ELECTROSTATICS CURRENT ELECTRICITY


1 Q N dV 1 Q J q A – Area
Electric Field Intensity:- E = vector unit:- E=− Electric Potential V = scalar unit:- V = − E.dr Electric Current: i = , unit - Ampere n – number of free electrons in unit volume
40 r 2 C dr 40 r C t
nAle RA m
* Scalar quantity i =q/t = resistivity ρ = ρ =
Electric Dipole:- Equal and Opposite charge separated by small distance, Dipole moment P = 2ql vector(direction from negative to positive charge unit:- C m Drift velocity:- v = u + a t l ne2
E & V on Equitorial line:- Torque on Dipole:- Net force = +qE – qE = 0 Also J =  E
if u = 0  − relaxation time (10
–14
E & V on Axial Line:- E at pt. P on axial line s)
E = EA cos  + EB cos  Torque = Force × ⊥ distance
= qE × BC [BC = 2l × sin θ Vd = a Current I = neAVd J=
I
= current density (vector)
since = qE 2l sin θ eV I ne 2 A A
eE I = neA =
= E (2ql) sin θ Also ma = eE = f  a =
is E = E B + ( −E A ) EA = EB m ml V ml
τ = PE sin θ = P  E eE
V = IR
E=
1 q
−
1 q E = 2EA cos  τmax = PE for θ = 90o Vd = (10–5 m/s) as V = Exl V ml
40 ( r − l )2 40 ( r + l )2 work done in Rotating Dipole m R= =
1 q l I ne2 A
l eV
E=
q  1
 −
1 

40  ( r − l )2 ( r + l )2 
E = 2

2ql
 
40 x2  x 
P
cos  =
x W=
  d = (1 − cos  ) PE Vd =
ml
V
Mobility  = d
E
(m2/sV)
  E= = Energy of Dipole: U = –PE cos θ
40x3 ( )
3 Stable equilibrium θ = 0, U= –PE
2  2qrl 2pr 40 x2 + l2
E= = Unstable equilibrium Temperature dependence of resistivity Electric Energy & power Colour Coding of Resistor
40 ( r2 − l2 ) 40 ( r2 − l  )
2 2
P Θ = 180o ⇒ U = PE. with increase in temperature Power = Energy / Time = Work done / Time
E=
3 conductors :  decrease.   inc. It is a scalar quantity
40 ( )
2P Gauss Theorem:- Total electric flux (total no. of lines 
E= For short dipole r >> l (direction (-) r2 + l2 2 V2
40r3 1 semiconductors; n increase   dec E = V.I.t = I 2 Rt = t
P of forces) emerges from closed surface is times the R
to (+)) E= For short dipole r >> l 0
40 ( r3 )
2
V
P = V.I = I 2 R =
 E.dS = 
qin R
1 −q 1 q Direction (+) to (-) charge enclosed
V = VA + VB = + 1 unit = 1 KWh
40 ( r + l ) 40 ( r − l ) 1 ( −q )
0
1 q
V = VA + VB = + =0
P 40 x 40 x
1 P
= V=
40 ( r2 − l2 ) 4 r2 0

E due to long charged wire: E due to charged plane sheet: E due to charged Hallow Sphere:
q q q KIRCHOFF’S LAW
Linear charge density  = Surface charge density  = Volume charge density  = Series combination of resistance:- R = R1 + R2. Current same E = V + ir charging
l A V Parallel combination of resistance:- 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 Voltage same E = V – ir discharging i. i = 0 Junction law
ii. iR = E = 0
 E.dS = 
qin For non conducting plate charge is on both side

qin Voltage law
E.dS =

q 0 Cell in series I = nE /nr + R Meter Bridge:
0 2 E.dS =
0 nE Let Unknown Resistance = X
i=
E.dS +  E.dS +  E.dS = 
qin

q Cell in parallel
1 2 3 E dS = r + nR R l
0 2EA =
q 0 =
0 Wheatstone Bridge: X 100 − l
For dS2 and dS3 θ = 90 o

E( 4r2 ) = R(100 − R)
q
For curved surface dS1 θ = 0 q 
Balance condition P/Q=R/S
X=
E= E= 0 l

q q
E dS = ⇒ E ( 2rl ) = 20 A 20 Potential at A & B same at null pt.
0 0 E=
1 q
On surface Position of Galvanometer & Resistivity  =
RA
 40 R 2
2q For conducting sheet E = L
0 battery can be interchanged at null pt.
q 1 2 1 q
E= = l ⇒E= * E is independent of distance from the sheet. E= Outside & E = 0 as q = 0 inside Meter bridge in most sensitive when null pt. in middle.
2rl0 40r 40 r 40 r2
Potentiometer:
Capacitor:- Q = CV unit:- Farad, * C depends on dimensions Principle:- If constant current flows through wire of uniform cross section, then drop in directly proportional to length of that portion
E Advantage of Potentiometer over voltmeter:-
Capacitance for parallel plate Surface charge Density Energy of Capacitor K = = Potential gradient 1. Preferred over voltmeter as it give exact reading draw no
L current
capacitor Q
 = Q = A
Energy = work done in bringing charge When K1 inserted then E1 = K × L1 2. Sensitivity increase with increase in length
Consider || plate capacitor with A at potential V When K2 inserted then E2 = K × L2 3. A small P. D can be measured accurately with the help of
area of plate A, capacitance C and Electric field E1 L1 potentiometer. The resistance of voltmeter is high but not
q
dW = V  dq = .dq =
E 2 L2 infinity to work as an ideal voltmeter.
dist. b/w plates d E = Eair + Edielectric C
4. The internal resistance of a cell can be measured with the
Q Q Q
Q
C= =
Q   1  q2  1 Q2
help of potentiometer.
= +
 
