Sustainability 15 07682

sustainability
Article
The Fractal Approach in the Biomimetic Urban Design:
Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher
Ayse Gertik 1, * and Aykut Karaman 2
1 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Near East University, Nicosia 99138, Turkey
2 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Altinbas University,
Istanbul 34218, Turkey
* Correspondence: ayse.gertik@neu.edu.tr
Abstract: Biomimetic design process approaches have been emphasized systematically as a result
of works among disciplines of current technology and biological science. In order to find solutions
for a decrease in biodiversity, pollution, and issues of the ecosystem, the nature experience shows
itself in areas of biomimetic products, architecture, and urban designs in which nature-focused
invasions are basically being imitated. Nature-focused designs have set their own framework by
examining forms of different nature dynamics (scale, function, formation process) by presenting a
sustainable environment. It can be seen that designs are made real by adhering to the resolution of
forms, understanding, and interpretation of nature and by embracing fractal designs with the effort
of creating a sustainable environment. In this study, emphasis was placed on revealed nature-based
design approaches. The article addresses biomimetic design processes, reveals the role of fractal
parameters in the design process, and examines the use of biomimetic approaches. By drawing
attention to the importance of studying and understanding these internal dynamics, the contribution
of natural inspiration and fractal concepts to the design process is examined. We examine research
related to the concept of biomimetics, creation/development of conceptual proposals, and analysis of
the established theoretical proposal through selected urban design examples in order to determine
the respective overlaps between these areas. Our study takes the form of an analysis of the formal
organization of living things together with a formal analysis focusing on the design principles. We
try to analyze the design principles and the changes in the principles, and discuss the resulting data
Citation: Gertik, A.; Karaman, A. The within the framework of these concepts. The urban designs of Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher,
Fractal Approach in the Biomimetic who are important names of the 20th century, were examined in line with the findings obtained
Urban Design: Le Corbusier and
in terms of biomimesis levels, namely, the organism level, behavior level, ecosystem level, and
Patrick Schumacher. Sustainability
functional level. Comparisons of urban design approaches are made using the meta-analysis method
2023, 15, 7682. https://doi.org/
with respect to findings obtained as a result of an examination of the golden ratio, modular system,
10.3390/su15097682
fractal, and parameter concepts of urban design. For this reason, when the fractal concept, which
Academic Editors: Bertug Ozarisoy, is one of the dynamics of biomimetic-oriented nature, is handled with biomimetic levels and its
Hasim Altan and Young Ki Kim contribution to the design processes is investigated, we are able to determine that it has important
Received: 28 February 2023 parameters in terms of sustainability. This study aims to contribute to the field of industrial products
Revised: 27 April 2023 and urban design disciplines in architectural design.
Accepted: 30 April 2023
Published: 7 May 2023 Keywords: design process; design; biomimetic design; fractal design
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. 1. Introduction

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Designing is the process of forming and developing a plan for a new product, place,
This article is an open access article
or area. The results of these processes are the design products. Design and process form
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
a whole. Broadbent has revealed that four different ways are followed in the design
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
processes. These are pragmatic design, iconic design, canonic design, and analogical
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ design [1]. The parametric design falls within the design processes, with opportunities
4.0/). related to current digital technology. These concepts are sometimes abstract and sometimes
Sustainability 2023, 15, 7682. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097682 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 7682 2 of 21
concrete, representing a thought, an object, or a creature. The sociological and cultural

changes in human life have shown differences in revealing the form within the design
process. Therefore, the form has become a language symbolizing the community, culture,
period, human, and thought.
Traditional urban plans use precise design systems that lack the flexibility to deal with
the complexity and change that characterize contemporary urban societies. In order to
design city plans with more flexibility, a design methodology based on shape grammar
has been proposed, which can generate a variety of design solutions rather than a single
rigid layout. In this approach, the plan is a design system that encodes a set of alternative
solutions rather than a single specific solution. This methodology was developed based
on an analysis of existing plans and a series of experiments carried out in the controlled
environment of design studios. The results show that shape grammars produce urban plans
with imprecise formal solutions while maintaining a coherent design language. Moreover,
they provide a greater degree of freedom to future designers by providing explicit and
implicit flexibility to plans. As a result, they are particularly well suited for this context [2].
From past to present, the relationship of humans with nature has had an interest
in the imitation (mimesis) concept. It is possible to see movements inspired by nature
and productions in various areas [1]. Movements inspired by nature have presented an
analogic attitude towards structural and stylistic pursuits up to the 20th century. Our
views towards nature have changed with the possibilities of biological science, developing
technology, and environmental issues. These developed tendencies try to compromise
with concepts of ecology and sustainability [2]. However, today’s designers are more
interested in how creatures of nature live rather than how they look. Beginning in the 1990s,
designs which were inspired, modeled, acquired, and implemented from the formations
and structurings of creatures of nature came to terms with mimesis–imitation concepts. As
a concept imitating the function and systems of nature, biomimetics expands horizons in
terms of sustainability [3]. Biomimesis is more curious about the functions of the creatures
in nature than about their forms. With regard to the fact that designs in nature are recyclable,
nature-friendly, aesthetic, durable, and long-lasting and seek full efficiency with the least
energy, they serve as a model for new horizons in technological works.
By considering both present and future generations, the new concepts comprised
of macro- and micro-sizes for making the world a more livable place take their place
in every process of our lives in line with trying to solve the issues with codes, order,
mathematical data, dynamics, complexities, rhythm, and the balance of nature with today’s
technologies [3,4]. By adhering to the biomimetic concept which becomes a current issue in
industrial product designs, architectural fields, material science, nano-technology, robot
technology, computer software, and transportation areas with this solution, the creatures
of nature, and microscopic surveillance is possible to investigate the fractals. It is clear
that the examined fractals have been a source of inspiration for various designs. Modern
designs originate much more from natural resources. There are observable varieties in the
design approaches to identifying the internal dynamics of nature. In addition, it can be
seen that nature, process, and formation are always nested with evolution. The biomimetic
concept can be seen as resulting from the examination of dynamics in nature contrary to
the divergent sciences at the present time [3–7].
Urbanization is an important and continuous process for the economic development of
a city. Although rapid urbanization provides a great employment opportunity for people in
terms of life and job opportunities, threats in cities are increasing proportionally due to man-
made and natural hazards. In urban design, understanding biomimesis and sustainability
based on nature dynamics while facing the dangers in a rapidly developing and urbanizing
world is an important issue. Therefore, this study aims to clarify the concept and improve
the urban design based on fractal design in the context of biomimetics from the existing
literature [8,9]. A systematic review of the literature suggests that there are interrelated
paradigms such as biomimetics and fractal sustainability that emphasize the capacity of a
system to move towards desired development paths. Resilient, ecological, and sustainable
integration with nature is fundamentally about protecting social health and well-being
in the context of a broader framework of environmental change. There are significant
differences in emphasis and time scales, especially in the context of urbanization [10,11].
This study was conducted under four main components in the direction of biomimetic levels
(Organism Level—imitation of living things; Behavior Level—imitation of the behavior of
an organism; Ecosystem Level—ecosystem imitation; Functional Level—course, function)
determined the basic indicators of biomimetic-fractal urban design. This study identified
various indicators (module, measure, angle) under the dimensions (sustainable, fractal)
of biomimetics related to urban design. These findings are fruitful in understanding the
strategy of measuring and managing urban resilience and nature dynamics with fractal
dimensions [12,13].
According to Benyus, the study of formations in nature and interdisciplinary studies
brings together many branches of science; it has been observed that formation and for-
mation are always living in it and are intertwined with evolution. It aims to bring nature
from the front at every scale, to collect and organize groups of surface patterns, examine
the scale, reveal the fractals of living things in nature, and be compatible with macro- and
micro-diffusion design forms between the studied and the created.
Starting from the concept of mimesis in understanding and interpreting nature, work-
ing with the science of biology, and opening new horizons for the designs aimed at the
analysis of fractal forms in nature with the possibilities that can be obtained, the principal
contributions of the analogical and biological approaches of the approaches in nature were
investigated. In line with these approaches, the fractal needs of living things in consump-
tion designs and the meaning and interpretation of design are discussed. The study, which
analyzes urban designs, provides different perspectives for interpretation in usage design.
When we look at the solution proposals in nature in every behavior in the cost burden of the
design effort, in its evaluation, and in the consumption of the search for solutions, all the
biological aspects between the form and the meaning of the design are emphasized [14–16].
In the middle of the 20th century, Le Corbusier designed using the golden ratio,
modular design, and serial arrangements in nature with the method he developed from the
body, using the concept of mimesis, from the physical laws of living things. The results that
Le Corbusier reached by observing nature with an analogical approach were examined in
terms of fractal design in the concept of biomimetics. One of today’s contributors, Patrick
Schumacher, analyzed urban fiction from natural forms with the biomimetic approach to
analyze his designs. He used the same principles, such as the golden ratio, modular design,
parameter, and serial structures found in nature.
In line with this biological purpose, this study continues with a design-specific meta-
analysis. As a result of the research, the modernist designs of fractal urban designs, and Le
Corbusier’s and Patrick Schumacher’s urban designs, realized modernist designs using
today’s technology are discussed with the meta-analysis method and at the ecosystem level,
which is one of the biomimetic levels, and their design approaches are compared.
In this direction, we compared one of the important names of the modernist period,
Le Corbusier, with today’s modernist city protector Patrick Schumacher using the meta-
analysis method to examine nature-oriented solutions to daily designs for hand use based
on fractal sampling design applications and livable solutions for those living in cities. The
aim was to reveal the examinations and design principles of usage designs by considering
the nature of design principles differently. Le Corbusier, the groves connected to the
environment of the world, the protected and the golden ratio, and/or the livable cities
with the concepts they have in them, such as Fibonacci, are his visionary reflectors. Patrick
Schumacher, on the other hand, created city versions consisting of complex processes and
self-repetitive parts, using dynamics in nature and serial repetitions. Although the artifacts
are different (grilled/organic), they can be experienced based on natural conditions or
dynamics, where users provide their unity between the environment with fractal forms.
In the study, it is a fact that in the Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher biomimetic
groups, the two guardians of the inhabitants of the hand accept that they use different
nature codes. Although they have designed fractal city models by examining different
levels of nature, it is possible that they are biomimetic-oriented as well. However, it is seen
that they contribute to the business level, as they design livable, accessible, compact cities
that allow biodiversity in usage design models by using different elevations and layouts in
nature. This clearly demonstrates the argument that livable cities with a high quality of life
can be designed as a result of the contribution to the ecosystem level.
2. Materials and Methods

