
characters facing various challenges and experiences.
Children can identify with these characters and develop
empathy, compassion, and emotional Intelligence.
5. Cultural-Awareness and Diversity
 Children’s literature exposes young learners to diverse
cultures, traditions, and perspectives. It helps them appreciate
differences and promotes inclusivity. By reading stories
featuring characters from various backgrounds, children
develop a broader worldview and acceptance of others.
6. Early Literacy Skills
 Children’s literature serves as a foundation for developing
early literacy skills, including letter recognition, phonics, and
reading comprehension. Exposure to books and stories at a
young age contributes to building a strong foundation for later
reading and writing abilities.
7. Bonding and Relationships
 Reading together creates meaningful bonding experiences
between children and caregivers. It strengthens relationships,
improves communication, and provides opportunities for
shared enjoyment and quality time.
 Children’s literature is important in early childhood
education and care as it supports language development,
cognitive growth. Imagination, emotional understanding,
cultural awareness, early literacy skills, and meaningful
relationships. Incorporating quality children’s literature into
early learning environments can have a positive and
lasting impact on young learners.
Bringing Stories to Life
Preparation for the Presentation of Creative Storytelling
 Storytelling is an art.
  It shows how a person uses his imagination and creativity with  Stimulates their senses so that they are able to use their
the purpose of making the audience enjoy and learn from the imagination to feel, smell, touch and listen, visualizing vivid
experience. pictures.

Why is storytelling important? Delivery Elements

 Stories are building blocks of knowledge, the foundation of  Memory
memory and learning.  Projection
 Storytelling develops students into appreciative listeners:  Clear speech and proper enunciation
soon they begin to tell stories themselves.  Timing and Pacing
 They reinforce their concept of story and are provided with  Eye contact
opportunities for oral language development and  Developing Character
expansion.  Sound Effects