1
V Ed 0 k0 U = dW = q  dq =   =
C C  2 0 2 C
 0 0
E= for charged sheet Potential V = E × d
0 1 Q2 1 2 1 When only K1 is inserted then E = K × L1
(  U= = CV = QV
V = a + b) + t 2 C 2 2 When K1 and K2 both are inserted then
=
Q
for surface charge density 0 k0 V = K × L2 = E – r
A Energy Density (energy per unit volume)
 t l 
A  A V= a + b +  1 2 1 0 A ( r = R  1 − 1
E  d)
2
C= = 0 0  k CV
 1  l2 
d
d = 2 =2 d = 0E2
0  t volume Ad 2
V = d − t + 
0  k Unit of energy density:- J/m3
If dielectric with dielectric
Q A
constant k is filled b/w the plates. Now C= =
V  t
C’ = kC d − t + 
0  k

Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter:- Conversion Into Voltmeter:- By connecting high resistance in series
MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM (i – ig)S = ig.G {For Ideal voltmeter, R = ∞}
ig .G V = ig ( R + G )
Magnetic Field:- Produced by magnet, moving charge, Vector quantity. Unit:- Tesla (weber/m2), gauss (maxwell/cm2) IT = 104 G S =
Oested Experiment:- Current carrying conductor produces magnetic field. i − ig V (
= R + G)


Bio Savart Law:- It gives M.F. at a point around {For Ideal Ammeter R = 0} ig
Ampere’s Circuital Law:- B.dl = 0i The line integral of magnetic field B for
current carrying conductor.
 idl sin  any closed circuit is equal to μ0 times current i threading through this closed loop
dB = 0
4 r 2 and this closed loop is called Amperian loop. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (E.M.I)
0 B. Due to Infinitely Long Wire:-
= 10−7 TmA−1 Magnetic field at P due to wire The phenomena of producing induced current due to change in magnetic flux is called electromagnetic induction.
4

 B.dl =  i
Faraday Law:- (i) Change in magnetic flux induces current which last till there is change.
μ0 – Permeability of free space 0 −d 
Direction of B:- Perpendicular to dl and r. (ii) e =


B = 0 if sin θ = 0 B dl =  i
dt
0
B = max sin θ = 1 θ = 90o Lenz’s Law:- Induce current opposes the factor due to which it is produced. Method of producing emf:-
 idl  r B(2πr) = μ0i acc. to law of conservation of energy. − d  − dBAcos 
Vector Form dB = 0 e= =
4 r 3  2l dt dt
B= 0
4 r Induced current / charge:-
Mag. Field At Centre of Coil:-
Direction:- Right Hand Thumb Rule curly finger gives field direction if thumb of −d  e −d  dq −d 
0 idl sin 90o e= ,i = = , =
dB = right hand points current outside dt R Rdt dt Rdt
4 r2 B. due to Solenoid:- −d 
dq =
B = dB = 4 ri dl 0
2  Bdl = B.dl cos  R
Motional emf:- The emf induced due to motion of a conductor in M. field.
0 i N – Total Turns
= (2r )
4 r 2
d −d  −d  Eddy Current:- The circulating induced
Motional emf:- e = Rotating rod:- e =
 i
B = 0 or B = 0
 Ni  B.dl =  i
a
0
− dB.A
dt
− dBA
dt current in a oscillating metallic block kept in
magnetic field. In can be reduced by using
2r 2r = e= laminated core, or cutting slots in block.
Direction:- Right Hand Thumb Rule. b c d a dt dt Application:-
On Axis of Coil:-
 idl sin 90o
 B.dl +  B.dl +  B.dl +  B.dl =  ( Ni )
a b c d
0 =
− BdA − Bldx
dt
=
dt
e=
BdA
dt
(i) Magnetic brakes
(ii) Induction furnace
dB = 0 (iii) Dead beat galvanometer
4 x2 b e = − Bvl BL2
e=
B =  dB sin   B.dl + 0 + 0 + 0 =  ( Ni )
a
0
Direction = Anticlockwise
Force:- i =
Bvl
2

