NEET Revision Notes

Physics
Nuclei

All positive charges and almost all masses of an atom are concentrated in a very
small space called the nucleus. The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons.
They are called nucleons.

Atomic Mass Unit

The term used to describe the term atomic mass associated with the Nucleus Atomic
Mass Unit (AMU) is called the atomic mass unit. The atomic mass unit is defined as
1 th
of the mass of a carbon atom 6 C12 .
12
1 12
1a.m.u    1.66  1027 kg
12 6.023  10 23

Composition of Nucleus
Atomic number:The number of protons in the nucleus of an elemental atom is
called the elemental atomic number (Z).
Atomic number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
Atomic number = Number of electrons + Number of neutron

Isotopes:
The atoms of the same elements having the same atomic number but different mass
numbers are called isotopes.
Isobars:
The atoms with a different element have the same mass number, but the different
atomic number shows similar physical properties but different chemical properties.
Ex: C614 , N 714

Isotones:

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The nuclides with the different elements with different atomic number and mass
number but having the same number of neutrons.
(A-Z): Shows different physical and chemical properties

Iso diaphers:
Iso diaphers are nuclides with the same isotopic number (A-2Z). They differ in the
same way that neutrons and protons do (n-p).

Isosteres:
Isosteres' are molecules that have the same atomicity and number of electrons.
Atomicity = total number of atoms in molecules

Iso-Electronic Species:
The molecules or ions with same number of electrons are called isoelectronic species

Mass number: The total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of
anelement is called the mass number (A) of the element.
A = Z + N
Size of Nucleus:Size of the nucleus R A1/3
R  R0 A1/3
Where, empirical constant R0  1.1  1015 m

Image: Size of the nucleus

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Density of Nucleus: The density of nuclei does not depend on the mass number, so
it is the same for all nuclei.
3m
 ; m is the average mass of a nucleus.
4 R03
Nuclear density is the density of the nucleus of an atom, averaging about
2.3  1017 kg / m3 .
Mass of nucleus

Volume of nucleus

Radioactivity This is a phenomenon in which nuclei spontaneously decay and emit

one or more radiations such as alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays.

Radioactivity Decay: This is a transmutation process in whichradioactive rays are

emitted from the nucleus. This process cannot be accelerated or decelerated
byphysical or chemical processes.

Radioactivity Law According to this law, the decay rateof radioactive atoms at a
given time is proportional to the number of atoms present at that time.

Nuclear force: The force that acts within the nucleus orbetween nucleons is called
nuclear force. Nuclear force is the strongest force in nature.
● It's a very short-distance force of attraction
● It's not central. Non-conservative force.
● It is neither gravitational or electrostatic force. It's free.
● 100 times the electrostatic force and 1038 times the gravity.

Mass defect
The difference between the total mass (M) of all nucleons and the mass (m) of the
nucleusis called a mass defect.
m  M  m
m   Zm p  ( A  Z )mn  mn 

Nuclear Binding Energy

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The minimum energy required to separate a nucleon from a nucleus to an infinite
distanceis called the nuclear binding energy.
Nuclear binding energy
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon =
Total number of nucleons binding energy

Binding energy per nucleon:

Nuclear binding energy is the minimum amount of energy required to disassemble
or break down an atom's nucleus into its constituent subatomic particles (protons and
neutrons).
The term nucleon refers to the group of subatomic particles known as protons and
neutrons that reside in the nucleus.
The difference between nuclear attraction and electric force disruptive energy is
equal to the net binding energy associated with a given nucleus.
It is important to note that the net binding energy per nucleon increases as the number
of nucleons increases.

Image: Binding energy per nucleon versus mass number.

As a result, the atomic number determines the net binding energy per nucleon.

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Iron, with a mass of 56, is one of the most stable elements. Iron is said to have a high
binding energy per nucleon.
Elements with lower and higher mass numbers per nucleon have lower and higher
stability.
A nucleus total mass is less than the total mass of the nucleons that make up the
nucleus. This difference is referred to as the mass defect. It is equivalent to the
nucleus's binding energy when using E  mc2 .
Fission is when an unstable nucleus is converted into more stable nuclei with a lower
total mass. The binding energy is released due to the mass difference, or mass defect.
The mass of the nucleus formed during fusion is slightly less than the total mass of
the original nuclei. Because the nucleus formed is more stable, the mass defect is the
released binding energy.

Radioactivity:
When a particular nucleus emits the radiation spontaneously, such certain nuclei are
known to be radioactive and this phenomenon of disintegration of nuclei
spontaneously is called radioactivity.
Types of Radioactive radiation
● Alpha rays: The rays which bends towards the negative plate by carrying the
positive charge.
● Beta rays: The rays which bends towards the positive plate by carrying the
negative charge.
● Gamma rays are uncharged rays that pass straight through the electric field.

