BIO204: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Code: 1642 kristian Hezekiah duyogan

NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Description:
- the primary functions of this system are to detect changes
outside and within the body, make decisions based on the
information received, and stimulate muscles or glands to
respond, helping maintain homeostasis
- it coordinates movements of the bones and muscles involved
- it links into your body parts and carries signals from one
region to another
- it enables you to sense and analyze the change that takes place THREE TYPES OF NEURONS:
and to respond to these changes 1. Sensory Neurons – receive information from the
- it also regulates body functions such as breathing and enables environment and sent it to the brain and spinal cord
different parts of the body to work together smoothly 2. Motor Neurons – send information from the brain and
- provides sensory, integrative, and motor functions to the body; spinal cord to muscles, which make it act
Motor Functions divided into the: Controlled Somatic NS and 3. Association Nerve Cells or Interneuron – is located
Unconscious Autonomic NS inside the brain and spinal cord and connect or link sensory
neurons to motor neurons
KINDS OF CELLS THAT FORMS THE NERVE TISSUE THE PARTS OF NEURON
 Neuroglia – these cells provide physical support,  Cell Body – it contains the nucleus and synthesize
insulation, and nutrients for neurons; these cells fill spaces, proteins
support neurons, provide structural support and frameworks,
 Axons – the axon transmits the impulse away from the
produce myelin, and carry on phagocytosis
axonal hillock of the cell body; larger axons
 Neurons – they transmit nerve impulses along nerve
enclosed by sheaths of myelin made by Schwann
fibers to other neurons
Cells
 Dendrites – branching dendrites carry impulses from
TYPES OF NEUROGLIA
other neurons (or from receptors) toward the cell
 Microglial Cells – are small cells that phagocytize body
bacterial cells and cellular debris; they are found in the
central nervous system
 Oligodendrocytes – form myelin in the brain and
spinal cord
 Astrocytes – are near blood vessels and support
structures, aid in metabolism, and respond to brain injury
by filling in spaces
 Ependyma – covers the inside of ventricles and
forms choroid plexuses within the ventricles
 Schwann Cells – are the myelin-producing
neuroglia of the Peripheral Nervous System NEURONS ARE GROUPED INTO
A.Structural Differences
 Bipolar Neurons – are found in the eyes, nose, and
ears, and have a single axon and a single dendrite
NEURONS
extending from opposite sides of the cell body
- the basic structural unit of the nervous system, whether
 Unipolar Neurons – are found in ganglia outside
central, motor, or sensory, is the nerve cell or neuron
the CNS and have an axon and a dendrite arising from
- they transmit nerve impulses along nerve fibers to other
a single short fiber extending from the cell body
neurons
 Multipolar Neurons – have many nerve fiber
- nerves are made up of bundles of nerve fibers; nerve
arising from cell bodies and are commonly found in the
fibers include a single axon and numerous dendrites
brain and spinal cord
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B.Functional Differences  Biogenic amines or Monoamines – are group of
 Sensory Neurons – also known as afferent neurotransmitters that include: dopamine (important in
neurons; conducts impulses from peripheral controlling body movements), norepinephrine and
receptors to the CNS and are usually unipolar, epinephrine (both involved in the autonomic
although some are bipolar neurons nervous system) and serotonin (involved in sleep and
 Interneurons – are multipolar neurons lying within the emotional states)
CNS that form links between other neurons
 Motor Neurons – are multipolar neurons that The End of Neurotransmitters
conduct impulses from the CNS to effectors - Enzymes in synaptic clefts and on postsynaptic membranes
rapidly decompose the neurotransmitters after their release
- other neurotransmitters transported back to the synaptic knob
THE SYNAPSE that released them
- the junction of an axon with another cell; or the function - destruction or removal of the neurotransmitters prevents
between two communicating neurons continuous stimulation of the postsynaptic neuron
- a nerve impulse reaches a synaptic knob that stimulates
synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitters
- the neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and reacts 1.Central Nervous System (CNS) – composes the Brain and
DIVISION
Spinal Cord OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
with receptors on other neurons membrane
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – peripheral nerves
Synaptic cleft – is where the impulse must cross
connect CNS to the rest of the body
KINDS OF SYNAPSES
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
a. Excitatory Neurotransmitters – increase postsynaptic
- brain and spinal cord are surrounded by membranes called
membrane permeability to sodium ions and trigger impulses; the
meninges that lie between bone and soft tissues
receptor protein is usually a chemically gated sodium channel
- swelling and inflammation of the membranes covering the
b. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters – decrease membrane
brain and spinal cord will lead to meningitis that can cause
permeability to sodium ions, reducing the chance that it will