0i ( 2a ) a R 1 1
= . b
e = BL2 or e = BR2
4x2
  Bvl 
x N 2 2
B. dl = 0 Ni B.L = 0 ni ⇒ ∴ B = μ0ni n= (Turns per unit Length) F = Bil = − B  l
0 Nia2
L  R  No. of spokes is increased emf remain same.
B= a
− B2vl 2
2 ( a2 + r ) 2 3/ 2 Force on charge in Electric field:- Magnetic Field:- F=
B. Due to Toroid:- (Closed solenoid) F = qE (both for rest & motion) F = qV Bsin θ (only for moving charge) R
Power:- P = Fv
 B.dl =  Ni 0
P=
− B2v2l 2
B (2r ) = 0 Ni R
Self – Induction:- Change in current in a coil, induced Mutual – Induction:- when the change in current *No. of turns is double than inductance
0 Ni  N 
B= n =  current is produced which opposes the change in same coil. in primary coil induces current in secondary coil. become four times ( L ∝ n2).
2 r  2r  Electrical Resonance:-
B = 0 ni [at P] Unit:- L = 1 Henry (H) ϕ∝i 1 1
Dimension Formula:- [ML2T–2A–2] ϕ = Mi F=
Lorentz Force:- F = qE + qvB sin θ = q (E + vB sin θ) 2 LC
Solenoid:- Unit – Henry
Cyclotron:- Used to accelerate charge Particles. Force b/w 2 parallel current carrying wire:- Force acting on a due to b. ϕ = Li ∈0 = Farad/m Power in A.C. circuit:-
Principle:- The repeated motion of charged particles under mag. & ele.   2i  ϕ = BAN = (μ0niA) × N μ0 = Henry/m 1
P = V0i0 cos 
field accelerates it. E.F. provides energy while M.F. changes direction. F =  0 1  i2l sin 90o Li = μ0n2 × i × A × l
 4 r  (n = N/l) Solenoid:- B2 = μ0n2i2 2
Construction:- Dees, Sources, M.F., R.F. Oscillator L = μ0n2Al ϕ = B2AN1
   2i i V i
1 2 F =  0  1 2 (For unit Length) ϕ = (μ0n2i2)AN1 P = 0 0 cos 
Working:- Max KE = mvmax 2 2
2  4  r ϕ = Mi2
2 By Flemings LHR force is of attraction for same Mi2 = μ0n1n2Ali2  P = VRMS iRMS Cos 
1  qBr  M = μ0n1n2Al
= m  direction of current and force of repulsion for opposite
 R
2  m  direction of current. Cos  = Z 
1 q2 B2 r 2 if i1 = i2 = 1 A, r = 1m.
K .E. =
2 m then F = 2 × 10–7 N.
Current Sensitivity:- Deflection per unit current
Moving Coil Galvanometer:- Device Torque Experienced By a  BAN Radian
Is = =
to detect & measure electric current. Current loop in uniform i C Ampere
Principle:- Current loop experience Magnetic Field:- Voltage Sensitivity:- Deflection per unit voltage
torque in uniform M.F. τ = F × ⊥ distance
I   BAN  Radian 
Construction:- Light Coil, concave = Bil × bsin θ Vs = s = = =  
magnetic Poles → radial field. τ = Bi A sin θ R V iR CR  Volt 
Theory:- Deflecting torque For N Turns:-
Limitation:- Only charged particles can be acceleration Application:-
= Restring force (torque) τ = BiNa sin θ
For circular path:- For nuclear
B × i × N × A × sin θ = CØ
mv2 mv reaction & other
(θ = 90o) as field is radial = qvB ⇒ r = ⇒r∝v research purpose.
C r qB
∴ B AiN = CØ ⇒ i =
ABN 1 q 2 B2r 2
K .E. =
2 m
Time period = Distance / Velocity = 2πr / v ⇒ T = 2πm / qB
Frequency of Revolution:- f = 1/T = qB/2πm
 MAGNETISM & MATTER ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C)
Properties of Magnet: Permanent Magnets are made up of steel: Magnetic Material: TRANSFORMER: - It is a device use the A.C. Generator :- It is a device which convert mechanical Alternating Current: -
1. Magnets have north pole and south pole. Hysteresis Loop / curve: The graph plotted b/w change AC voltage. energy into electrical energy. D.C – Direction & magnitude are fixed.
2. Likes poles repel & unlike attract each other. external field (H) & mag. induction (B) is called “BH Paramagnetic Diamagnetic Ferromagnetic Principle: It is based on principle of mutual Principle: It is based on principle of electromagnetic A.C – Change in both magnitude and direction.
3. Freely suspended magnet rests in N – S direction. curve ‘or hysteresis Loop. 1. odd no of e– 1. Even no of 1. induction. induction.
4. Monopole do not exist. Energy Loss: Work done (energy loss) in in outer most e– and Ferromagnetic Construction: two coil primary & secondary 
Construciton: V
5. Mag. Length is eq to 0.84 times of their geometric
length.
magnetization and demagnetization is eq. to area of
BH curve.
orbit &
possess net
possess net
dipole
materials
have some
Step up: Increase voltage (k>1) and decrease (i) Arumature coil. HALF– CYCLE: Vavg. = 
current. (ii) Field magnet 0
Elements of Earth’s magnetic field: dipole moment is 0. unpaired
Magnetic Dipole Moment: N  2l → S Step down: decrease voltage (k < 1) and (iii) Slip ring 1 

M = m2l unit: Am2

1. Angle of Dip: Angle b/w horizontal line & mag.
meridian as a freely suspended magnet.
moment. electrons so
their atoms
increase current. (iv) Brushes . Vavg . =
  V sin  d
0
m → pole Strength.  Vs NS ip  − d 0

M → Magnetic Dipole Moment

2. Angle of Declination: Angle b/w geographical have a net
Theory:  = = = K e= 1
 −V0 cos 0

meridian & mag. meridian is called Angle of magnetic
Vp N p is  dt Vav =
Declination moment. They – dBA cos t 
M. Due to Current Loop: When current is passed
3. Horizontal Intensity of Earth Mag. get their strong  output  e= −V0
through a loop it, behaves like a magnet. (M = iA) =
The horizontal component of to. Earth’s field at any magnetic  =  100%  dt Vav = cos  − cos 0
current × Area, M = NiA properties due  input  e = BA(–ωsinωt) 
point is called horizontal intensity
q evr to the presence e = BAN ωsin ωt
⸫ M= ( r) 2 = {for e-, v = 2r/t} BV Bsin 
= tan  , B2 = (BH ) 2 + ( BV )
2
t 2 = of magnetic emax = e0 = BANω Vav =
2V0
or Iav =
2I0
BH Bcos  domains.  
e = e0sinωt
2
Magnetic Dipole Moment of a revolving: B = BH + BV 2 2 1
Full Cycle: Vav =  V d
( r 2 ) = evr
2. Aligns || to 2. When
M = iA =
q
{for e-, v = 2r/t} 2. Align ⊥ 2 0
field & get a magnetizing
t 2 to ext. field. 2
weakly force 1
Magnetic Field of Earth:
magnetized is applied, the Vavg =
2  V sin  d
0
along ext. domains 0
Magnetic Field Intensity due to magnetic Dipole: field. become aligned V0
( − cos )0
2
0 2M to produce a Vavg =
1. On Axial line: B = 2
4 r 3 strong magnetic A.C. Circuit: - V0 V
 M
2. On Equatorial line: B = 0 3
field
Pure Resistive Circuit: (Circuit containing Pure capacitor circuit (circuit containing capacitor only) Vavg = ( − cos 2 + cos ) = 0 ( −1 + 1)
within the part. 2 2
4 r resistance) Q = CV
Vavg =0 or Iavg = 0
Torque Acting on dipole in Mag. field: 3. Mag. field 3. Mag. field 3. Temp. at d dV d d
=C , i=C (V0 sinωt) i = CV0 sin  t
 = f  dis. = mB2 l sin = m2 lBsin pass through repelled by which V V0
= sin  t dt dt dt dt Root mean Square:
substance substance. ferromagnetic R R 2
= MBsin 1
VRMS = V
2
substance
⸫  = MBsin  becomes 2
i = i0 sin t  V = V0 sin t 
0

