Week 1

Variation refers to the differences that exist within species and to the differences between
species.
Variation is the result of the genetic make-up of an organism and the influence of the
environment.
There are two types of variation:
 Continuous variation – the differences observed are slight and not clear cut; for example, the
height of humans will fit into intermediates between the two extremes. Other examples are
weight in humans, skin colour, hair colour, and leaf size and pod size in legumes. When
graphically represented, continuous variation gives a smooth bell curve.

 Discontinuous variation – the differences observed are clear cut with no intermediates,
for example, blood groups in humans. In the ABO blood grouping system, there are four
blood groups: A, B, AB, and O. People have one of the four distinct blood groups, there
are no intermediates. Other examples include attached or unattached earlobes in humans,
tonguerolling in humans. There is no curve for discontinuous variation when represented
graphically. It can be represented using a bar chart.
Week 2

Genetic variation also referred to as inherited variation, is a result of inheritance and is controlled by
genes. These differences can be subtle (small) or large. Genetic variation makes every organism unique.

For example, genes determine the blood group of an individual, and this does not change throughout
the lifetime of that individual.

There are several causes of genetic variation:

 The random arrangement of homologous chromosomes during meiosis.

 Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during crossing over in meiosis.

 Alleles of genes inherited are from genetically different parents.

 The random fusion of gametes during fertilization.

 A gene mutation – when new genetic material is formed.

Genetic variation ensures the survival of a species if the environment of that species changes drastically.
It is the raw material for natural selection, and it allows some individuals to adapt to the environment
while maintaining the survival of the population. For example, a population of wolves living in the wild
has varying body hair lengths, if the temperature changed drastically and becomes much colder, the
wolves with the short body hair would most likely die, and those with long body hair would survive the
cold temperatures. Those that survive would probably reproduce; thus, the survival of the species is
ensured because of genetic variation.

The environment plays a role in determining the phenotype of an organism. This type of variation is not
inherited but occurs because of the differences in the surroundings of an organism, for example, the
flowers of the hydrangeas plant are blue in acidic soil and pink in alkaline soil. The characteristics of
organisms can be affected by several environmental factors; these include climate, diet, culture, and
lifestyle. Another typical example has been observed in genetically identical twins, as they grow and
develop, they acquire subtle differences. These differences in physical appearances are caused by their
varying diets, daily activities, interests and even interactions with people. Weight and height are
common examples of characteristics that are influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.
Week 3

The Caribbean is a biodiversity hot spot with many habitats, and within those habitats, many species are
located. A species is a group of related organisms that can breed together and produce fertile offspring.
Some individuals from different species attempt to breed but produce embryos that do not develop or
produce offspring that are infertile such as the mule.

The horse and the donkey breeds to give the mule, however, this offspring is genetically sterile since it is
unable to produce eggs or sperm and this is due to the number of chromosomes not matching up.

Speciation

The formation of new species is known as speciation. There are two ways in which new species are
formed from:  Geographical separation or isolation – populations may become separated by
geographical barriers, such as large water bodies. They can also be produced by natural disasters such
Page 26 of 69 as forest fires, earthquakes, and floods. These barriers prevent the exchange of genetic
material between organisms of the same species, so over a period, the populations become significantly
different from each other.

A classic example of geographical separation involves the Galapagos finches. Populations of finches
found on different islands evolved separately. The finches are isolated from one another by the ocean,
and this caused the beaks of each group to vary based on the availability of different food types.

Week 4

Speciation occurs in one of two ways. The second way in which new species are formed is by:
 Ecological or behavioural separation. Speciation can also occur within a population without physical
barriers. This results as some individuals occupy a part of a habitat that others do not and adapt to the
conditions. For example, there are two populations of the Bahamas mosquitofish (Gambusia hubbsi),
one has a larger and more powerful caudal (tail) region than the other. The fish with the larger tail
regions are in environments where there are predatory fish that will feed on the mosquitofish. The
mosquitofish with the smaller tail regions live in areas without predators. Modern research suggests
that the more powerful tail regions are more powerful swimmers than the mosquitofish with the smaller
tail regions. The bigger fish can, therefore, escape from their predators more easily. Speciation is
resulting because each fish chooses the same type to mate with.
Speciation is also a result of behavioural change. Species engage in distinct courtship and mating rituals.
For example, female cichlid fish in Lake Victoria of Africa selects males with certain colours to mate with,
and this has resulted in the formation of a new species.