In this study, data on the adaptation of the structural and fictional aspects of biomimetic-
oriented designs to the design product were collected based on the concepts examined
and designed using the text reading method as a result of literature research. The study
includes qualitative and meta-analysis methods. As a result of the analysis, fractal codes in
nature were analyzed and evaluated in line with the concept of biomimetics [5,17–20].
The conceptual framework of the research is formed as a result of the biological and
technological systems of biomimetics. The created method is tested and evaluated through
the information collected through a literature review.
As a result of the evaluations, a classification was made. The conceptual framework of
the proposal includes the selection and examination of concepts from different disciplines,
the evaluation of the created proposal, and the evaluation of the fractal dimensions of
living things in nature, which are analyzed under the title of biomimetics in design, while
adhering to biological data in order to limit the very wide subject area [6,8,19–21].
The urban designs of Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher, who are important names
of the 20th century, were examined in line with the findings obtained in terms of biomimetic
levels, organism level, behavior level, ecosystem level, and functional level. Comparisons
of urban design approaches were made using the meta-analysis method with the findings
obtained as a result of a mutual examination of the golden ratio, modular system, and
fractal and parameter concepts in urban designs [21–24].
The Limitations of the Study

Today, efforts to make life and the environment sustainable envisage turning to nature,
understanding the inner dynamics of nature, and benefiting from it. This situation is a
reference of the architecture and urban design disciplines as well, and is specially handled
with the concept of biomimetics and fractals. In this paper,
• Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher’s designs are compared and discussed in terms
of sustainability.
• Today, with the change of orientation towards nature, the aim of creating a sustainable
environment with the movement inspired by nature is being developed in the name
of sustainability in design by considering the concept of biomimetics. In the formation
of sustainable designs, which have become important today, biomimetic approaches,
which are an innovative perspective instead of an analogical attitude, and fractal urban
design, which is the geometry of nature, are both important.
Urban designs can be realized by adhering to the analysis of fractal forms and fiction
created in line with understanding and interpreting nature and biomimetic approaches.
Analyzing the fractal codes in nature can enable us to design holistic cities. Here, we
engage in classification of the concept of biomimetics, examination of the research on the
concept of biomimetics, and analysis to determine the overlap through selected urban
design examples in the form of analyzing the formal organization of living things and
making a formal analysis depending on the design principles, trying to analyze the changes
in design principles and principles, and discussing the emerging data within the framework
of its concepts [3,4].
3. Biomimetic Approaches
The fact that biomimetics is an inspiration for the designs of new generations has taken
its place in the literature during the twentieth century, and has been the reason for studies
in many different disciplines. Subject headings such as genetic science, communications

technology, nanotechnology, space sciences, four-dimensional geometry, fractals, complex
poli-hydrozoa, composite and smart materials, and portable structures change our perspec-
tives toward nature. Learning methods for making use of nature have been developed
with the progressions in information technologies. Biomimetic designs carry out design
approaches by taking inspiration from nature and macro- and micro-sizes, which increase
human life standards [17,20,25]. According to Jenine M. Benyus, there are three main
application areas found in biomimetic architecture: Biomimesis–Biomimetics in Urban
Design, Biomimetics in Product Design, and Biomimetics in Architectural Design [25–27].
With biomimetics, sustainable designs are being realized in product and architectural
design by taking the functions of nature as an example. Both micro-sized and macro-sized
items are being developed with the aim of creating a more livable environment. The
organism level, behavior level, ecosystem level, and function level, along with design
principles, are determined in today´s designs with the structuring process of-natural
organisms of biomimetic approaches [4,28–30].
Biomimicry is a design framework with an increasing interest in sustainability in
architectural and urban design practices. However, there is a significant lack of study and
information regarding its practical application. In line with the possibilities provided by
biomimetics, we analyzed projects examined with fractal modules using a meta-analysis
approach. This example from the projects of Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher points to
the attention drawn to biomimicry and fractals in their designed urban projects. Biomimicry
has been applied in many fields, and has been mostly applied using macroscopic models
such as ecosystems, plants, and animals [31–34].
Form, material, and the formation phase of the structure form the main parts of its
design. As seen in biomimetic designs, parts of the form can be made by using the intelli-
gence of the environment from the macro-scale to the micro-scale in all products that can
be designed by researching the function added by the form nature. Sustaining the needs of
life provides opportunities by producing solutions to today’s problems [35–38]. Reference
is given to his designs by examining the solution of everything he can design in the dimen-
Sustainability 2023,
Sustainability 2023, 15,
15, xx FOR
FOR PEER sions of organism level, behavior level, ecosystem level, and functional level [39–41]. These
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principles are described in Table 1 as biomimetic levels.
Table 1. Biomimetic Levels [29].