→Torque is ⊥ to mag. field and mag. dipole paramagnetic 2 2

1 1
called curie V 2 RMS = V = V sin 2  d
2 2
moment (M)
2 2
0
Temperature. V
→  max = MB (sin = 1),  = 90° {Due to torque I ωCV0 cosωt 0 0
4. Increase
V V 2
V 2
 2 1 − cos 2 
rotation motion or liner. } 4.Increase with increase Resistance is independent frequency of A.C.
i = 0 sin( t +  / 2) V 2
= ( ) = 0 0
sin  = 
→  min = 0 = (sin = 0) ,  = 0 2
RMS
with decrease in temp 1 2  2 
in temp. C V0 I
Work done in Rotating the Dipole: VRMS = or IRMS = 0
V0
W = MB [cos1 – cos2] Electromagnets: Are prepended by passing electric i= 2 2
1
current in a solenoid. The magnet lasts till the current
is passed. C
It can be increased by:
1. Increasing number of turns. Pure inductive circuit: Series LCR circuit: -
2. Increasing current. V = V0 sin ωt
3. using soft iron core. Ldi v2 = VR2 + (Vc − Vc)2
V=
dt (IZ)2 = (IR) 2 + (IX L − IXC ) 2
+Vdt
di = Z = R 2 + (XL − XC )2
L
V sin  tdt 2
di = 0  1 
L Z = R 2 +  L − 
 C 
V V
 di = L0  sin t dt = L0 ( − cos t ) 
L −
1 
 C  ⇒  tan  = XL − XC 
 tan  =  
 R   R 
 

RAY OPTICS Refraction through a Prism: In quadrilateral AMPN.

∠A + 90∘ + ∠P + 90∘ = 360∘
By snell’s Low
sin i
μ=
I −v N A + 90∘ + 180 − (r1 + r2 ) + 90 = 360 sin r
Reflection of Light: i = r, Magnitization m = = − real inverted. + virtual erect. A + δm
o u A = (r1 + r2 ) − − − (2) sin ( )
→ Convex Mirror +f, m < 1 and negative m > 1 (enlarged) m < 1(small) μ= 2
i+e = A+δ A
→ Concave Mirror −f , m > 1, < 1, = 1 both +& − At minimum deviation δm sin ( )
2
i = r1 + x ie, r1 = r2 = r For then prism
Refraction of Light: μ =
sin i
, 1μ2 =
μ2
=
v1
=
λ1
=
1
= 2μ1 } vertically
e = r2 + y A + δm
sin r μ1 v2 λ2 1μ2 2i = A + δm
1 opposite Angles. (A + δm ) 2
Total Internal Reflection (i) Denser → Rarer (ii) i > ic sin ic = ( ) μ=
μd i + e = (r1 + r2 ) + (x + y) –-----(1) ∴i= − − − − − (3) A/2
2
Mirror formula: Thin lens formula: Refraction through Spherical δ=x+y A δm = (μ − 1)A
Surface: exterior angle is equal A = 2r ∴ r = ( ) − − − −(4) A-Prism Angle
2
ASSUMPTION: to sum of interior angles μ = Refractive Index.
∠P = 180 − (r1 + r2 ).
Angular Dispersion: θ = δV − δR = (μV − μR )A
Object AB image A′ B ′ △ ABP ≈△ A′ B ′ P Dispersive Power: ω =
θ
=
δv −δR
=
(μv −μR )A
⟹ ω=
(μv −μR )
δy δy (μy −1)A (μy −1)
△ AFB ≈△ PFN AB PB u
AB AB FB u − f = = − (i)
= = = − (i) A′ B ′ PB ′ v 1
PN A′ B ′ PF f △ MPF ≈△ A′ B ′ F (Since i & r are very small) Scattering of light: δ ∝ (Rayleigh) Danger signals Red.
λ4
ΔA′ B ′ F ≈ ΔMFP PM PF f 1. Small Aperture (RAYLEIGH LAW) sky appears blue.
MP AB PF f = = − Reddish appearance of sun-rise, sunset.
= = = − (ii) A′ B ′ FB ′ v − f 2. Point size object
A′ B ′ A′ B ′ FB ′ v − f AB v By snell's law
= − (ii) OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS:
from eq − (i) and (ii). AB′ ′ v−f sin i i
μ= = Simple Microscope: Convex lens of low focal length and high power.
u−f f From eq (i) and (ii) sin r r
=
f u i) Image at D.: Object placed blow Focus and tens.
f v−f i = μr
By sing convention u, v, f are -ve. =
v−f v △ COM
f 2 = (u − f)(v − f) Since u = −ve sign convention α=i+γ ∴ i=α−γ
f 2 = uv − uf − fv + f 2 vf = (−u)v − (−u)f △ CIM
uv = uf + vf. vf = −uv + uf
β=r+γ ∴ r = β − γ.
Dividing by uvf uv = uf − vf ii) Image at ∞
α − γ = μ(β − γ)
uv uf vf Dividing by uvf Object placed on focus.
= + PM PM (PM PM)
uvf uvf uvf 1 1 1 − =μ − Magnifying Power. D
1 1 1 = − −u −R −v −R magnifying Power m =
= + f v u 1 1 μ μ μ 1 μ 1 D f
f v u − = − ⇒ − = − m= 1+
u R v R v u R R fe
m = I/0 = −v/u μ 1 (μ − 1) β Angle made by image
− = m= =
v u R α angle made by object when kept in position of image.
Lens maker formula: 1 μ 1−μ Combined focal length: - Compound Microscope: Objective - (convex lens of low focal length and small aperture).
− = − (ii)
v v′ R2 Eyelens - (convex lens of high focal length and large aperture).
adding eq (i) & (ii). i) Image at D.: Final virtual inverted Image.
1 1 1 1 ii) Image at infinity ∞
− = (μ − 1) ( − )
v u R1 R 2 Final Image at Infinity.
By Refraction through first surface
1 1 1 First lens forms image I ′ of 0
μ 1 μ−1 = (μ − 1) ( − )
− = ⋯ (1) f R1 R 2 1 1 1
v′ u R1 = − − (i)
Power of Lens: f1 v′ u
I ′ acts as an object for second surface so
1 100 I' acts as object for second lens and
that final image is formed at I, so for P= = Diopter.
f( m) f( cm) final image is formed at I, so for second
second surface. v0 D 1 D
leans. m = m0 × me = (1 + ) ≈ (1 + )
1/μ 1 1/μ − 1 −u0 fe fe fe
− = 1 1 1
v v′ R2 = − − (ii) v0 D L D
f2 v v ′ ( )≈ ⋅ m=−
u0 fe f0 fe
Adding eq (i) & (ii)
1 1 1 1 Length of tube L = v0 + fe
− = + Astronomical Telescope: Objective - (convex lens of high focal length & large aperture.)
v u f1 f2
Eyelens - (Convex tens of low focal length & small aperture.)
i) Image at Infinity ii) Image at D
WAVE OPTICS
• A wavelet is the point of disturbance due to propagation of light.
• A wavefront(w.f.) is the locus of points having the same phase of oscillation.
• A line perpendicular to a wavefront is called a 'ray'.
f0
m= f0 fe
fe m= (1 + )
fe D
L = f0 + fe (Length of tube)
D
Length of the Tube L = f0 + ue R. P =
1.22λ
D-Diameter of objective