severe disease that can result in brain damage and even death
reach threshold; the effect on the postsynaptic neuron depends
on which presynaptic knobs are activated; the receptor protein is
The Three (3) Layers of the Meninges
chemically gated potassium or chloride channel
 Dura Mater – the outermost layer which made up of tight,
c.Integration – the various excitatory and inhibitory electrical
white dense, connective tissue; it contains many blood
effects tend to cancel or reinforce one another
vessels; it forms sheath around the spinal cord
 Arachnoid Mater – it is the middle meninx, thin and lacks
blood vessels; between arachnoid and pia mater is a
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
subarachnoid space that contains cerebrospinal
- the nervous system produces at least 50 kinds of
fluid
neurotransmitters
 Pia Mater – the innermost meninx; it is thin and
- when the action potential reaches a synaptic knob, calcium ions
contains many blood vessels and nerves; it is
rush inward, causing synaptic vesicles to fuse with the membrane
attached to the surface of the brain and spinal cord and
and release their contents, the neurotransmitters into the synaptic
follows their contours
cleft
 Acetylcholine (Ach) – stimulates muscle
Spinal Cord
contraction; is the neurotransmitter released at the
- begins at the base of the brain and extends as a slender cord to the
neuromuscular junction, the synapse that forms
first and second lumber vertebrae; the conus medularis is
between a neuron and a muscle fiber; it forms an
the terminal end of the spinal cord
excitatory synapse with skeletal muscle but has the
opposite effect on cardiac muscle, causing an
inhibitory synapse
 Glycine and GABA – are inhibitory
neurotransmitters; this inhibitory effect is very
important for neural control of body movements and
other brain functions
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Structure of the Spinal Cord
- the spinal cord consists of 31 segments; each segment gives rise to
a pair of spinal nerves
 Cervical enlargement gives rise to a pair of spinal
nerves leading to the upper limbs
 Lumbar enlargement gives rise to those innervating the
lower limbs
 White Matter is made up of bundles of myelinated
nerve fibers or nerve tracts and surrounds a
butterfly-shaped core of gray matter housing
interneurons
- the spinal cord has two primary functions:
1.to transmit impulses to and from the brain
2.house spinal reflexes

Ascending Tracts – the tracts carrying sensory information to

the brain
Descending Tracts – the tracts carrying sensory information
from the brain to the different parts of the body Spinothalamic
Tract – begins in the spinal cord, sends sensory impulses
associated with pain, touch, and temperatures to the thalamus
of the brain
Corticospinal Tract – starts in the cortex of the brain, carries
motor impulses down through the spinal cord and nerves

DIVISION OF BRAIN
 Cerebrum
- the largest portion and associated with higher mental
functions
- it consists of two hemispheres
Corpus callosum – a deep ridge of nerve fibers that connects
the hemispheres
- convolutions, sulci, and fissures mark the surface of
the brain
- the lobes of the brain are named according to the
bones they underlie and include the frontal lobe,
Brain temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and insula
- is the most significant and the most complicated portion of the Cerebral cortex – the thin layer of gray matter where it lies
nervous system outside the cerebrum and contains 75% of the cell bodies in
- it contains 100 billion multipolar neurons; these neurons are the nervous system; beneath the cortex lies a mass of white
connected and communicated with numerous synapses throughout matter made up of myelinated nerve fibers connecting the
the body for vital functions cortex’s cell bodies with the rest of the nervous system
- the most complex vertebrae organ to evolve, and it can
perform a bewildering variety of complex functions
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Functions:
- provides higher brain functions:
1. interpretation of sensory input
2. initiating voluntary muscular movements
3. memory
4. integrating information for reasoning
Division of the Cerebral Cortex
1. Motor areas – lie in the frontal lobes; it coordinates
muscular activity to make speech possible; it also controls the
voluntary movements of the eyes and eyelids
2. Sensory areas – located in various regions of the cerebrum
and interpret sensory input, producing feelings or sensations; they
control sensory areas such as for sight located within the occipital
lobe; sensory and motor fibers alike crossover in the spinal cord
or brain stem centers, thus, the right hemisphere interprets or
controls the left side of the body, and vice versa
3. Association areas – analyze and interpret sensory
impulses that function in reasoning, judgment, emotions,
verbalizing ideas, storing memory, and higher intellectual
processes
Hemisphere Dominance
- both cerebral hemispheres function in receiving and analyzing
sensory input and sending motor impulses to the opposite side of
the body
- most people exhibit this for the language-related activities of
speech, writing, and reading
- the left hemisphere is dominant in 90% of the population; the
nondominant hemisphere specializes in nonverbal functions and
controls emotions and intuitive thinking
Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
- these are a series of connected cavities within cerebral
hemispheres and brain stem