Table 1. Biomimetic Levels [29].
BIOMIMETIC LEVELS
BIOMIMETIC LEVELS
Organism Level (imitation of living things); Hydrological

center for the university of Namibia
The designed
Organism Levelbuilding
(imitationresembles the chosen
of living things); organism.
Hydrological center For
for
the university of Namibia
example, if the
The designed design
building is planned
resembles based
the chosen on the For
organism. thermit;
example,theif
building
the designlooks like the
is planned basedthermit.
on the thermit; the building looks like the
thermit.
The chosen material is being applied equally with the build-
The chosen material is being applied equally with the building thermit
ingasthermit
a result ofas a examination
the result of the examination
of internal dynamics ofwith
internal dynam-
the imitation
icsskin.
withIt works
the imitation skin.
equally with It works
a single thermitequally with a hydrogen
which produces single
efficiently with metagenomics.
thermit which produces
As the designed hydrogen
building functions efficiently
similarly withitmeta-
to the thermit recycles
the cellulose wastes.
genomics.
As the designed building functions similarly to the thermit it
recycles the cellulose wastes.
Behavior Level (the imitation of the behavior of an organ-

ism or related to its large binding); Eastgate Centre Harare,
Zimbabwe, Africa
The designed building or industrial product appears to like
being built by the thermit.
The chosen material is being applied equally with the build-
ing thermit as a result of the examination of internal dynam-
ics with the imitation skin. It works equally with a single
thermit which produces hydrogen efficiently with meta-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 7682 genomics. 6 of 21
As the designed building functions similarly to the thermit it

recycles the cellulose wastes.
Table 1. Cont.
BIOMIMETIC LEVELS
Behavior Level (the imitation of the behavior of an organ-

ism or related to its large binding); Eastgate Centre Harare,
Zimbabwe, Africa
Behavior Level (the imitation of the behavior of an organism or
The designed building or industrial product appears to like
related to its large binding); Eastgate Centre Harare, Zimbabwe,
being
Africabuilt by the thermit.
The The designedis
product building
being or industrial
used withproduct
the same appears to like being
materials built
the ther-
by the thermit.
mitThe uses andisisbeing
product usedused as with
the primary material
the same materials thein orderuses
thermit to put
and it
into practice. The product orientation functions are similar to
is used as the primary material in order to put it into practice. The
product orientation functions are similar to systems such as material
systems such as material choice and natural draught or imi-
choice and natural draught or imitate its functions with thermite.
tateTheitsareas
functions with
in the inner thermite.
surface function stable thermally and optimally
by imitating the behavioral elements of the inner conditions of the
The areas in the inner surface function stable thermally and
termitarium. The product functions like an ecosystem.
optimally by imitating the behavioral elements of the inner
conditions of the termitarium. The product functions like an
ecosystem.
Ecosystem level (ecosystem imitation); Eastgate Centre
Harare, Zimbabwe, Africa
The productlevel
Ecosystem works like animitation);
(ecosystem ecosystem. It isCentre
Eastgate madeHarare,with mate-
Zimbabwe, Africa
rials created by the eco-system and common ingredients are
The product works like an ecosystem. It is made with materials created
being
by theused.
eco-system and common ingredients are being used.
The buildingswhich
The buildings which areare
designed in linein
designed with
linethewith
codesthewithin the
codes
termitarium or industrial product transform solar power into energy. As
within
it will the
be a termitarium
part of a com-plex or system
industrial product
it adapts itself andtransform solar
functions like
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 22
power into energy.
the ecosystem by usingAsthe it relations
will be of a part of a com-plex system it
the ecosystem.
adapts itself and functions like the ecosystem by using the
relations of the ecosystem.
Functional level (course, function), The sea inspires our
future
The designed
Functional levelbuilding resembles
(course, function), Thethesea chosen
inspires ourorganism.
future The
The designed building resembles the chosen organism. The chosen
chosen material is being applied equally with the organism
material is being applied equally with the organism as a result of the
asexamination
a result ofofthe examination
internal of internal
dynamics forming dynamics
the external skeletonforming
of the
theorganism.
external skeleton of the organism.
The product is made with the materials used by the organism and used
The product
as the primaryismaterial.
made with the materials
The designed product is used by theoforganism
comprised
andfunctions
used as thatthe
giveprimary
the opportunity
material.to function as an ecosystem.
The designed product is
comprised of functions that give the opportunity to function
as an ecosystem.
Having
Having high ecologic
high standards,
ecologic livable and
standards, sustainable
livable and compact
sustainablecities are being designed
compact withbeing
cities are the resolution
designedof thewith
codesthe
of nature approached
resolution by
of the
the fractal concept when micro and macro sizes are being investigated in the study. For this reason, the concept of a fractal, which is one of the
codes ofofnature
dynamics nature, approached by the
has been discussed and fractal
its place concept whenhas
in urban design micro and macro
been questioned bysizes are being
investigating investigated
its contribution in the study.
to sustainability in For
design processes,
this reason, therather than bio-mimesis-oriented
concept of a fractal, which form. In this
is one of study, biomimetic of
the dynamics andnature,
urban design are examined
has been discussed in more
and detail with theinconcept
its place urban
of a fractal, which is one of the dynamics of nature when examined at a micro-scale with the opportunities offered by the constructions in nature,
design
and has
fractal andbeen
urbanquestioned by investigating
designs are examined its ofcontribution
under the titles urban utopias to andsustainability
fractal today. As in design
a result processes,
of the research, therather
modernistthan designs of
bio-mimesis-oriented
fractal form. In this
city designs and Le Corbusier’s study,Schumacher’s
and Patrick biomimetic anddesigns,
urban urbanrealized
designmodernist
are examined in more
designs using detail
today’s with the
technology concept of
are discussed
with the meta-analysis method at the ecosystem level, which is one of the biomimetic levels, and their design approaches are compared [28,29,42,43]
a fractal, which is one of the dynamics of nature when examined at a micro-scale with the opportunities offered by the
constructions in nature, and fractal and urban designs are examined under the titles of urban utopias and fractal today.
As a result of the research, the 4. Fractal
modernist anddesigns
Urban Designers
of fractal city designs and Le Corbusier’s and Patrick Schumacher’s
urban designs, realized modernist designs
The using today’s
term ‘fractal’ comestechnology
from the Latin are discussed with the meta-analysis
‘fractus’, meaning shattered or broken. methodThe at
the ecosystem level, which isPolish one ofmathematician
the biomimeticBenoit levels,B.and Mandelbrot
their design firstapproaches
used this term are as a new geometry
compared [28,29,42,43] system
having an impact on mathematics, physics, chemistry, physiology, and fluid mechan-
ics
4. [21].
Fractal Fractal patterns
and Urban are greater than the dimensions of the universe. The different
Designers
sizes, patterns, lengths,
The term ´fractal´ comes and number
from the of structures
Latin ´fractus´,in naturemeaningprovide eternalordimensions
shattered broken. The
toPolish
all creatures.
mathematician Benoit B. Mandelbrot first used this term as a newalong
Therefore, the morphologies of all creatures are examined geometrywith thesys-
tem having an impact on mathematics, physics, chemistry, physiology, and fluid me-
chanics [21]. Fractal patterns are greater than the dimensions of the universe. The differ-
ent sizes, patterns, lengths, and number of structures in nature provide eternal dimen-
sions to all creatures. Therefore, the morphologies of all creatures are examined along
with the absolute determination of mathematical data. The fact that the levels of irregular
absolute determination of mathematical data. The fact that the levels of irregular and
shattered patterns in nature coincide with all scales plays an important role in being a
fractal dimension concept [19,44–46].
Shape grammars are a system of simple visual rules used to transform one shape into
another, including an initial state, a set of instructions, and a termination condition. They
support the discovery of designs within an existing design language by providing tools
to identify their generation or production of new design languages. Although their use is
more prominent in architecture, shape grammars are increasingly used at the urban design
scale due to software and hardware improvements that support their use for flexible urban
planning [47,48].
Today, in our rapidly urbanizing world where cities are becoming hotspots for climate
change [22], it is increasingly important to understand how cities work and how urban
form affects people’s lives [49,50]. In order to create this understanding, climate change,
urban sprawl, change of lands, the destruction of ecological systems, and the result of
irreversible changes have become common features of the earth. This applies equally to
urban areas that are a deeply interconnected part of the complex land system [10,51]. It
takes a fractal perspective by reviewing what we currently know about the application of
fractal form and function, an important aspect of complex systems, and what questions we
can find answers to. Designing urban areas that provide shorter distances to amenities is an
important factor for more walkable environments and is a critical aspect of climate-resilient
urban planning, as it is generally accepted that areas with greater walkability discourage
car use and reduce CO2 emissions [37,52,53].
4.1. Le Corbusier
A Swiss architect and a pioneer in modernism, Le Corbusier has designed everything
which can be designed, including absolute architectural works, furniture designs, and
urban designs. In his designs, he had the purpose to show the discipline of determination
of events in the universe with various scientific regulations (the golden proportion). He
defended the idea that one will always obtain the same results of a phenomenon within the
same conditions and ingredients, and that one can always foresee this situation [22–24,54–57].
In Urban Designs
Le Corbusier presented the modern city of three million people as an alternative to
the cities of its time. For him, the fact that the bad conditions of the cities formed with
the effect of old cities and the industrialization in the 18th century caused physical and
spiritual diseases was due to the structure of the cities. For this reason, he suggested the
“Vertical Garden City”, which he believed could fight all physical and spiritual diseases in
the modern city [7,23,38,58]. The modern city has been created in an imaginary area with
a utopian approach. For him, basic principles which can form the skeleton of a modern
city are reachable with corporate formulas by adhering to modular data. The cities which
have been designed in line with these principles were accordingly applicable to special
cases. The ideal city was separated into symmetric grills and square parcels. A separation
of about 365 m between streets was due to the necessary distance for bus and train stations.
A multi-story station that reflects the city center unites at the main highway station, with
one coming North–South and the other East-West. The roads within the cities are disunited
themselves; heavy goods at the bottom, average burden in the middle, and express traffic
at the top [8,59–61].
The urban plan aimed to form an image displaying the desire for combining the broken
pieces of the discrete modern world. The real effect of the city is the rise of the current issue
with a new concept of vertical gardens. The modular formula which has been formed for
reaching the basic principles of ideal urban city planning was able to serve as a skeleton for
any system. The modern city has a grill-patterned design. The city is divided in line with
the modular system with the repetitions of grill ways and square parcels. The buildings are
placed within a geometric order in the urban plan. Asymmetric balance has been built into
the center of this plan, along with the formation of a sixth-floor skyline with another group,
which can be seen as symbols reflecting the needs of humans, and these skylines have been
built with self-repeating square parcels in the parks and green fields. Le Corbusier stresses
the importance of solving the geometrical components with absolute mathematical tools,
and the geometrical approach resembles the fractal urban design perception [51,62–65].
Designs have been considered which bring many different concepts forward with the
purpose of finding solutions to problems that in the period of early modernism Table 2,
Utopian approaches were considered by Le Corbusier with the purpose of creating cities
that “respond to the physical and spiritual sides of humans”.
4.2. Patrick Schumacher