Reflecting Telescope: Concave mirror acts as an objective. HUYGEN'S PRINCIPLE:- Find the shape of wavefront at any particular instance. The two postulate are-
(i) Each paint on primary w. f. acts as a source of secondary w.f. which travel in all direction with
speed of light.
(ii) The forward envelope or common tangent of secondary w. f. give shape of new wavefronts.

ADVANTAGES:
1) Bright Image is formed.
2) Image free from chromatic aberration.
Resolving Power:- The ability of optical instrument to form distinct image of two object situated close to eachother. Reflection by Huygen’s Principle Refraction by Huygen’s Principle
Resolving Power of Microscope Telescope
2μ sinθ D
[(R ⋅ P)m = ] [(R ⋅ P)T = ] S′1 S′2
λ 1.22λ (M-1)
1
(R ⋅ P) ∝
limit of resolution
i
E0
Polarisation: C= Brewsters law tan ip = μ
B0

MPN and MQN , MN = MN common side

P = Q = 90o ,PN = MQ (dist. covered by light in same time) PN = V1t
MPN  MQN (by SAS) MQ = V2t
Malus law: Iθ = I0 cos 2 θ 90 − i = 90 − r sini PN / MN PN
μ0 = = =
i=r sinr MQ / MN PQ
v1 t v1
μ0 = =
v 2t v t
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT: - Variation of intensity of light due to overlapping of two light waves.
Constructive: - Resultant increase and bright light is formed.
λ 3λ λ
Path diff.:- Δx = 0, λ, 2λ, . . . . . ,3λ Destructive:- Path diff.:- x = , , ....., (2n − 1)
2 2 2
Phase diff.:- Δϕ = 0,2π, 4π, 6π, . . . . . ,2nπ Phase diff.:- Δϕ = π, 3π, 5π ⋯ (2n − 1)π
2π
Δϕ = × Δx
λ
Destructive:- Resultant is minimum.
Young's double slit Experiment (YDS):- A monochromatic light beam is incident in double slit the pattern obtain on screen consist
alternate bright and dark bands called fringes.