Week 5

Extinction happens when there are no more individuals of a species found alive anywhere in the world.
Extinction leads to a loss of biodiversity; however, habitats become available for new species to fill and
for this reason, extinction is said to be a natural evolutive process.

Extinction of organisms happens because of the following reasons:

 Habitat destruction – this is one of the leading causes of extinction. The world's forests, swamps,
plains, lakes, and other habitats continue to disappear as they are harvested for human consumption
and cleared to make way for agriculture, housing, roads, pipelines, and the other hallmarks of industrial
development. For example, deforestation lead to the extinction of the Cuban macaw in the 19th
century.

 Hunting – Poaching, which involves the illegal killing, hunting, and capturing of wild animals for sale, is
the biggest threat to wildlife after habitat destruction. Whether done legally or illegally, all types of
hunting have led to the extinction of species. If not controlled, many more animals will be doomed to
extinction. For example, hunting contributed to the extinction of the Caribbean monk seal in the mid-
20th century.

 Predation - the removal or addition of a predator to an ecosystem can produce dramatic changes in
the population of prey species. For example, the mongoose which probably ate the Antiguan owl to
extinction.
 Disease – The 1918 flu killed millions of people, while Ebola outbreaks have helped to push gorillas
close to extinction. The Christmas Island rat has become extinct because of disease.

 Competition - Interspecific competition often leads to extinction. The species that is less well adapted
may get fewer of the resources that both species need. As a result, members of that species are less
likely to survive, and the species may go extinct.

Week 6

Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, first spoke about natural selection. He observed organisms that
lived on the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean. There is a constant struggle for existence, and those
that are best adapted to their environment have an advantage. They are more likely to survive and
produce offspring. These organisms are said to have a selective advantage.

Natural selection can change a species in small ways, causing a population to change colour or size
throughout several generations. This is called "microevolution." Natural selection is also capable of
much more. Given enough time and enough accumulated changes, natural selection can create entirely
new species, known as "macroevolution." Natural selection involves the following:
 Overproduction – this is a driving force in natural selection, as it can lead to adaptation and variations
in a species. Darwin argued that all species overproduce since they have more offspring than can
realistically reach reproductive age, based on the resources available. An example of overproduction in
animals is sea turtle hatchlings. A sea turtle can lay up to 110 eggs, but most of them would not survive
to reproduce fertile offspring.

 Differential survival – the individuals that survive long enough to breed, are good at obtaining
resources from the environment, evading predation, and withstanding diseases. Less successful
individuals die before reproducing or only produce a small number of offspring.

 Reproduction and inheritance – organisms that have adapted to the environment has a higher chance
of breeding and passing on their alleles to their offspring to make them successful.  Adaptation –
organisms that survive are best suited to the environment at that particular time.

Adaptation is the characteristic while natural selection is the mechanism that increases the probability
that an advantageous characteristic is passed on and becomes commonplace.
Week 7

Genetic variation is the raw material for natural selection. Individuals are naturally different from each
other, and this causes some to be better adapted to their environment. The theory of evolution by
natural selection, first formulated in Darwin's book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, is the process by
which organisms change over time because of changes in heritable physical or behavioural traits.
Natural section provides the mechanism for one species to change into another. The change is very slow
and is called evolution as one species evolves into another.

Charles Darwin’s idea of natural selection and evolution explained the long necks in giraffes. Among the
ancestral population of giraffes, some individuals happened to have slightly longer necks than their
fellow mates. This gave them the advantage of being able to reach higher branches and get more food
to eat. Gradually, as a consequence, these giraffes became more successful at reproduction, as they
were able to survive and prosper with their ability to reach for more food on higher branches, while the
population of those with smaller necks gradually began to shrink (remember survival of the fittest).
Antibiotic resistance is a consequence of evolution via natural selection. The antibiotic action is an
environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a mutation allowing them to survive will live on to
reproduce. They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will be a fully resistant generation.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become resistant to antibiotics. Bacteria can
evolve quickly because they reproduce at a fast rate. Mutations in the DNA of bacteria can produce new
characteristics. A random mutation might cause some bacteria to become resistant to certain
antibiotics, such as penicillin.