Patrick S. Schumacher is an architect and city planner, urban designer, and theoretical
thinker of parametric design, which is a new flow containing innovative and experimental
designs in modern architecture. Parametric city planning was first developed in the aviation
and automotive industry based on the parametric design systems; it has been brought
to city planning, in which it has developed in line with parametric design techniques
and technology. This new generation allows large-scale urban planning. In his designs,
Schumacher addresses morphologies by measuring their potential for solving systematic
and technical issues [26,27,66,67].
Instead of drawing forms depending on the parametric design for being understood
(conventional), Schumacher developed the information parametric designs in Frei Otto´s
designs by bringing the suitability of the physical process together with nature regulations.
It is said that this approach reflects complexity, daintiness, elegance, power, and beauty.
According to Schumacher, all components within the reference system of parametric de-
sign are bound to each other and all components change in case of a single change of
any component. He forms complexity by intensifying the relationship between areas and
homogenization (serial repeating/fractal) in parametric designs and by protecting the
readable links. Designs are realized by adapting them to modern life. In order to form
an ideal city, the determined and/or principles function together with large-scale designs
in line with logical steps and computer-driven parametric design techniques [26,27,54,68].
In urban design, AI has great potential to improve decision-making and various evalu-
ation processes by performing complex iterations and making predictions quickly and
accurately. Proximity plays a fundamental role in fostering urban dynamics, influencing
city regulations and influencing the overall quality of life [69–71].
Digital cities are being designed as a result of the resolution of the nature codes by
today´s technology with the effect of globalization. An urban sample is formed towards
size, angle, and thickness, and receives parameters for the adapted balance in accordance
with chosen area and determined problem. The possible problems in the formed city
are determined in advance. More than one diverse urban model is being formed with
the changed parameters over a single principle in line with the determined problems.
Schumacher develops his concept by taking the natural events, environmental effects, and
their performance as a model. By using the actions, formations, and continuity of nature
as a base, the understanding of the systems brings a perspective to the scope of systems
with fractal solutions. Biological growth and development reveal a geometry of serial
repetitions/bifurcation and/or separation (fractal) as a result of repeating each other, of
geometric forms having a complex appearance within an order with a repetition of natural
events. The Thames Gateway Master Plan, prepared by Patrick Schumacher and his team
in line with these principles, has been designed with the use of techniques and principles
in digital parametric designs in the planning for developing new ways of solving problems
in the master plan containing an area spanning over East London and divided in two by
the Thames River. The built environment of the urban refresh field has been designed by
considering urban development and the diacritical architecture of London [27,54,72].
Sustainability
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Table 2. Design Principles by Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher.