Expression for Interference Pattern: Expression for fringe width:

Let, two interference wave Single slit diffraction – Intensity distribution curve:
y1 = a,sinωt • dark band or minima - d sin θ = n λ

y 2 = a2(sin(ωt + ))   = phase diff. • maxima - dsinθ =

(2n+1)
λ
2
by Principle of Superposition-
y = y1 + y 2 Linear width of central maxima:

y = a1sinωt +a2sin(ωt + )  arc 

angle = raclius  , β0 = θ  D
y = a1sinωt +a2sinωt cos  +a2cosωt sin   

y = sinωt (a1 +a2cos)+a2cosωt sin

λD
S2M = S2P-S1P from S2PC
β0 =
d
a1 + a2cos = Rcosθ 2 2
S2P = D +(x + d / 2) 2
 
a2sin = Rsinθ  from S1BP1
y = R sinωt cosθ+cosωt R sinθ
S1P2 = D2 +(x - d / 2)2
y = R sin(ωt +θ)  a1 +a2cos +a2 sin = Rcosθ+Rsinθ
Square both side S2P2 - S1P2 = 2xd
a + a cos  + a sin  = R cos θ+ R sin θ
2
1
2
2
2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2
(S2P-S1P)(S2P+S1P)= 2xd
a12 + a22(cos2 + sin2) = R 2 (sin2θ+ cos2θ)- 2a1a2 cos  (S2P-S1P)(D+D)= 2xd
a12 + a22 + 2a1a2cos  = R 2 (S2P-S1P)(D+D)= 2xd

R = a12 + a22 +2a1a2cos  2xd

S2P - S1P =
2D
R max =(a1 +a2 )  = 0º From bright fringe for path difference,
R min = (a1 − a2 )  = 180º S2P-S1P = n λ β = xn+1 − xn
I ∝ a2 ∝ ω xd
= nλ β=
(n+1)λD
−
nλD

D d d

nD λ λD
xn = β=
d d
Dλ
x=
d
For destructive interference:
xd λ
= (2n -1) β = x n +1 − x n
D 2
λD λD (2n − 1)λ D
x n = (2n − 1) β = (2(n + 1) − 1) −
2d 2d 2d
λD
β=
d
Interference pattern the intensity of all bright band is equal. • Coherent Source - The two light source behave like
coherent source if they belong to same parent source.
• Diffraction - It is bending of light at sharp corners or edges.
• Fresnel’s distance - df = d2 /λ
 DUAL NATURE Of MATTER AND RADIATION Expression for 𝛌 :
By particle nature, E = mc 2
In term of Energy:
P = mv 2
In term of charge & potential:
E = qV
Photoelectric emission: The emission of electron due to action of light of suitable energy is called photoelectric emission. By wave nature E = hν 1 h
E = mv 2 λ=
The e− emitted are called photoelectrons. equate both the energy 2 √2qVm
Properties of Photon- (a) Photon is a bundle of energy- E = n0 ⇒ E = hc/λ 2E = mv 2
mc 2 = hν For electron:-
(b) Photon travel with speed of light. hc 2mE = m2 v 2
h
m = 2 2mE = p2 λ=
(c) Rest mass of photon is zero. λc √2meV
o
(d) momentum of photon is p = E/C. h P = √2mE 12⋅3 A
m = Therefore λ=
Photoelectric effect → The of e− from a metal surface when light of suitable frequency is incident on it is called photoelectric λc √V
h h h Temp:- λ =
h
effect. Alkali metals like Li, Na, K show photoelectric effect with visible light metal like Zn, mg, Ca respond to ultraviolet light, λ = λ= = √3mKT
mc P √2mE
Laws of Photoelectric emission - 3
h ( P = momentum) E = kT
(a) minimum energy required called threshold energy or work function. The freq. corresponding to threshold energy called λ = 2
p
threshold freq. K = Boltzmann constant
E = f = hν0 ν0 = threshold frequency Davisson & Germer Experiment:- Theory/ working:- A high energy e− beam is incident on a
Work function(E = f) (i) Electron gun - producers a fine beam of e− of high nickel crystal which diffracts this e− beam. The intensity of
(b) Every photon interact with a single electron. speed. diffracted beam in various direction is measured with help of
(c) increasing the energy of incident photon the Kinetic energy of e− emitted increase. (ii) Nickel crystal - It is used to diffract the e− beam. detector mounted on circular scale.
Effect of Intensity:- (iii) Detector - It is used to find the intensity of diffracted At 54 volt a clear hump (maxima) at angle of 50∘ , then by
e− beam. bragg's law for diffraction by crystal.
2dsin θ = nλ
0.91 × sin 65∘ = 1 × λ
I1 > I2 (Freq. = constant) ∴ λ = 1.65Å
by de-Broglie hypothesis
Voltage h
λ = = 1.66Å
Effect of frequency: p

Determination of Plank's constant:- frequency From Einstein Photoelectric equation –

hν = hν0 + K ⋅ E
eν0 = K ⋅ E
hν = hν0 + ev0
Einstein Phataelectric Equation:
Photoelectric effect was explained using quantum theory by Einstein.
E=ϕ+K⋅E In terms of wavelength:-
1
hν = hν0 + mv 2 c c 1
2 h ( − ) = mv 2
1 λ λ0 2
hν − hν0 = mv 2
2 1 1 1
1 hc ( − ) = mv 2
h(ν − ν0 ) = mv 2 λ λ0 2
2
Dual Nature of Matter:
De-broglie Hypothesis – Acc. to De-Broglie a wave is associated with every moving particle. This wave is called matter wave
and its wavelength is known as de-Broglie wavelength.