Week 8

Artificial selection is the identification by humans of desirable traits in plants and animals, and the steps
taken to enhance and perpetuate those traits in future generations. In natural selection, nature selects
the fittest individuals but, in artificial selection, humans select individuals with characteristics they see
as useful. Only those individuals selected by humans are allowed to produce offspring. This selective
breeding may continue for many generations. Today, it continues by a combination of inbreeding
(between closely related individuals) and outbreeding (between genetically distinct individuals). The aim
of artificial selection is to produce animals and plants with characteristics humans find desirable.
These include:
 High yield
 Improved quality
 Reduced production cost
 Faster growth rates
 Greater resistance to disease.
Selective breeding has been done on many animals. Examples of such artificial selection being
performed can be seen in dogs. Due to this selective breeding, there are now hundreds of different
breeds. Artificial Selection in the Caribbean Beef cattle such as the Hereford and Angus, and dairy cattle
such as the Friesian and Jersey, are very productive but do not thrive well in the Caribbean; thus,
farmers have developed new breeds.

 In Jamaica, cross-breeding Indian and European breeds with local Creole cattle has led to beef and
dairy herds such as the Jamaica Red Poll and the Jamaica Hope. These can cope with heat stress and
poor pasture and are disease-resistant while producing much more milk and meat than traditional
Caribbean breeds.

 In Trinidad, a new breed, the Buffalypso, has been selectively bred from the water buffalo brought
from India in 1903 to pull cars and help in ploughing. The mature animal produces high-grade meat,
which is marketed as beef. The calves are sold for breeding to various countries, including Guyana, Cuba
and other Latin American countries, and the US. Crossing existing varieties to combine features
produces many new varieties. For example, the Hope cattle in Jamaica were bred from high yielding
Jersey cattle, Holsteins, and Zebu cattle. This is known as hybridization and is followed by a program of
selective breeding.

Captive Breeding Captive breeding is the process of breeding animals or plants outside of their natural
environment. This is done to introduce particular genes into a population. Animals can be kept in
breeding programs to maintain and improve their genome. These programs are essential for preventing
extinction and improving the diversity of the population of the organisms concerned.
Week 9
Natural selection is a process of adaptation by an organism to the changing environment by bringing
selective changes to its genotype or genetic composition. Artificial selection, also called selective
breeding, is the process where humans identify desirable traits in animals and plants and use these
traits to develop desirable phenotypic traits by breeding.
Week 10
Genetic engineering is the act of modifying the genetic makeup of an organism. Genes can be
transferred from one species to a completely different species, such as from bacteria to a plant, and
from an individual from one species to another individual of the same species.

Selective breeding is not considered a form of genetic engineering. The benefits of genetic engineering
include the development of high-performance food crops that grow quickly with less use of fertiliser.
This could ease the pressure on food supplies from the growing human population. Another important
area of development is disease resistance in crop plants, which would reduce the need for the use of
pesticides.

An organism that has genes added to it from another species by genetic engineering is known as a
transgenic organism. Recombinant DNA is a technology scientist developed that made it possible to
insert a human gene into the genetic material of a common bacterium.

An example of genetically engineered bacteria is in the production of human insulin. Insulin is a protein
hormone produced in the pancreas, which has an important function in the regulation of blood sugar
levels. Insulin facilitates the transport of glucose into cells. An insulin deficiency is one of the causes of
the disease diabetes mellitus or sugar diabetes in which the sugar levels in the blood become raised,
resulting in harmful consequences. At least 3% of the world’s population is affected by diabetes mellitus,
and sufferers of the disease require insulin injections to manage the disease. Before genetic
engineering, insulin used for treatment was sourced from the pancreas of slaughtered pigs and cattle.
This source of insulin had minor differences in the amino acid composition to the insulin produced in
humans and contained trace impurities. As a result, some patients were allergic to insulin sourced from
animals and had damaging side effects because of treatment from these injections. The solution to this
problem was solved by genetic engineering.