Table
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The main building standards in the plan are thought to be designed as buildings
consisting of flat slabs and urban blocks by taking inspiration from; individual villas,
high-rise towers, plate-shaped buildings, and the typical block structure of London. These
are in the making of four different geometric components (dot, line, plane, and volume)
appropriate for the built environment. Schumacher has created his corporate idea in
terms of possible styles of future developments and establishing a model according to the
conditions. He has aimed to create a complex urban area combining different types of
buildings (hybrid) with combinations of types of various building standards. Parameters
connected to each other, building nets, and logical self-organization (troop formation) have
been formed with parametric control techniques and city accession through parametric
design facilities in the master plan. Flexibility has been given to the plan in order to cope
with the fast-growing model [26,27,54,66,69,73]. The process was completed with a high
number of repetitions of elements in virtual modeling resulting from the change of the
given parameters.
Below, we address urban designs of Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher in line with
the ecosystem level of the biomimetic levels.
• Le Corbusier: ecosystem level
Based on absolute designs, he aimed to show this discipline with modular systems
which are combined with the physical regulations of universal events. The design principles
have been formed in line with the mathematical data (golden proportion/Fibonacci/fractal)
with modular sizes using the proportional geometry of humans or laws of proportions.
In line with these principles, he ensured a consolidation by uniting nature and humans
and designed his plans in accordance with the principles (Table 2). In order to ensure the
urban sprawl and the consolidation of nature and humans, he wanted to hinder vehicle
usage of the urban community by leaving a large part of the city to green fields. The high
density of urban life combines the advantages of Greenfield’s close-ness and low-density
life. He suggests the preference of retarded cities by balancing the necessities of modern
cities and population sizes in urban designs. The solution offered for problems in cities
is the integration of humans, nature, and technology in future urban plans by adhering
to the desire for the consolidation of humans and nature. According to Le Corbusier, a
city should be alive, compact, and organized with the center. The fact that the center is
reachable on foot in the designed cities ensures the continuity of aliveness. The compact
city has been designed with the repetition of fractal geometries by adhering to the modular
system. Although the designed cities are intense, he has designed urban utopias which
are livable and in which the living quality of humans increases and pollution decreases,
with a diversity of nature and increase of having no harm to the ecological balance by
meeting all physical needs of human and protecting the ecosystem level of cities and
built environments. The utopian approaches have changed in line with the possibilities of
technology. The ideal city plan has never lost its purpose while encountering problems in
metropolitan cities, and carries out its designs with different concepts and without ignoring
all functions, which may improve conditions in the comfort levels of humans, open areas,
and green fields in cities. Urban plans are being designed by taking the environmental
performance, effects, and nature as a model as a result of the functioning of different
disciplines all together with the dissolved absolute mathematical parameters.
• Patrick Schumacher: ecosystem level
When approaching the urban designs of Patrick Schumacher ecologically, the paramet-
ric design brings together the appropriateness of physical processes to nature regulations.
This approach forms spatial complexity with the protection of readable links by intensifying
the relation between serial repetitions resulting from the interconnection of all components
in its own reference system. The principles which are determined for the formation of an
ideal city design of digital cities result from the resolution of natural codes and inspiration
by nature. Schumacher develops his concepts by taking the natural events, environmental
effects, and their performance as a model and uses the actions, formations, and continuity of
nature as a base (Table 2). Biological growth and development reveal a fractal geometry of
serial repetitions/bifurcation and/or separation (fractal) as a result of repeating geometric
forms. The size or space is being designed with democratically collectivism by adhesion of
human actions to social interaction relations without abusing the built environment. He
forms its themes by drawing on the geological situation and morphology of cities. Within
the topographical cross-layer, different and rich micro-sized areas are being created for
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
theREVIEW
growth of troops and centrism in the city. The distribution ratio in the cities is being 12 of 22
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER 12 of 22
distributed based on the natural topographical structure and natural elements. The purpose
is to prevent pollution with the wise use of the field and its protection. The coexistence
of natural
forms ofelements
of of cities flexible
nature ensures
ensures and absolute forms ofWith
development. nature ensures he
flexibility, flexible development.
tries to
to lower the
the chaos
chaos
forms nature flexible development. With flexibility, he tries lower
Withforms
flexibility,
regarding he tries
of nature
the to lower
ensures
intensity of the
flexible chaos
cities. In regarding
development.
particular, the
With
he intensity
flexibility,
tries to of cities.
he
lower Intoparticular,
tries lower
vehicle usagethehechaos
to the
regarding the intensity of cities. In particular, he tries to lower vehicle usage to the
triesregarding
to lower vehicle
minimum level, usage toofthe
the intensity
providing minimum
cities.
accessibility level,
In particular,
by providing
locatinghe the accessibility
triesworkplaces,
to lower vehicleby locating
usage
structure the
to and
areas, the
minimum
workplaces, level, providing
structure areas, andaccessibility
green fields by locating
close to the the workplaces, structure areas, and
center.
minimum
green fields
fields level,
closeproviding
to accessibility
the center.
center. by locating the workplaces, structure areas, and
green
The The
cities close
developing to thewhile adhering to the needs of the
green fields
The
close
cities
to the
cities developing center.
developing while while adhering
adhering to to the
the needs
needs of of twentieth
the twentieth
the
century
twentieth are being
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century are being
are being
designed with
The
designed the
cities
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withthe
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systems,
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and
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Corbusierbyand
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Le Patrick
natural
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events. Table 2
Schumacher.
events.
and Table
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In Table the the fractalLevel
Ecosystem approaches
of Urban of Designs,
city plans Le presented
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is Le Corbusier
discussed. and
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Schumacher. In the fractal
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Table 3,
3, the
the Ecosystemof city
Ecosystem Level plans
Level of presented
of Urban by
Urban Designs, Le
Designs, LeCorbusier and
Le Corbusier
Corbusier is Patrick
is dis-
Schumacher.
ecosystem level ofIn cityTable
plans3,Patrick Schumacher has of
been assessed. Tables and 6 showisa dis-
Schumacher.
cussed. Table 4, the the Ecosystem
ecosystem level of cityLevel
plans Urban
Patrick Designs,
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been dis-
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cussed. Table
comparative analysis4, the ecosystem
of Le Corbusier level
andof city plans
Patrick Patrick Schumacher has been assessed.
Schumacher.
cussed. Table
Tables 55 and 4,
and 66 show the ecosystem
show aa comparative level
comparative analysisof city
analysis ofplans
of Le Patrick
Le Corbusier Schumacher
Corbusier and and Patrick has been
Patrick Schumacher.assessed.
Schumacher.
Tables
Tables 5 and 6 show a comparative analysis of Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher.
3. Ecosystem
TableTable LevelLevel
3. Ecosystem
Ecosystem of Urban Designs
of Urban
Urban by LebyCorbusier.
Designs Le Corbusier.
Corbusier.
Table 3. Level of Designs by Le
Table 3. Ecosystem Level of Urban Designs by Le Corbusier.
Le
LeCorbusier’s
Corbusier’s“Contemporary City”
“Contemporary
city”
Le Corbusier’s “Contemporary city”
Le Corbusier’s “Contemporary city”
Greenfields (Vertical
Greenfields (Vertical Garden)
Garden)
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Greenfields (Vertical
Vertical(Vertical
gardens haveGarden)
Garden) been designed
designed toto meet
meet physical
physical needs
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Vertical gardens
gardens have have
been been
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meet physical needs by adheringneeds
to the desire for
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for the
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of physical
humans and by
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of humans
the and nature
for in coalescence
modern urban ofplanning.
humans
adhering
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in modern the desire
urban for the coalescence of humans and nature
planning.
in planning.
in modern urban planning.
Pedestrian cycle
Pedestrian cycle
Pedestrian cycle cycle
Pedestrian
A great
A great
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part
part ofpart
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the city
the city left
city
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congestion part
andof of the
preventing
spread city has been left to the light foot
in cities. the congestion and spread in cities. with the
purpose of preventing the congestion and spread in cities.
purpose of preventing the congestion and spread in cities.
Density
Density
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urban life,
life, aa life
life with
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low density
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along density along with
the closeness
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together.
the closeness of green areas have been brought together.
According to
According to Le
Le Corbusier,
Corbusier, the
the city
city needs
needs to
to be
be lively,
lively, tidy,
tidy, and
and organized
organized with
with the
the center.
center. Compact
Compact cities
cities are
are designed
designed
According
with the
According the
to Le to Le Corbusier,
repetition
Corbusier, of fractal
the fractal the tocity
geometry
city needs needs toand
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be lively, tidy, be organized
lively,
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to the with and
modular organized
system.
the center. Compact with
citiesthe center. Compact
are designed cities are
with the repetition designed
of fractal
with repetition of geometry adhering to modular system.
with
geometry
The the that
fact repetition
adhering to the
green of fractal
modular
space hasgeometry
system.
more areaadhering
than to the modular
buildings shows system. development paying attention to overpopu-
TheThe fact
fact that thatspace
green green hasspace has
more area more
than area
buildings than
showsbuildings
a balanced shows aa balanced
development
balanced development
paying attention paying attention
to overpopulation. to overpopu-
Urban utopias are
The
lation.
designed fact that
Urban
without green space
utopiasthe
disturbing are has more
designed
ecological area
without
balance than buildings
disturbing
while protecting shows
the
the the a balanced
ecological
ecosystem balance
of the built development paying
while protecting
environment, protecting
reducing attention
the ecosystem
pollution, to overpopu-
of the
and increasing the
lation. Urban utopias are designed without disturbing ecological balance while the ecosystem of
lation.
quality
built Urban utopias
of environment,
life. are designed
reducing pollution,without disturbing quality
and increasing the ecological
of life. balance while protecting the ecosystem of the
built environment, reducing pollution, and increasing quality of life.
built environment, reducing pollution, and increasing quality of life.
Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability
2023,
2023,
2023,
2023, x15,
15,
15,
15,
15,15, FORxFOR
xxxFORFOR
xFOR
FOR PEER
PEER
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13
13
of of
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Table 4. Ecosystem Level of Urban Designs by Patrick Schumacher.
EcosystemLevel
Ecosystem Level of
of Urban
Urban Designs
Designs byby
Patrick Schumacher
Patrick Schumacher
Table
Table
Table 4.4.
4. 4.
Ecosystem
Table
Table 4. Ecosystem
Ecosystem
Ecosystem
EcosystemLevel
Ecosystem Level
Level
Level
of of
of
of of
Urban
Level
Level of
UrbanUrban
Urban
Urban Designs
Designs
Designs
Designs
Urban by
Designs
Designs by
by
byby Patrick
Patrick
Patrick
Patrick
by Patrick
Patrick Schumacher.
Schumacher.
Schumacher.
Schumacher
Schumacher.
Schumacher.
Ecosystem Level of Urban Designs by Patrick Schumacher
Ecosystem
Ecosystem
Ecosystem
Ecosystem
Ecosystem Level
Level
Level
LevelLevelofof of
of Urban
Urban
ofUrban
Urban Urban Designs
Designs
Designs
Designs Designs byby by
by Patrick