ATOM & NUCLEI Nucleons = Protons + Neutrons

A = Z + N.
Nuclear volume ∝ Mass No.
4 3
1 amu =
1
12( 12
6 C)
πR ∝ A
Rutherford 𝛂-particle scattering Exp: Mass = Atomic + No. of 3 = 1.66 × 10 −22
kg
 o n 2 h2
Exp. Setup: Radius of Bohr orbit: rn = No. Neutrons. OR R = R O A1/3 Electron volt (ev) – unit of energy
me2z R 0 = 1.4 × 10−15 m 1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J.
for hydrogen z = 1 1 Fermi = 10−15 m. 1 amu = 931MeV
ENERGY OF BOHR ORBITS:- NUCLEAR DENSITY: 1017 kg/m3
1 ze(−e) Nuclear force Independent of mass no. and same For
E = KE + PE = mv 2 +
2 4πεo r • strong all elements
OBSERVATIONS: 1 ze2 ze2 mv 2 1 2e2 • short range m⋅A 3m
= − ( = ) e= =
(i) Most of the α-particle passed underiated. 2 4πεo r 4πεo r r 4πεo r • spin dependent 4/3πR 0 3 A 4πR30
(ii) Few α-particle scattered at angle θ −Ze 2
• charge independent
En =
8πεo rn Isotopes: Same protons (Z) but different(A) Ex ∶ 1H
1
, 1H2, 1H3; 2H3 , 2H4, 2 H6
1
N∝ −e2 −13.6 No. of Neutron.
θ For H Atom En = = eV
sin4 ( ) 8πεo rn n2 Isobars: Same (A) but different (2) Ex ∶ 11 Na22 ; 10 Ne22 ; 20 Ca40 ; 18 Ar
40
2
HYDROGEN SPECTRUM:- Isotones: Same no. of neutrons. Ex: 1 H 3 ; 2 He4 ; 8 O16 ; 6 C14
(iii) Very few retraces their path. Hydrogen spectrum consist of group of radiation emitted by Mass Energy Relation: Variation in B.E/Nucleon with mass no.
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF ATOM: (1909) a h-atom whose wavelength is given as E = Δmc 2 1. B. E/A is very less for A = 8 and then increases up to A = 60∘
i) Most of the part of atom is hollow. Energy & mass are 2. Decreases after A = 120∘
ii) The central core is (+) very charged called nucleus (10-15m) 1 1 1
= Rz2  2 – 2  Rydberg constant
R =1.09  107. m–1
interconvertible. 3. Maximum 10.8mev for
e− revolves around the nucleus & radius of orbit decreases   n1 n2  Mass Defect: Difference in masses. of Range A = 30∘ to A =
due to decrease in energy (dement). nucleons & nucleus. 120∘
Distance of closest approach: −e2
En = Δm = [ZMp + (A − Z)Mn ] 4. Peak for 2 He4 , 6 C12 , 8 O16
1 1 (2e)(ze) 8πεo rn
mv 2 = etc indicate more stability
−[mass of Z X A nucleus]
2 4πεo r0 5. More is B. E/A, more is
Binding, Energy: Energy equivalent. to mass
2ze2 stability of a nucleus.
∴ r0 = defect. B. E. = ΔM ⋅ C 2
1
4πεo ( mv 2 ) Packing Fraction: B.E per nucleon.
2
P. F = B ⋅ E/A
Impact parameter: It is perpendicular distance of the velocity
vector when α −particle from centre of nucleus when α particle
is far away from atom. NUCLEAR FISSION: Splitting of heavy nucleus. 92 U 255 + 0 n1 → 56 BC141 + 36 Kr 92 + 3 0 n1 + θ(200Mev)
1 2ze2 θ NUCLEAR FUSSION: Fusing two or more lighter nuclei. 1 H1 + 1 H1 → 1 H 2 + e+ + v
b= cot
4πεo mv 2 2 RADLOACTIVITY: Spontaneous emission of radiation (α, β, γ) from radioactive nuclei.
smaller is b’ larger is angle of scattering θ Lyman Series:
θ 2b Laws of Radioactive Decay: α( 2 He4 ) β (electron) γ (photon)
cot = Electron jump from higher orbit to first orbit. 1. Spontaneous. Charge = 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 C −1.6 × 10−19 C 0
2 r0
n = L, n2 = 2, 3, 4........ 2. Rate of dis integration is directly Mass = 4 × 1.67 × 10−27 kg 9.1 × 10−31 kg Rest mass 0
for θ = 180∘ (rebounds) b = 0
proportional to no. of atom at that time. Infield = Deflected by electric No effect
BOHR’S MODEL: (1913) 1 1  3 
1. The e− can exist in certain orbit without radiating energy. v1 = R,  2 – 2  = R  3. Independent of temperature, pressure etc. Or Mag. Field
 n1 n 2  4  4. α − β not emitted simultaneous Speed = Less than β Less than γ Speed of Light
mv2
1 ze 2
 Ultra Voilet Region
= 1 1  8  N = N0 e−λt Unit of Radioactivity
r 4πεo r 2 v2 = R  2 – 2  = R 
2. Only those orbit are allowed for which the angular  n1 n 2  9  Half life: T1/2 =
0.693
=
loge 2
• Curie (𝐢) − 3.7 × 1010 decay /sec
λ λ
momentum (mvr) is integral multiple of h/2π. BALMER: Visible Region t
nh Paschen, Brackett, P Fund :- Far Infrared 1 T1 (activity of 1g radiurn).
mvr = n = 1, 2, 3…. Quantum No. N = N0 ( ) 2
2π 2 • Becquerel (𝐁𝐪) − 1 decay/sec (S.I. unit of radioactivity)
3. Electrons Reboring in their stationary orbit do not radiate t = total time
energy (non-radiative orbits or BOHR’S orbits) • Rutherford (𝐑𝐝) − 106 Decay/sec.
Average life
4. If the e– goes from orbit of energy E1 to other orbit of energy 1
E2 then a photon of energy hv is radiated such that = = 1.44T1/2
λ
hv = E2 – E1
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Intrinsic semiconductor: Pure semiconductors: ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:
Extrinsic semiconductor: (Impure semiconductor) communication is the act of transmission of information. Every communication. system has three essential elements.
P-Type: (Acceptor type) trivalant (B, Al, In, Ga) Majority carrier holes Transmitter, Medium/channel/link, Receiver
N-Type: (Donor Type) Pentavalent (Bi, P, Ar, Sb) Majority carrier electrons.
Doping: Mixing suitable impurity in Ai, Ga.
NET CHARGE ON PURE OR IMPURE SEMICONDUCTOR IS 0 ZERO.
PN Junction: Basie Modes of Communication:
µA
• Depletion layer: Layer near- junction having no free charge (10−6 m) • Point to Point: link between single transmitter and a receiver.
• Width of Depletion layer decreases with F.B. and Vice Versa Reverse current induce to
• Broadcast: Large no. of receivers corresponding to a single transmitter.
minority charge carriers
• Potential Barrier: Potential Developed across junction. Basic Terminology: Attenuation: loss of strength of signal on propogation.
Rectifiers: conversion of a.c into d.c Principle: Diode conduct in RB and do not conduct in P.B. Transducer: Device converts one form of energy to other. Repeater: Combination of receiver and a transmitter used
Signal: Information in electric form.
Zener: Diode Used in reverse biased as voltage stabilize to extend range of communication.
Analog – continuous digital – disscontinious
Noise: Unwanted signal.
Bandwidth of signals: Bandwidth refers to the frequency range over which signal lies or an equipment operates.
• Speech Signal: 300 Hz to 3100 Hz B.W. −3100 − 300 = 2800 Hz (Telephonic communication)
Amplifier: (CE Mode) • Music signal: 20 Hz to 20kHz B ⋅ W. = 20KHz (approx)
• Video signal: B.W. 4.2MHz T.V. Signals (voice +picture) −6MHz
• Digital Data: (Computer Data) −300MHz
Bandwidth of Transmission Medium: Wireless: AM = 540 − 1600kHz
Voltage Gain: =
v0
=β
RL Wire/cable. FM = 88 − 108MHz
vi Rin
• Coaxial cable - 750MHz (normally operated below 186 Hz) TV = 54 − 890HHz
Current Gain 𝛃 = Ic /R b • Optical Fibre - 100 GHz Mobile = 896 − 935MHz
Principle: Small change in input current in result in large change in O/PIC Propagation of EM Waves:-