Creative storytelling Ways on How to Tell Story Creatively

 A process where the storyteller involves his new ideas or
concepts aside from it being read 1) Using Props in Storytelling
 It is a storyteller’s ability to imagine or invent something new to a. Box Board
add to the traditional way of telling a stony. b. Apron Stories
Benefits of storytelling  Taken an old apron with a pocket or make a special
 Comprehension story apron like the one illustrated here. Hide in the
 Expressive and Receptive language Development. pocket a small toy or object that relates to the story
 Aesthetic Enjoyment or cut out characters. Slowly pull them out of your
 It improves the children’s minds, activates creative pocket to built the children’s curiosity about the
imagination and promote memory skills. story.
 It allows the pupils to learn something from the stories they c. Clothes Pin Story
listen  Chose 4-5 pieces of the cardboard and tell your
 It has therapeutic value that warms the hearts of children story by hanging them on by one on a long string.
 It inculcates values of promotes positive behaviour for young d. Story Box
children.  A story box can be made into a story book. Use all
sides of the box ‘as your pages. Draw on them and
Good stories color. You may write the title in one corner.
 A good story has single theme e. Story Maze
 With a dramatic appeal  As you tell the story, allow the character to look for
 It should bear good characterization his way to go to the other side.
 Appropriate for the listeners. f. Tell-and-Draw/Cut-and-tell Stories
 Tell-and-draw stories combine oral telling with
A good storytelling simple illustrations. The teller merely draws during
 involves deep interaction between teller and hearer. the storytelling. The same procedure for cut-and-tell
stories.
 ✓ they give the reader a way to follow the story and understand what
2) Using Puppets is happening.
a) Stick puppets ✓ they can help create an emotional response in the reader.
 Color a person or an animal. Then cut it out. Tape ✓ By evoking certain emotions, they can make a -story more powerful
or paste it on the popsicles or barbecue stick and and memorable.
make it come alive.
b) Paper Bag Puppet 1) Plot
 Using the bottom of the paper bag as the head,  One of the most important aspects of a story is the plot. This is
decorate with crayons, paper scraps and other the sequence of events in the story. And it can be divided into
Items to make a person or Animal. three parts: the beginning, the middle, and the end. The
c) Sock puppet beginning sets up the conflict and introduces the main
 Using the bottom part of the sock decorate it with characters. The middle is where the conflict is resolved, and
yarns, buttons and thread to make the characters in the ending is where everything is tied up.
the story.  The plot is important because it gives a story its structure and
d) Finger Puppet helps to keep readers engaged.
 Draw the characters in the story in a small card Without a strong plot, a story can quickly become dull
board and cut it. Paste or glue them in a ring-like confusing. Or
paper or string. Wear it on your finger. Move it while  Literary elements like plot are essential for writers to consider
you tell the story. if they want to produce a well-crafted tale.
2) Character
Literacy Elements  Characters are the people (or animals) that populate a story.
Literary Elements of a Story They can be major or minor, good or bad, round or flat.
What are literary elements?  Significant characters are typically more fully developed than
 Literary elements are the building blocks of literature. minor characters. Good characters are those who the reader
 They are the essential ingredients that make up a story, poem sympathizes with, while flawed characters generally are the
or play antagonists.
 Without literary elements, there would be no literature.
Types of Characters Defined
Round Character-around character is fully developed meaning we
Literary elements include;
know lots about the character, leaders may even be able to anticipate
✓Plot the actions of a round character of the characterization is well done
✓conflict and consistent.
✓character Flat Character we know very little about a flat character, flat
✓setting characters are not meant to serve as main characters. They serve as
✓point of view; and necessary elements in plat or the elements of the setting.
✓theme.  An author typically develops a character by revealing critical
information about them throughout the story. This might
Literacy Elements are essential because; include their backstory, personality traits, motives, etc. By
✓ they provide a framework for the writer to tell their story gradually showing these things to the reader, the author can
create a well-rounded character that feels like a real person.
 Characters are an essential part of any story, and they can
play a significant role in determining how enjoyable the story is
to read. Next time you’re writing a book or reading one, pay
close attention to the characters and see how they contribute
to your overall experience.
3) Setting
 The setting is one of the literary elements that refers to where
and when the story occurs.
 The setting can be real or imaginary, and it can be specific or
general.
4) Point of view
 The point of view is the perspective from which an author
tells a story.
 Authors can choose three different points of view first
person, second person, and third person.
 In the first-person point of view, the narrator is a character
in the story and uses “I” to refer to themselves. This point
of view is often used in autobiographies or memoirs.
 From a second-person point of view, the narrator speaks
directly to the reader and uses “you” to address them. This
point of view is less common but can be seen in some self-
help books or how-to manuals.
 The third-person point of view is when the narrator is not a
character in the story and uses “he,” “she,” or “they” to
refer to the characters. This is the most common point of
view used in fiction stories.
5) Tone
 When it comes to literary elements, the tone is often thought of
in terms of the emotions that a piece of writing evokes in its
readers.
 However, tone can also refer to the overall attitude or mood
that a piece of writing conveys.
 You can convey the tone of a piece through its choice of
words, its sentence structure, and even its font choices.
6) Theme
 One of the most important literary elements is the theme.
 The theme of a story is its central idea or message. It is
what the story is ultimately about. Sometimes the theme is
stated directly, while other times, it is implied.
 But regardless of how it is presented, the theme is always
an integral part of the story.
7) Conflict
 A story needs conflict to be interesting.
 Conflict is the struggle between two opposing forces. It is
what drives the plot forward and creates tension.
There are four main types of conflict:
 man vs. Man
 man vs. Nature
 man vs. Society,
 man vs. Self.
In a story, one or more of these conflicts will be present.
8) Imagery
 Imagery is the use of words and descriptions to create mental
images.
 When used effectively, imagery can help readers feel as
though they are experiencing the story first hand.
 Good imagery can also help set the mood and atmosphere of
a piece and create a stronger connection between the reader
and the characters.
9) Symbolism
 In literature, symbolism is a significant literary element that can
be used to add depth and meaning to a text.
 Symbols can be objects, characters, or ideas representing
something else, such as a concept or feeling.
 For example, a white rose may symbolize purity, while a red
rose may symbolize love or passion.
10) Narrative structure
 The narrative structure is one literary element that is
particularly important in shaping a story.
 It refers to how the events of a story are ordered and how
they are related to one another.
 A well-crafted narrative structure can help to create a sense of
suspense, excitement, and coherence and can ultimately
make work more enjoyable to read.