Patrick
byPatrick Schumacher
Schumacher
Schumacher
Patrick
Patrick Schumacher
Schumacher
Greenfields (Social Areas) Cities have been designed in such a way
Greenfields
Greenfields (Social
Greenfields (Social
(Social Areas)
Areas)
Areas) Cities
Cities have
Cities have beenbeen
have been designed
designed in such
designed in
in such
a wayathat
such a way
way
that there
therethere is
is no is no
damage damage
to ecologicalto ecological
balance while balanceusingwhile using
the using
intelligencethe intel-of
that
Greenfields no damage
(Social Areas) to ecological
Cities have balance
been while
designed in the
such intel-
a
Greenfields
that
Greenfields
ligencethere
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nature based is (Social
no
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nature
upon damage
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Areas)
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based
protecting to
upon Cities
ecological
Cities
Cities
Cities
the
have
have
have have
protecting
environment,
been
balance
been
been
been the designed
while
designed
designed
designed inin
environment,
which gives
in
using
anin such
such
such the
such a
a way
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opportunity a way
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intel-
way
ligence
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that there
there
ligence of nature
is
is
ofis no
no
nature based
damage
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based upon
to
to
upon protecting
ecological
ecological
protecting the
balance
balance
the environment,
while
while using
using
environment, which
the
the
which intel-
intel-
that that
that
for
there
gives there
there
richanis nois no
nodamage
variety,
opportunity damage
damage
making to the
for to ecological
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cities
rich livable
variety,balancebalance
balance
with
making while
while
balanced
while using
using
karma
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cities the the the
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with
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ligence
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ofopportunity
nature
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fields.
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which
livable with
with
ligence
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balanced
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an karma
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making thethethe cities
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balanced
balanced
balanced
balanced
balanced karma
karma
karmakarma
karma usage usage
usage
usage
usage of
ofof
ofofgreen green
green
green
green fields.
fields.
fields.
fields.
fields.
Pedestrian Cycle
Pedestrian
Pedestrian Cycle
The purposeCycle is to prevent environmental degradation and protect it
The purpose
Pedestrian
Pedestrian
Pedestrian
The purpose Cycleis
Cycle
Cycle
isuseto
to prevent
prevent environmental
environmental degradation
degradation and
and protect it
Pedestrian
Pedestrian
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with
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wise Cycle
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is to of the environmental
prevent land. In particular, streetand
degradation access at protect
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The
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prevent
the land. In
environmental
land. In particular,
environmental
particular, street
degradation
degradation
street access
access and
and at
at macro-
protect
protect
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The
The The purpose
purpose
purpose
and is is
micro-levels,
the wise to is
to to
prevent
use of the land. prevent
prevent environmental
environmental
environmental
the pedestrian
In particular, cycle, degradation
degradation
degradation
streetand open
access andandand
and lowerit
protect
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at macro- protect
protect it it
and
with
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and micro-levels,
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the wise
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micro-levels, use
use the
of
of
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the land.
land.
pedestrian In
In cycle,
particular,
cycle, and
particular,and open
street
street
open green
access
access
green fields
at
at
fields lower
macro-
macro-
lower
with
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withthe the
the the
wise
micro-levels,
level wise
wise
of use use
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privateuse of
ofthethe
ofpedestrianthe land.
land.
vehicle land.
In
cycle,
usage In particular,
Inparticular,
particular,
andto open street
green
a minimum street
street access
fields
by access
access
lower
providing at
atatmacro-
the macro-
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level
ac- of
the
and
and level
private
the level of private
micro-levels,
micro-levels,
vehicle
ofand usage
private the vehicle
theto pedestrian
pedestrian usagecycle,
apedestrian
vehicle minimum to
cycle,
by aa minimum
and
and
to providing open
open by providing
green
green
accessibility fields
fields
and ac-
lower
lower
locating
and
and and micro-levels,
micro-levels,
micro-levels,
cessibility the the the
pedestrian
locating the usage
pedestrian cycle,
housing cycle,
cycle, andminimum
and
and open
open open
working by
green
green providing
green fields
fields
fields
zones close lower
lower toac-the
lower
cessibility
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and
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zones housing
close toaand
the working
transportation zones close
center. to the
the
cessibility
thethe level
level of
of
thetransportation of private
andprivate
private
level of privatecenter. vehicle usage to a minimum by providing ac- ac-
locatingvehicle
vehicle
vehicle
vehicle the usage
usage
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usage
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toto
a a
a minimum
minimum
and working
minimum
minimum byby
byby providing
providing
zones close
providing
providing ac-
to
ac- the
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transportation
cessibility
cessibility
transportation and
and center.
locating
locating
center. the
the housing
housing and
and working
working zones
zones close
close to
to the
the
cessibility
cessibility
cessibility and
and and
locatinglocating
locating the the the housing
housing
housing andand and working
working
working zones
zones
zones close
close
close totothetothethe
transportation
transportation
transportation
transportation
transportation center.
center.
center.
center.
center.
Density
Density
Density
It constitutes themes by benefitting from the geological situation of
It constitutes
Density
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Density themes by by benefitting from
from the geological situation of
theconstitutes
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Density
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Density morphology. benefitting
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scatters and themes
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structure
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situation
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scatters and of of
of
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of
scatters
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and
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morphology.
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to theThe The
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distribution
topographical ratiostructure
ratio in
in the
the and
cities
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ral
to cities
cities and
and
features.
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natural morphology.
morphology.
morphology.
topographical TheThe distribution
distribution
distribution
structure and natural ratio
ratio instructure
ratio in
inthe
features.thethe and natu-
cities
cities
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ral features.
scatters
scatters
ral according
according
features. to
to the
the natural
topographical structure
structure and
and natu-
natu-
scatters
scatters
scatters according
according
according to
totothethethe natural
natural
topographical
topographical structure
structure
structure and
and and natu-
natu-
natu-
ral
ral
ral features.
features.
features.
ralralfeatures.
features.
Patrick Schumacher has brought natural lawful physical processes together with parametric designs. He develops the
Patrick
Patrick Schumacher
Schumacher has
has brought
brought natural
natural lawful
lawful physical
physical processes
processes together with parametric designs. He develops the
concepts of environmental
Patrick Schumacher has broughtperformance,
natural lawful self-assembly,
physical processes togethertogether
environmental with with
factors, and
parametric parametric
designs. designs.
natural cases
He He
thedevelops
in urban
develops concepts the
designs. The
of
concepts
Patrick
Patrick
Schumacher
Schumacher
of environmental has
has performance,
brought
brought natural
natural
performance, self-assembly,
lawful
lawful physical
physical
self-assembly, environmental
processes
processes
environmental factors,
together
together with
with
factors, and natural
parametric
parametric
and natural cases in
designs.
designs.
cases in urban
He
He
urban designs.
develops
develops
designs. The
the
the
The
Patrick
Patrick
Patrick Schumacher
Schumacher
environmental
Schumacher hashas
performance,
has brought
brought
brought natural
natural
self-assembly,
natural lawful
lawful
environmental
lawful physical
physical
physical processes
processes
factors,
processes
themes are formed by drawing on the geological situation of the cities and their morphology. and together
together
natural
together cases
with with
within parametric
parametric
urban designs.
parametric designs.
designs.
The
designs. He
themes
He He develops
develops
are formed
develops the
thebythe
themes
concepts
concepts
drawing
themes are
of
of
on
are formed
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formed by
environmental
environmental
geological
by drawing
situation
drawing on
on ofthe
performance,
performance, the
the geological
cities and
geological situation
self-assembly,
self-assembly,
their of the
environmental
environmental
morphology.
situation of the cities
cities and their
factors,
factors,
and their morphology.
and
and natural
natural
morphology. cases
cases in
in urban
urban designs.
designs. The
The
concepts
concepts
ofofenvironmental
environmental performance,
performance,
performance, self-assembly,
self-assembly,
self-assembly, environmental
environmental
environmental factors,
factors,
factors, and
and and natural
natural
natural cases
cases
cases in
ininurbanurban
urban designs.
designs.
designs. The
The The
themes
themes
themes
themes
themes are are
are
are
are formed
formed
formed
formed
formed byby by
by
by drawing
drawing
drawing
drawing
drawing on onon
onon
Table
thethethe
thethe geological
geological
geological
5.geological
Comparative
geological situation
situation
situation
situation of
of
of
ofofthe
Analysis
situation the
the
thethe
Le cities
cities
cities
cities and
and
and
Corbusier
cities and and their
their
their
their
and
their morphology.
morphology.
morphology.
morphology.
Patrick Schumacher Designs in Fractal Ap-
morphology.
Table 5. Comparative Analysis of Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher Designs in Fractal Ap-
Table 5. Comparative Analysis of Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher Designs in Fractal Ap-
proaches.
proaches.
Table 5.5.5.Comparative Analysis of Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher Designs in Fractal Ap-
proaches.
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table 5. Comparative
Comparative
Comparative
5. 5.Comparative
Comparative Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis of
ofof
ofofLeLeLe
Le
Le Corbusier
Corbusier
Corbusier
Corbusier
Corbusier and
and
and
and
and Patrick
Patrick
Patrick
Patrick
Patrick Schumacher
Schumacher
Schumacher
Schumacher
Schumacher Designs
Designs
Designs
Designs
Designs in
inin Fractal
Fractal
Fractal
ininFractal
Fractal Ap-
Ap-
Ap-
Ap- Ap-
Le Corbusier
proaches.
proaches.
proaches. Patrick Schumacher
Le Corbusier
Le Corbusier Ratio
proaches.
proaches.
proaches. Patrick Schumacher
Patrick Schumacher
Design References Organic/Golden
Design References Organic/Golden
Design References Le Le
Le
Le Corbusier
Corbusier
Corbusier
Organic/Golden Ratio Patrick
Patrick
Patrick Schumacher
Schumacher
Schumacher
LeLe Corbusier Ratio
Corbusier
Corbusier Patrick
Patrick
Patrick Schumacher
Schumacher
Schumacher
Design
Design
Design
Design
Design References
References
References
References
References Organic/Golden
Organic/Golden
Organic/Golden
Organic/Golden
Organic/Golden Ratio
RatioDesign
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio References Organic/Golden Ratio
Le Corbusier uses the golden ratio, which is one of the Patrick Schumacher does not mention the golden ratio in
Le
Le Corbusier
Corbusier uses
uses the
the golden
golden ratio,
ratio, which
which is
is one
one of
of the
the Patrick
Patrick Schumacher
Schumacher does not mention the
the golden ratio
ratio in
mathematical data of nature, in designs in line with his his designs; however,does basednoton mention
the absolute golden
dynamic in
mathematical
Le
Le Corbusier
Corbusier
mathematical data
uses
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Patrick
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mention
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own Corbusier
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Corbusier uses
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nature, designs