- they are continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord and
are filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid – has a nutritive as well as protective that
cushion the brain tissues
 Diencephalon
- this portion of the brain lies above the brain stems and
contains the thalamus and hypothalamus
- other portions of the diencephalon are the optic tracts and
optic chiasma, the infundibulum, attachment for the pituitary,
the posterior pituitary, mammillary bodies, and the pineal
gland
Thalamus
– function for the sorting and directing sensory information arriving
from other parts of the nervous system
- is the major site of sensory processing in the brain
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- auditory (sound), visual, and other information from sensory
receptors enters the thalamus and then is passed to the areas of the
cerebral cortex
- it also controls balance
- information about posture, derived from the muscles, and
information about orientation, derived from sensors within the
ear, combine with information from the cerebellum and pass to
the thalamus
- it also processes the information and channels it to the
appropriate motor center on the cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus
- it integrates all the internal activities
- links the endocrine system with the nervous system
- it regulates heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and
water and electrolyte balance
- it also controls hunger and body weight
- it also involves in movements and the secretions of the
digestive tract
- growth and reproduction are also one of the essential
functions
- it also engages in sleep and wakefulness (directs the secretions
of the brain’s major hormone-producing gland – the pituitary
gland)
Limbic System
- one of them in areas of the diencephalon, controls
emotional experience and expression
- it generates pleasant or unpleasant feelings about
experiences
- it guides behavior that may enhance the chance of survival
- along with other parts of the hypothalamus and areas of the brain
called hippocampus and amygdala
- also the area of the brain affected by drugs such as
cocaine, and the hippocampus is involved in memory
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 Cerebellum
- it functions to communicate with other parts of the central
nervous system, like the coordination of skeletal muscle
activity and maintains posture
- cauliflower-shaped structure, extending back from the
brain
 Brain Stem
- it is located at the base of the cerebrum and connects the
brain to the spinal cord
- it consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla
oblongata
- this stalklike structure contains nerves that control your
breathing, swallowing, and digestive processes, as well as the
beating of your heart and the diameter of your blood vessels
Reticular Formation – a network of nerves that runs through the
brain stem and connects to other parts of the brain; these
widespread connections make these nerves essential to
consciousness, awareness, and sleep; one part of this filters sensory
input, enabling you to sleep through repetitive noises such as traffic
yet awaken instantly when telephone rings; the decreased activity in
the reticular formation will results in sleep while the increased
activity results in wakefulness
Mid Brain – is located between diencephalon and pons that
contains bundles of myelinated nerve fibers that convey impulses
to and from higher parts of the brain, and masses of gray matter
that serve as reflex centers; it also contains centers for auditory
and visual reflexes
Pons – is located between midbrain and medulla oblongata; it
transmits impulses between the brain and spinal cord; it contains
centers that regulate the rate and depth of breathing
Medulla Oblongata – transmits all ascending and descending
impulses between the brain and spinal cord; it contains nuclei that
controls heart rate; it is the vasomotor center for blood pressure
control; the respiratory center works, along with the pons, to
control the rate and depth of breathing; it is also responsible for
coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
- it consists of the cranial and spinal nerves that arise from the
central nervous system and travel to the remainder of the body
- it is made up of Somatic Nervous System that oversees
voluntary activities and the Automatic Nervous System that
controls involuntary movements
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TYPES OF NERVES
- a nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers (axons) held together by
layers of connective tissue
Sensory Fibers (afferent) – bring sensory information to the Central
Nervous System
Motor Fibers (efferent) – carry impulse away from Central Nervous
System to effectors
Nerve Pathways
- the route nerve impulses travel are called pathways, the
simplest of which is a reflex arc – which includes a sensory
receptor, sensory neuron, an interneuron in the spinal cord, a
motor neuron, and an effector
- reflexes are automatic, subconscious, and responses to stimuli
that help maintain homeostasis like heart rate and blood
pressure; it also carries out automatic reactions like vomiting,
sneezing, and swallowing
Cranial Nerves
- twelve (12) pairs of cranial nerves arise from the brain’s
underside, most of which are mixed nerves; these 12 pairs are
designated by number and name and include the olfactory, optic,
oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial,
vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, and
hypoglossal nerves
Spinal Nerves
- there are thirty-one (31) pairs of mixed nerves that make up the
spinal nerves
- they are grouped according to the level from which they arise
and are numbered in sequence, beginning with those in the
cervical region
- each spinal nerve arises from two roots: the dorsal or
sensory root and a ventral or motor root
Branches of Spinal Nerves
- the main branches of some spinal nerves from plexuses
Cervical plexuses – lie on either side of the neck and supply
the neck’s muscles and skin
Brachial plexuses – arise from lower cervical and upper thoracic
nerves and lead to the upper limbs
Lumbosacral plexuses – occur from the lower spinal cord and
lead to the lower abdomen, external genitalia, buttocks, and legs
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
- it has the risk of maintaining homeostasis of visceral
activities without conscious effort
- the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system exert
opposing effects on target organs
- based on the effects of releasing different neurotransmitters to
the effector, are generally antagonistic
- it is primarily controlled by reflex centers in the brain and
spinal cord
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- the limbic system and cerebral cortex alter the reactions of
the autonomic nervous system through the emotional influence
Divisions of Autonomic Nervous System
1. Sympathetic Division – operates under conditions of
stress or emergency
2. Parasympathetic Division – operate under normal
conditions
VOLUNTARY NERVOUS SYSTEM
- motor neurons of the voluntary nervous system stimulate
skeletal muscles to contract in two ways:
First: motor neurons may stimulate the skeletal muscles of the
body to contract in response to conscious commands Second:
skeletal muscle can also be stimulated as a part of reflexes that do
not require conscious control
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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- the human reproductive system, also known as the genital
REPRODUCTIVE
system is a group of SYSTEM
Human Male and Female Reproductive System
- this is also known as genital system
- is a group of sex organs that function together to produce
offspring, perpetuating their kind of species
- reproduction is essential for the continuation of the species
- this involves the fusion of two gametes or germ cells
- the male produces sperm, while the female provides egg or
ovum
- reproductive is essential for the continuation of the species
- reproductive organs can produce germ cells (sperm/ova) only
after puberty
- Puberty usually occurs a little earlier in girls (around 12
years) than boys (approximately 14 years)
- the onset of puberty depends on the release of “trigger”
hormones from the anterior pituitary and hypothalamus; it is
believed that a particular brain area acts as a time marker, and
puberty sends stimulator signals to the hypothalamus
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Parts and Functions
 Egg Tubes (Oviduct) – the egg tube, also called the
fallopian tube or oviduct, is the vessel through which egg cell
travels to the uterus
 Ovaries – women are born with hundreds of
undeveloped female egg cells or ova (one is called
ovum); these eggs are stored in the ovaries and released every
month, after puberty; unused eggs dissolve and pass out
during menstruation
 Uterus (Womb) – this bag is like an inverted pear, held in
place by ligaments and muscle; it has a very soft lining
containing the fertilized egg and nurtures it until it is a fully
developed baby; this is a hollow, muscular organ; the
primary function of the uterus is to provide protection and
nourishment to the developing fetus until birth
The non-pregnant adult uterus is about the size
of a pear (7.5 cm long, 5 cm wide, 2.5 cm thick, and weighting
30-40 gm). The upper part is board and branches out on either
Fallopian tubes. At its lower end, the uterus narrows down
into the cervix, which leads into the vagina. From puberty
until menopause, each month, the uterus' lining prepares
itself to receive a fertilized ovum. If fertilization does not
occur, the lining is sloughed off and passes out of the body; this
is called menstruation
 Cervix – is a ring of muscle located at the lower third
portion of uterus; it forms a barrier between the uterus and
the 'V'; until birth, the baby is held in place by the cervix;
during childbirth, the cervix expands, and the
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baby passes through it; it is the Latin word for “neck” –
where it refers to the lower portion of the uterus, which
projects into the vagina
 Vagina – it is the passageway of the uterus; the vagina and
urethra are two separate passages, with different openings;
the vaginal opening is surrounded and protected by folds of
skin; this is an elastic, muscular canal that connects the
cervix to the outside of the woman's body; it is the tube that
receives the male organ during mating; during menstruation,
it is the same tube through which the blood flows out; the
peritoneal fold is called the broad ligament; between its
folds lie the uterus, the fallopian tubes, and the ovaries
 Ovaries – these are a pair of oval reproductive glands; their
main functions are the production of ova and secretion of
hormones – estrogen and progesterone; after attaining sexual
maturity (post-puberty), each ovary produces an ovum every
four weeks; if the egg is not fertilized, then the uterus's