∗ LED Light emitting Diode : used in FB light produced due to e − h combination. • Ground wave - (0-2MHz) for AM broad cast. Ground wave moves over surface of the earth. Higher freq. waves cant be sent
as ground wave due to their absorption by Earth.
∗ PHOTODIODE RB. e − h pairs generated due to incident photon hv > Eg. Inosphere (85 km)
• Sky wave - (2MHz − 30MHz) − By ionospheric reflection of radio waves back to
earth. For SW broadcast. Frequency higher than 30MHz penetrate. through
∗ SOLAR CELL convert solar energy into electrical energy properties →
inosphere & cant be sent as sky wave. Eg. TV signal.
[Eg ≈ 1.5ev. high optical absortion electrical conductivity
• Space wave- (Frequency greater than 30MHz ) [Los line of sight - Directly from
Transistor Action: Logic Gates: Electronic devices which give one O/P for one or more I/P
transmitter to receiver.][ satellite communication -Via satellite.]
Basic logic Gate: AND, OR, NOT UNIVERSAL GATE: NAND, NOR
Terms Related to Sky wave:
OR AND NOT NAND NOR
• Critical Frequency:- Highest fiequency of radio waves which sent normally to ionosphere gets reflected.
Symbol
fc = g(Nmax)1/2 N - No. Density of electron /m3 .

Truth Table • Maximum Usable Frequency MUF:- Highest frequency of radio wave which when sent at same angle i towards
ie = ib + ic ib = 5% of ie ionosphere gets reftected. MUF = fc sec i
A B A+B A.B ̅
A ̅. B
A ̅ ̅+B
A ̅
Base region is very thin and regulates of
0 0 0 0 1 1 1
O/p current
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0

Range of T.V. Transmission: The maximum line of signt distance chm between two antennas
OT 2 = OP 2 + PT 2 having heights hr + he if hr above the earth is given by:
(R + h)2 = R2 + d2 a m = √2RhT + √2RHR

R 2 + h2 +2Rh = R 2 + d2 Frequency Modulation: freq. of carrier wave changes according

h≪R to message signal. carrier swing - total variation in frequency

Δf
h2 is negligible = 2Δf Mod. index =
fm

d2 = 2Rh

d = √2Rh
Modulation: Production of AM Wave:
Need: 1. Height of antenna required is 15 km(λ/4)
which is impossible.
1
2. Power radiated ∝
λ2

low freq. signal suffers damping.

B.W. of AM wave = (wc + wm ) − (wc − wm )
3. Mixing of low. freq. signal.
= 2wm
• Modulation is superposition of low freq. audio signal
over high freq. carrier wave for long distance
propagation.

Amplitude Modulation: Variation in amplitude of carrier wave DEMODULATION: Demodulation is reverse process of
process of modulation. modulation. It is to recover message signal at receiving end.
according 10 information signal.
Message signal −m(t) = Am sin ωm t
carrier Wave - C(t) = Ac sin ωc t.
Modulated signal Cm (t) = m(t) + i(t)
Cm (t) = (Ac + Am sin ωm t)sin ωc t
Am
Modulation index μ =
Ac

Cm (t) = Ac sin ωc t + μAc sin ωm + sin ωc t

μAc μAc Advantages of FM :
Cm (t) = Ac sin ωc t + cos(ωc − ωm )t − cos (ωc + ωm )t
2 2 (1) Good quality
Frequency Spectrum: (2) High fidelity
LSB - Loner side Band
μAC (3) Highly efficient.
USB - Upper side
2
Internet: www - world wide web LAN, Local Area N; WAN -
It is to recover message signal at receiving end.
Wide AN