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line
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designs;
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naturally
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contain the
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naturally
naturally contain
contain
contain the
the the golden
golden
golden ratio.
ratio.
ratio.
Module
Module
Module
Module
Module
Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability
2023,
Sustainability 15,
2023,
2023,
2023,
15, xx15,
15,
15,
2023, xFOR
x FOR
15,
FORFOR PEER
xx FOR
FORPEER
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14 of
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of
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14 22
of
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22 2222
of
22
of 22
Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability2023,
2023,
2023, 15,
2023,
2023,15, xx FOR
xx15,
15,15, FOR
FOR
15, xFOR
xFOR
FORPEER
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of
1414of
14
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22
22
ofof2222
22
of 22
Table 5. Cont.
Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability2023,
2023,
2023,
Sustainability
2023,
Sustainability 15,
15, 15,
x15,
2023,
15,
2023, xFOR
xFOR
xFOR
15,xFORPEER
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141414
of
ofofof
14
14 22
22 of22
22
of 2222
Le Corbusier Patrick Schumacher
Module
Biological
Biological
Biological
Biological
Biological
Biological magnification
magnification
magnification
magnification
magnification
magnification based
based
based
based
basedon
on
based on
on the
the
on
on the
the forms
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of nature
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atesates
ates the
ates
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ates themagnification
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Le Corbusier, who offers a solution to the problems experienced by the cities brought
by the period, is considered with the concept of biomimesis, which uses ways and dynamics
of inspiration from nature (Table 1); it adheres to the functioning of the universe and the
laws of physics, the golden ratio, the modular system, parameters, fractals, which are one
of the dynamics and mathematical data of nature, and Fibonacci series. He developed the
modular measure by adhering to the functioning of the universe and the laws of physics.
With mathematical data (golden ratio/Fibonacci), the repeating ratios are the reflections
of the laws of the universe. It is seen in biomimetic design approaches that sustainable
designs use the codes of nature.
For Patrick Schumacher, although the city models designed by adhering to parametric
design principles appear to be complex, the self-organizing complex situation of nature
emerges with the modeling of biological growth and evolutionary developments. The
mathematical modeling of the universe, the analysis of nonlinear systems, and the emer-
gence of geometry-like fractal forms that occur with the repetition of forms with a complex
appearance and a certain order formed by the repetition of events in nature have come to
the fore, adhering to the needs of twentieth-century developing cities.
Sustainable city forms can be designed with the concept of biomimesis, and the fractal
dimensions can be calculated by examining the constructions in nature. The result of the
solution of the resulting systems with fractal geometry is the connection of urban spaces
with integrated, low-deviation, and self-contained solutions as a result of the repetition of
dimensions.
Two urban designers who lived in different times, Le Corbusier and Patrick Schu-
macher, have been discussed as the protectors of the ideal city and/or permanent ap-
proaches from the beginning of the 20th century to the present day, varying according to
the characteristics of their designs and showing spreads at certain points (Tables 5 and 6).
By bringing different disciplines together and looking at the designs they have ob-
tained, they are inspired by nature and pave the way for sustainable urban designs as a
result of the cooperation of technology and biology (Tables 5 and 6).
Le Corbusier’s urban models deal with the rising area of biomimetics;
• The purely thought-provoking structure of his designs aimed to show this doctrine
with a modular system in which the control of the planet is combined with the physical
structure of life in the universe.
• Using the law of proportions or the proportional geometry of the human, he created
the design components of the circles (golden ratio/Fibonacci/fractal) with modular
dimensions.
• Within the scope of these foundations, with the use of open-ground plans he ensured
the integration of cities by combining nature and people within the cities and his
designs adhered to these principles.
• In order to reduce congestion and use of the cities of the period, the vertical gardens
and the image to be designed in the city sits on the pilots, a large part of the city is
green area, and pedestrians are removed from the use of private vehicles. Urban life
combines the advantages of high limitations and the closeness of green spaces with
low borders.
• In urban designs, he proposes cities gradually by balancing the needs of the modern
city with population ratios.
When Patrick Schumacher’s urban designs are considered using biomimetic levels:
• Parametric design brings together the conformity of physical processes with the laws
of nature. With this approach, it creates spatial complexity by preserving readable
connections by intensifying the relationship between areas with serial repetition as a
result of the interconnection of all elements within its own reference system.
• The principles determined to create an ideal city design digital cities with logical steps,
inspired by the function of nature and as a result of the analysis of nature’s codes.
• In his urban designs, Schumacher develops the performance of the environment, its
spontaneous formation, environmental effects, and natural phenomena and concepts.
• It is based on mobility, formation, and continuity in nature. Cities are designed with
fractal geometry as a result of the repetition of natural forms such as self-organizing
evolution, biological growth, and development. He creates his themes by making use
of the geological situation and morphology of the cities.
• Dimension or space without exploiting the built environment; human movements
are designed with the unique centrality of the urban space by adhering to the social
interaction areas.
• In order to increase the centrality and unity in the city, different and various rich areas
are created on a micro-scale between the topographic layers with the harmony of the
pure forms of nature and the topography of the land. The distribution ratio in cities are
distributed according to the natural topographic structure and natural characteristics
of the city. Cities that are formed in successive waves with topographical features are
protected by preventing the deterioration of the environment through the logical use
of the land.
5. Conclusions
The biomimetic-referenced fractal concept of development in urban design and the
urban design approaches of Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher were compared with
meta-analysis and their design approach processes were examined. In this context, in the
present study, we:
• Address the processes of design approaches, new approaches, and the main reference
areas of these approaches;
• Evaluate sustainability in terms of the organism level, behavior level, ecosystem level,
and functional level, which are references to design based on the structural features of
Biomimesis;
• Compare Le Corbusier’s and Patrick Schumacher’s design approaches on the fractal
element of Biomimesis;
• Ask whether biomimesis as a design approach of nature studies in urban construction
can create sustainable and ecological urban environments.
The conceptual framework created in the study was addressed by comparing the
meta-analysis results on architectural and urban design examples. Urban design examples
by Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher were examined. The design approaches of fractal
codes in nature were analyzed by adhering to the analysis of fractal forms and the fiction
created in line with these approaches. It is important to be able to design holistic cities by
understanding and interpreting nature and biomimetics.
• Does biomimesis, as a design approach of nature studies in urban construction, create
sustainable and ecological urban environments?
The concept of biomimesis, which uses the dimensions of nature’s functions and
scales, enables the examination of structures and dynamics in nature with the opportunities
offered by biology and technology, modeling geometric forms in nature and fractal forms
that can be modeled with parametric designs. As a result of considering the models and
dynamics of nature, solutions should be produced for urban designs with fractal designs,
with the creation of low-density, self-sufficient, repetitive spaces that do not exceed their
own usage areas and can use self-sufficient energy resources. It is an inevitable fact that
this will contribute to the levels of biomimesis by designing fractal models by focusing on
the function added by the form rather than the form, based on the internal dynamics of the
living thing in nature seen in biomimetic designs.
Based on the dynamics of nature in line with the solutions produced (adhering to
fractal designs in biological growth, development, evolution, and self-organizing complex-
looking geometric urban utopias; functional integrity between the protection of nature and
urban technology, creating new systems and solutions with the functionality of nature,
providing healthy, peaceful, safe, and harmonious lives with nature without waging war
on the environment we live in, urban development by adhering to accessible distances in
different cities, and reaching the main transportation axes), by adding repetitive models
to ensure awareness it will be possible to prevent urban sprawl and to determine fractal
models by adhering to a balanced population structure of urban models and using common
living spaces more.
• Contribution to the social environment
While biomimetic levels work on an organism or ecosystem, the form and process
are the features of the organism that can imitate the ecosystem. It seeks to establish a
framework as a means to increase the regenerative capacity of the built environment
(repairing or restoring the functionality of damaged tissues and organs). It defines the
evolved biomimetic varieties based on the framework and identifies an effective approach
to improve the sustainability of the built environments. The framework under consideration
applies to all approaches. With the examination of biomimetic technologies, it is clear that
there is a level of imitation.
• Is biomimesis a reference for the approaches of design disciplines?
Considering the biomimetic levels and compact city models with fractals, which are
one of the dynamics of nature, the recycling of wastes is ensured by working like a living
thing as a result of direct examination of the genetic material obtained from environmental
samples (soil, water, human, etc.) at the organism level (imitation of living things) via the
metagenomic method.
• Urban design at biomimetic levels (Table 1)
The object designed in the dimension of behavior level (imitation of behavior and
relationship) works like an ecosystem, as the ventilation systems work thermally, with the
similarity of the material belonging to the living thing in nature, living style, and shelter
conditions in the macro–micro scale. These are the organism, behavior, ecosystem, and
functional levels. The organism level refers to a specific organism, such as a plant or animal,
and may involve mimicking some or all of the organism. The ecosystem level (ecosystem
mimicry), as the second level, mimics the behavior of living things, and is concerned with
translating an aspect of how an organism behaves or the wider context. The third level, the
behavioral level, is a common principle that allows all ecosystems to imitate and function
successfully. It adapts itself as a part of the system in nature and functions like an ecosystem
by converting renewable energy sources into energy that can be used by people, using
the common components formed in line with the materials it offers in the dimension of
the ecosystem. The fourth dimension consists of the functions of the levels, including all
levels in the functional level (the path followed, function) dimension (imitation of living
things, imitation of behavior and relationship, imitation of ecosystem). It has been seen
that biomimesis levels take place in architectural design, industrial product design, and
urban design, and in this context, its role in designs is discussed.
Cities that are designed with fractal form, which is one of the natural dynamics based
on biomimetics, play an important role in ensuring the continuity of urban space and the
interrelationships of urban parts. In this direction, instead of fraying or leaping form, it
is possible to control growth and prevent spread by actualizing urban development with
the fields accompanying existing urban areas. In the sustainability paradigm, protecting
rural/natural areas with the compact urban model, reducing urban infrastructure and costs,
increasing urban dynamism by decreasing car dependence and reducing private car use,
and reducing house and urban energy use provide social sustainability with interlaced
spaces based on bounds of combined usage.
• Biomimetic-focused fractal cities designed with all levels of biomimetics taken together
By examining the growth phase of the determined creature, it is observed that each
part grows differently from the other and produces dynamic shapes with fractal forms as it
grows. Modules should be developed in the direction of the measurement to be determined