internal lining (the endometrium) is shed as a mass of
blood and tissue; this is the process of menstruation
 Ovulation – the process by which a mature ovum is
released from an ovary; this occurs at the midpoint of the
menstrual cycle; after ovulation, an egg remains viable and
capable of being fertilized for about 24 hours; a slight rise in
body temperature usually accompanies ovulation; this is often
made use of in detecting whether ovulation has occurred or
not
 Fallopian Tubes – they are also called oviduct or
uterine tubes; these tubes are about 10 cm long; on each
side, they connect the uterus to the ovary; these ducts play
an essential part in the fertilization of an ovum; about midway
between two menstrual periods, an unfertilized egg or ovum
is released from an ovary; it is moved slowly to the uterus
by contractions of the muscular wall of the tube
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FERTILIZATION
- it is a process that usually takes place in the ovarian end of the
tube
- it is the fusion of the haploid sperm cells to the haploid egg cells
forming a diploid zygote
- after ejaculation, a few sperm are transported through the
uterus to the ovarian ends of the Fallopian tubes within 5 to 10
minutes, due to contractions of the uterus and the tubes
- sperm remains viable for about four days within the female genital
tract; however, out of the half a billion sperms deposited in the
female tract, only 1000-3000 reach the tubes
MENSTRUATION
- it is the periodic shedding of the lining of the uterus (which is seen
as a mass of blood and tissue) in women of childbearing age from
the age of 12 or 14 to about 50 years
- the first occurrence of menstruation is menarche
- the cyclical nature of the menstrual cycle is because of the periodic
release of hormones by the hypothalamus
- Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) from the
hypothalamus causes the release of Follicle Stimulation
Hormone (FSH) from the ovary
Problems Associated with Menstruation
 Amenorrhea – absence or abnormal cessation of the
menses
 Dysmenorrhea – difficult and painful menstruation
 Menorrhagia – excessively prolonged or profuse
menses
 Premenstrual Tension (PMT) – in women of
reproductive age, the regular monthly experience of
physiological and emotional distress, usually during the
several days preceding menses, characterized by
nervousness, depression, fluid retention, and weight
gain
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Parts and Functions
 Sperm Duct – during mating, sperm cells released to pass
through the sperm ducts
 Urethra – this is the e tube inside the male organ that
carries urine or semen; it is the continuing part of the
sperm duct; in the urethra, other fluids mix with the
sperms to form semen; it extends along g the center of the
penis, where it serves the dual function of carrying urine or
semen
 Penis – this is hanging in front of every male, which he pees
with; the size of the organ; the size of the organ differs a lot
for growing boys because they develop differently; an erect
one for an adult man may be about 5.7inches in length
(average); the penis’ job is to pass
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urine out of the man’s body and pass semen into the
female organ during mating
 Testes – there are two testes (one of them is called a
testis); these are held in place by the scrotum (scrotal
sacks); the scrotum is a bag of tough skin; the job of the testes
is to produce millions of male cells called sperms and also to
make male reproductive hormones; during puberty, a boy’s
hormones affect the way his body develops
 Vas Deferens – the tube that leads from the testis
upwards to join the urethra; the sperms pass through this long
tube when ejaculated
 Seminal Vesicles – the seminal vesicles are two small
pouches at the back of the bladder; the secretions of these
glands are present in the semen and provide nutrition to the
sperms; the prostate gland contributes to other secretions
 Prostate Gland – this is the auxiliary gland that
surrounds the urethra where the latter joins the urinary
bladder; these are ducts s from the prostate lead into the
urethra; it secretes a thin, milky fluid; this secretion,
together with that of the seminal vesicles and the sperms,
makes up the semen; the prostatic fluid is alkaline – this
increases the motility and fertility of the sperms; the
prostate gland muscles also help propel this seminal fluid
through the urethra and into the female reproductive organ
during ejaculation
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BIRTH CONTROL METHODS (NATURAL
AND ARTIFICIAL)
- Birth Control, also known as contraception and fertility
control, refers to methods or devices used to prevent
pregnancy
Family planning – the planning and provision of birth
control
NATURAL BIRTH CONTROL
- refers to the use of any medication, barrier, or device to
prevent pregnancy
- many people use it instead of or in addition to natural family
planning, which relies on tracking menstrual cycles, body
temperature, and consistency of mucus discharge to determine
when a woman could conceive
 Natural Methods – this method teaches women to
determine the fertile phase (typically 7 to 10 days
long) of their menstrual cycle; to avoid
pregnancy, women avoid intercourse on fertile days
 Fertility Awareness Method (FAM) – they are
ways to track ovulation and release an egg to
prevent pregnancy; some people call FAMs as
"natural family planning."
