In 1973, Pinsker [108] used a probabalistic argument to demonstrate that for

any integer d ≥ 3, there exists an d-regular expander family. See Lubotzky

[87, pp. 5–6] for a proof. The first explicit construction of an expander family
was given by Margulis [93]. However, Margulis did not provide any specific
bound on the isoperimetric constants of his graphs. Later, Gabber and Galil
[64] considered a similar family of graphs. Using classical analysis, they gave an
explicit upper bound on the isoperimetric constants of their graphs. Jimbo and
Maruoka [74] gave a different proof that used Fourier analysis on the group
Zm× Zm. Also see [92] and [94].

In any case it was Margulis who gave the first explicit and constructible examples. For this he
used Kazhdan’s property (T) from representation theory of Lie groups and their discrete
subgroups: If Γ is a group with property (T) generated by a finite symmetric set S, then the
family of Cayley graphs Cay(Γ/N; S), when N runs over the finite index normal subgroups of Γ,
forms a family of k-regular expander graphs, with k = |S|. Recall that the Cayley graph of a
group G with respect to a set of generators S is the graph with vertex set V = G and edges E =
{{g, gs}|g ∈ G, s ∈ S}. Examples of groups with property (T) are Γ = SLn(Z) for n ≥ 3. Thus,
one gets many explicit examples of expanding graphs

In fact, Selberg’s theorem can be translated to the language of representation theory, and it says
that Γ = SL2(Z) (which does not have property (T)!) has a “relative property (T)” (nowadays
called property (τ )) with respect to the family {Γ(p)|p prime} and so Margulis’s argument can
also be applied here to get expanders

[3] A. Lubotzky, “Discrete Groups, Expanding Graphs and Invariant Measures”, Birkh¨auser,
1994

Shembull. Analizojmë prapë shembullin kaq.

[( )( )] ( )
1 a 1 b1 1 a2 b2 1 0 a1 c 2−a2 c1
Shohim se komutatori 0 1 c 1 0 1 c 2 = 0 1 0 =K n (bërthama).
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
një pikëpyetje ……(me fshi krejt qet shembull)

This chapter provides an introduction to several kinds of abstract algebraic structures,

particularly groups, fields, and polynomials. Our primary interest is in finite fields, i.e., fields
with a finite number of elements (also called Galois fields). In the next chapter, finite fields will
be used to develop Reed-Solomon (RS) codes, the most useful class of algebraic codes. Groups
and polynomials provide the requisite background to understand finite fields. A field is more than
just a set of elements: it is a set of elements under two operations, called addition and
multiplication, along with a set of properties governing these operations. The addition and
multiplication operations also imply inverse operations called subtraction and division. The
reader is presumably familiar with several examples of fields, such as the real field R, the
complex field C, the field of rational numbers Q, and the binary field F2. 7.1 Summary In this
section we briefly summarize the results of this chapter. The main body of the chapter will be
devoted to defining and explaining these concepts, and to proofs of these results. For each prime
p and positive integer m ≥ 1, there exists a finite field Fpm with pm elements, m and there exists
no finite field with q elements if q is not a prime power. Any two fields with p elements are
isomorphic. The integers modulo p form a prime field Fp under mod-p addition and
multiplication. The polynomials Fp[x] over Fp modulo an irreducible polynomial g(x) ∈ Fp[x] of
degree m form a finite field with pm elements under mod-g(x) addition and multiplication. For
every prime p, there exists at least one irreducible polynomial g(x) ∈ Fp[x] of each positive
degree m ≥ 1, so all finite fields may be constructed in this way. Under addition, Fpm is
isomorphic to the vector space (Fp)m. Under multiplication, the nonzero m−2 elements of Fpm
form a cyclic group {1, α,..., αp } generated by a primitive element α ∈ Fpm. The elements of
Fpm are the pm roots of the polynomial xpm − x ∈ Fp[x]. The polynomial m xp − x is the
product of all monic irreducible polynomials g(x) ∈ Fp[x] such that deg g(x) divides m. The
roots of a monic irreducible polynomial g(x) ∈ Fp[x] form a cyclotomic coset of deg g(x)
elements of Fpm which is closed under the operation of raising to the pth power. For every n that
divides m, Fpm contains a subfield with pn elements. 75 76 CHAPTER 7. INTRODUCTION TO
FINITE FIELDS For further reading on this beautiful subject, see [E. R. Berlekamp, Algebraic
Coding Theory, Aegean Press, 1984], [R. Lidl and H. Niederreiter, Introduction to Finite Fields
and their Applications, Cambridge University Press, 1986] or [R. J. McEliece, Finite Fields for
Computer Scientists and Engineers, Kluwer, 1987], [M. R. Schroeder, Number Theory in
Science and Communication, Springer, 1986], or indeed any book on finite fields or algebraic
coding theory.