based on living formations. Again, with the behavior level of the determined living
formations, the material of the built environment should be integrated into the ecosystem
so that it does not harm the environment. The design should be changed according to the
needs of the day. It should aim to provide flexibility to the whole urban planning area,
not just on the built environment between the modules. Within the use of organic gardens
and terrace roof methods in the directions of measures that will be determined in built
environments, the sustainability of living areas can be provided by enabling the protection
and increase of biodiversity. It is possible to participate in urban areas as a structured
environment that becomes self-sufficient by creating tropical areas with the terrace roof
method, contributing to the ecosystem (flora and fauna), and which prevents carbon release
by using clean energy
While the ideal city and/or city utopias which came up to the present day from the
beginning of the 20th century vary according to the technology and to the needs of the
period, they are merged at certain points. As a result, although they are designers of
different periods, by selecting their paths, they have designed urban models that recognize
sustainable, high-quality biodiversity. It is known that a second surface is created by
designing houses and cities on the surface of the world by human beings. These two
surfaces seem to have a dynamic interaction with each other.
In this study, we have emphasized that the analogical attitude is transformed by
change, starting from the design processes. The biomimetic-referenced fractal concept of
development in urban design and the urban design approaches of Le Corbusier and Patrick
Schumacher were compared with meta-analysis and their design approach processes were
examined. In this context, the present study has
• Addressed the processes of design approaches, new approaches, and the main refer-
ence areas of these approaches;
• Evaluated sustainability in terms of the organism level, behavior level, ecosystem level,
and functional level, which are references to the design from the structural features of
biomimesis;
• Compared the design approaches of Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher in terms of
their design approach to the fractal element of biomimesis;
• Asked whether biomimesis, as a design approach of nature studies in urban construc-
tion, creates sustainable and ecological urban environments.
The conceptual framework created in the study was answered by comparing the
results of the meta-analysis on architectural and urban design examples.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.G. and A.K.; methodology, A.G. and A.K.; software,
A.G.; validation, A.G. and A.K.; formal analysis, A.G.; investigation, A.G.; resources, A.G.; data
curation, A.G.; writing—original draft preparation, A.G.; visualization, A.G.; writing—review and
editing, A.K.; supervision, A.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All data are available publicly as explained in the full article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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sustainability

Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. 1. Introduction

Sustainability 2023, 15, 7682. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097682 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

concrete, representing a thought, an object, or a creature. The sociological and cultural

2. Materials and Methods

The Limitations of the Study

in many different disciplines. Subject headings such as genetic science, communications

Table 1. Biomimetic Levels [29].

Organism Level (imitation of living things); Hydrological

Behavior Level (the imitation of the behavior of an organ-

As the designed building functions similarly to the thermit it

Behavior Level (the imitation of the behavior of an organ-

4.2. Patrick Schumacher

Table 2. Design Principles by Le Corbusier and Patrick Schumacher.

grows. Modules should be developed in the direction of the measurement to be determined

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