 Natural Family Planning (NFP) – it is an
umbrella term for specific methods used to
achieve and avoid pregnancies; these methods are
based on observation of the naturally occurring
signs and symptoms of the fertile and infertile
phases of a woman's menstrual cycle; couples using
NFP to avoid pregnancy abstain from intercourse
and genital contact during the fertile period of the
woman's cycle; no drugs, devices, or surgical
procedures are used to prevent pregnancy
 Lactational Amenorrhea Method (LAM) – it
used by a woman who has just given birth and is
exclusively breastfeeding highly useful for the first six
months after childbirth, provided the woman
breastfeeds the baby at least every four hours
during the day and every six hours through the
night, and that her menstrual period has not yet
returned; after six months, fertility may return at
any time
 Temperature Method – a woman takes her
waking temperature to identify a rise in
temperature, indicating ovulation has passed;
elevated waking temperature for three days in a row
is considered a confirmation of the post- ovulatory
less fertile phase
 Rhythm (Calendar) Method – it predicts a
woman’s fertile days using calculations based on the
length of past cycles and not daily
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observations of fertility signs as used by
FAM/NFP; the Standard Days Method/Cycle Bead
System is a variation of the Rhythm Method
 Abstinence – it is an action for choosing not to do
something; people can choose to abstain at any
point in their lives, even if they haven't avoided it
in the past

BARRIER BIRTH CONTROL

- this includes using condoms and diaphragms to prevent the sperm
from reaching and fertilizing the egg
 Condoms – are a thin sheath (usually made of
latex, a type of rubber) worn on the penis; it is
sometimes called a "rubber" or "prophylactic,"
which is far more commonly used
 Diaphragm – it is a shallow, dome-shaped cup
with a flexible rim. It is made of silicone; the
membrane is inserted into the vagina. When it is in
place, it covers the cervix
 Hormonal Birth Control – including birth control
pills, patches or injections, temporarily alters a
woman's hormones to prevent her from
conceiving
 Intra-uterine Devices (IUDs) – they are birth
control pills, patches or injections, temporarily
alters a woman's hormones to prevent her from
conceiving; they prevent the fertilization and
implantation of the egg by changing the mucus 2.Fragmentation
around the cervix and the uterine lining. They last for - or multiple fission
several years - it is an asexual reproduction whereby a single parent breaks into
 Spermicide - these substances prevent parts that regenerate into whole new individuals
pregnancy by killing ejaculated sperm; they are  Budding – is the formation of new individual as a
often used in conjunction with barrier birth control result of an outgrowth from the parent cell
 Sporulation – is the process of releasing a
structure called spores by the parent cells such as the
ferns
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION  Vegetative Propagation – is the process by which
 Asexual Reproduction plants reproduce by asexual means. Examples are the
- it is a mode of reproduction by which offspring arise marcotting, cutting and grafting
from a single parent and inherit that parent's genes only
- it is a reproduction that does not involve meiosis or 3.Parthenogenesis
fertilization - particularly intriguing form of asexual reproduction in
- the offspring will be an exact genetic copy of the parents which an egg develops without being fertilized
- among invertebrates, this occurs in certain species of bees,
wasps, and ants; the offspring can be either haploid or
1.Binary Fission diploid
- means “division in half”
- it is the most common form of reproduction in prokaryotes and  Sexual Reproduction
occurs in some single-celled eukaryotes - it is a process that creates a new organism by
- it is the splitting of one parent celled organisms into two parts combining the genetic material of two organisms
- each of these develops into a new individual such as - it occurs both in eukaryotes and in prokaryotes
bacteria, paramecium, and euglena - adaption that arose during the evolution of some species
meet this challenge by blurring the distinction between
male and female; one such adaption is
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particularly common among sessile (stationary) animals, such
as barnacles, burrowing animals, such as clams, and some
parasites, including tapeworms
Hermaphroditism – the individual has both male and female
reproductive systems (the term hermaphrodite merges the names
Hermes and Aphrodite, a Greek god and goddess); any two
individuals can mate; hermaphrodites can also self- fertilize,
allowing a form of sexual reproduction that doesn’t require any
partner
CELL REPRODUCTION
- it is a process by which cells duplicate their contents and then
divide to yield two identical cells
Cell Division
- is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more
daughter cells
- it also multiplies the cell, from the many division of single-
celled, such as the zygote that produces an organism of
remarkable cellular complexity and organization and
continues in specific tissues throughout their life
- the enormous products of cell division are needed to replace cells
that have aged or died
Note: The genetic information of the cell is contained in the
chromosomes, which are threadlike structures. They occur in pairs
and diploid in number. In a human cell, there are 23 pairs of
homologous chromosomes in a total of 46
Mitosis - is the process in which the cell nucleus containing the
chromosomes materials split, called karyokinesis, which
accompanied by a cytoplasmic division called cytokinesis; it
occurs among cells during embryonic development, growth,
repair of injured tissues, and replacement of worn-out tissues
PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE
a. Interphase
- the phase of the cell cycle in which the cell spends
most of its time performs the majority of its
purposes, including preparation for cell division
- it is considered to be the 'living' phase of the cell, in
which the cell obtains nutrients, grows, reads its DNA,
and conducts other "normal" cell activities
- it occurs before mitosis begins
- in this phase, chromosomes are copied or
doubled; the chromosomes appear as threadlike coils
(chromatin) at the start, but each chromosome and its
sister chromatids condense at the end of this phase
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The Three (3) Distinct Phases of Interphase
o G1 Stage
- it is the first growth stage after cell division
- it is the phase during which the cell cycle starts with
the synthesis of RNA and proteins are required by the
young cells for their growth and maturity
- the growth and maturation of immature cells occur, in
which the cells accomplish its physiological function
- the cells mature by making more cytoplasm &
organelle
- they carry on their normal metabolic activities
o S Stage or Synthesis Stage
- it deals with the occurrence of the semi-
conservative synthesis of DNA
- the replication of cellular DNA begins
- the cell is containing nearly double the number of
chromosomes
- then, the cells from the S phase move into the G2
phase
o G2 Stage
- there is an increase in the synthesis of the RNA and
the protein, followed by another round of
proofreading and subsequent repair among the newly
synthesized DNA sequences before the cell cycle transits
to the mitotic cycle
b. Mitosis
- the division of the nucleus
- it is also called karyokinesis
- it only occurs in eukaryotes
- all cells are derived from pre-existing cells
- the new cells are produced for growth and to
replace damaged or old cells
- it has four (4) stages, and it doesn't occur in some cells,
such as brain cells
- it is a process by which cells duplicate their
contents and then divide to yield two identical cells
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Four (4) Stages of Mitosis
1.Prophase
- the first step in Mitosis
- the cells begins to divide
- the centrioles (or poles) appear and start to move to the
opposite end of the cell
- the spindle fibers form between the poles
- the chromosomes undergo coiling, thickening, shortening, and
condensing to form compact mitotic chromosomes.
 Early Prophase – chromatin in the nucleus
condenses to form visible chromosomes; Mitotic
spindles forms from fibers in cytoskeleton or
centrioles
 Late Prophase – nuclear membrane and nucleolus
are broken down; the chromosomes continue
condensing and are visible; spindle fibers called
kinetochores attach to the centromere of each
chromosome; spindle finishes forming between the poles
of the cell

2.Metaphase
- the second step in Mitosis is the stage of separation where the
chromatids or pairs of chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers
- the chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore fibers, move to the
center of the cell
- the chromosomes move and align themselves along the equatorial
plane, the centromere of each chromosome splits, and the two
chromatids now separate, each with its centromere

3.Anaphase
- the chromatids (or pairs of chromosomes) separate and begin
to move to opposite ends of the cell
- this stage occurs rapidly where the sister chromatids are pulled
apart to opposite poles of the cell by kinetochore fibers
4.Telophase
- stage of cytoplasmic division and two new nuclei form
- the chromosomes appear as chromatin, appeared threads rather
than rods
- the chromosomes reach the poles of the cell
- sister chromatids at opposite poles
- the spindles disassembles and nuclear envelope forms around
each set of sister chromatids
- the nucleolus reappears
- a constriction appears at the equatorial plate, and nuclear
reconstruction begins
- cell plate or cleavage furrow is formed that marked as the
boundary between two new daughter cells
c. Cytokinesis
- the division of the cytoplasm occurs after mitosis
- it is a division of the cell into two identical halves
called daughter cells
- cell membrane moves inward to create two
daughter cells were each with its nucleus with
identical chromosomes
- chromosomes reappear as chromatin
- in plant cells, a cell plate forms at the equator to
divide cells
- in animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms to split
cells
- the daughter cells of mitosis have the same
number of chromosomes as each other and as the parent
cell from which they were formed; identical to each
other, but smaller than the parent cell; must grow in
size to become mature cells (G1 of Interphase)
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Meiosis
- it is a process of the formation of gametes, the sex cells, or
commonly known as egg cells and sperm cells
- it preceded by interphase, which includes chromosome
replication
- there are two meiotic divisions, the Meiosis I and Meiosis II,
called the Reduction division in which the original diploid (2n)
cell will produce four daughter monoploid (1n) cells
- daughter cells contain half the number of chromosomes as the
original cell
- it occurs in the testes in males (Spermatogenesis) and the
ovaries in females (Oogenesis)
- it is the fundamental basis of sexual reproduction where two
haploids (1n) gametes are brought together through fertilization
to form a diploid (2n) zygote
- the replication of chromosomes is the process of duplicating a
chromosome that occurs before division; the replicated copies are
called sister chromatids, which are held together at the centromere
- it forms haploid gametes
- it must reduce the chromosome number by half
- Fertilization then restores the 2n number; in the Crossing-
over, homologous chromosomes in a tetrad cross over each other,
where pieces of chromosomes or genes are exchanged; this action
produces genetic recombination in the offspring; crossing-over
multiplies s the already huge number of different gamete types
produced by independent assortment

Stages of Meiosis
1.Interphase
- the cell prepares for division; at the end of this stage, the
chromosomes are arranged in homologous pairs composed of
chromosomes carrying information for the same traits

2.First Meiotic Division

- each chromosome of the paternal chromosomes undergoes
synapsis with the homologous chromosomes of the maternal set
 Prophase I
- the chromosomes become visible, and the nuclear
membrane disappears.
a.Leptotene – known as leptonema, derives from
Greek word meaning “thin threads” which marked
that the cell is destined to become a gamete; during this
stage, the duplicated chromosomes consist of two sister
chromatids each; these chromatids condense from
diffuse chromatin into long, thin strands that are more
visible within the cell nucleus
b.Zygotene – the synapsis, the pairing of the
homolog chromosomes, begins; the homolog
chromosomes are held together by proteins,
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forming the synaptomal complex; next, crossing- over
can happen between the DNA double helices molecules
of homolog chromosomes
c.Pachytene – it is the stage when the complete
pairing of the chromosomes and the lining-up of the
chromomeres happens; synapsis, which commonly
shifts like a zip from the telomeres to the centromeres,
is now at a climax; the nucleoli are often still visible at
pachytene
d.Diplotene – the stage of the first meiotic prophase,
in which the two chromosomes in each bivalent begin
to repel one another and a split occurs between the
chromosomes
e.Diakinesis – the final stage of the prophase in
meiosis is characterized by the shortening and
thickening of the paired chromosomes, the formation of
the spindle fibers, and the disappearance of the
nucleolus, and degeneration of the nuclear membrane
 Metaphase I
- the pairs of chromosomes (bivalents) become arranged
on the metaphase plate and are attached to the now fully
formed meiotic spindle
- the centrioles are at opposite poles of the cell
- the pairs of homologous chromosomes (the bivalents),
now as tightly coiled and condensed as they will be in
meiosis, become arranged on a plane equidistant from
the poles called the metaphase plate
- spindle fibers from one pole of the cell attach to one
chromosome of each pair (seen as sister chromatids),
and spindle fibers from the opposite pole attach to the
homologous chromosome
- it is again seen as sister chromatids
 Anaphase I
- the chromatids are holding the chromosomes
together loosen
- the two homologous chromatids of each tetrad are
separated into separate poles
- since the chromosomes from each parent can go into
either pole, this is another means to increase genetic
diversity
 Telophase I
- the homologous chromosome pairs reach the poles of
the cell, nuclear envelopes form around them, and
cytokinesis follows to produce two cells
- the homologous chromosome pairs complete their
migration to the two poles due to the spindle's action
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- now, a haploid set of chromosomes is at each pole,
with each chromosome still having two chromatids
3.Interkinesis
- it is the period of rest that cells of some species enter
during meiosis, between meiosis I and meiosis II
- there is no DNA replication occurs
4.Second Meiotic Division
- it is often referred to as meiotic mitotic division resulting in
the formation of four haploid nuclei
- in meiosis II, only one homolog of each chromosome is present in
the cell; sister chromatids carry y identical genetic information
- it produces gametes with one copy of each chromosome and
thus one copy of each gene
- it reduces the chromosome number
 Prophase II – the cells have one chromosome
from each homologous pair
 Metaphase II – the chromosomes align at the
metaphase plate; the centromeres divide, thereby
separating each chromosome from its replicates
 Anaphase II – sister chromatids separate, and
each new daughter chromosome move to the
opposite poles
 Telophase II – spindle disappears, nuclei are formed,
and cytokinesis takes place; each nucleus contains just
one set of chromosomes with a single chromatid; nuclear
envelope assembles; the chromosomes decondensed, and
spindle disappears
5.Cytokinesis
- in this stage, the cell divides into two
- the results of meiosis are the four haploid cells with one copy of
each chromosome; one allele of each gene with different
combinations of alleles for different genes along the chromosome
- in the male, the spermatogenesis, which occurs in the testes,
produces four spermatids that mature into sperm; men produce
about 250,000,000 sperm per day
- in the female, oogenesis that happened in the ovaries produces
three polar bodies that die and one egg; polar bodies die because of
the unequal division of cytoplasm; the immature egg called oocyte
will start at puberty, one oocyte matures into an ovum (egg) every
28 days
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