Different types of radiations:

Alpha radiation:
The α- particle which is similar to the helium nucleus includes protons andtwo
neutrons. It is the emission part of an alpha particle from an atom’s nucleus. When
an α-particle is emitted by an atom the mass of an atom decreases by 4 units.
238
U 92  He24  Th90
234
.

Beta radiation:

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When an atom emits β- particles, it transmutes the neutron into a neutron and an
electron. During this emission. The mass of the atom will not change. This resulted
in the increase of atomic number by one.
C614  e01  N 714

Gamma Radiation:
It involves the emigration of electromagnetic energy from a snippet’s nucleus.
During gamma radiation, no patches are emitted; therefore, it doesn't beget the
vacillation of atoms.
60
Co27  Ni28
60
 e01  2 00

Radioactive disintegration:
Converting one radioactive nuclei into another by emitting the 𝛂, 𝛃 and 𝛄 rays.
Methods of Radioactive disintegration:
● Alpha decay: Emission of an alpha particle, decreases the atomic number by
2 units and mass number by 4 units.
238
U 92  He24  Th90
234

Change in mass number

Number of  -particle emitted=
4

● Beta decay: Emission of   particle, increases the atomic number y 1 unit

but does not affect the mass.
This emission gives isotopes.
C614  e01  N 714
Number of   particles emitted =
2  Number of  particles - (change in atomic number)

● Gamma decay: Emission of γ-rays does not affect the atomic and mass
numbers.

The properties of alpha, beta & gamma decay:

Alpha Rays:

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Positively charged particles are alpha rays. The alpha particle is a highly active and
energetic helium atom with two neutrons and two protons. These particles have the
least penetration power but the greatest ionisation power. Because of their high
ionisation power, they can cause serious harm if they enter the body. They are
capable of ionising a large number of atoms over a short distance. It is because
radioactive substances emitting alpha particles must be handled with rubber gloves.

Beta Rays:
The inner nucleus releases extremely energetic electrons known as beta particles.
They have a negligible mass and a negative charge. A neutron in the nucleus splits
into a proton and an electron when a beta particle emits. As a result, the electron is
rapidly emitted by the nucleus. Beta particles have a higher penetration power than
alpha particles and can easily pass through the skin. Even though their ionisation
power is low, beta particles can be dangerous and any contact with the body should
be avoided.

Gamma Rays:
Gamma rays are waves that originate at the high-frequency end of the
electromagnetic spectrum and have no mass. They have the greatest penetrating
power. They are the most penetrating but least ionising, and keeping them out of the
body is extremely difficult. Gamma rays have a high energy density and can travel
through thick concrete and thin lead.

Rate of disintegration:
The number of atoms of radioactive elements that disintegrate in a unit time.
 DN
Rate of decay = N
dt
dN
(Or)  kN
dt
Where, k= decay constant
2.303 N
k log 0
t Nt
Here, N 0 =number of atoms initially

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Nt = number of atoms after time t.
All radioactive changes follow first order kinetics. Total life span of a radioactive
element is infinite.

 
Half-life period  t 1  :
 
 2
For a first-order reaction, the rate constant can be mathematically expressed as
follows:
2.303 [ R]
k log 0
t [ R]
From the definition of reaction half-life, at t  t1/2 ,[ R]  [ R]0 / 2 . Substituting these
values in the expression for the first-order rate constant, the following equation is
obtained:

k
2.303
log
 R0 
t1/2 [ R]0 / 2
Rearranging the expression to find the value of t1/2 :
2.303 0.693
t1/2  log(2) 
k k
Thus, the half-life of a first-order reaction is given by 0.693 / k .
The amount of time required by a radioactive substance (or one half the atoms) to
disintegrate or transform into a different substance.
t 1  0.693 / k
2
Half life is related to the total time as, T  n  t 1
2
n
1
Where, n is calculated from the relation Nt  N 0  
2
N 0 = initial amount.
N1 = amount after time T.
n = number of half-lives.

Average Life   

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Life expectancy or median lifetime (τ) of a radioactive element is the ratio of the
total lifetime of all atoms to thetotal number of atoms initially presentin the sample.
N t  N 0e   t
N0  initial quantity   decay constant
Nt  quantity after time t t  time period
Hence,
N
Nt  0
2
t  t1/2
N0
 N 0e   t 12

2
1
 1: et 1/2

2
log ee1/2  t1/2
log 02
t1/ 2 

0.693
t1/2 

1

k
1 1
  1.44  t1/ 2
k 0.693 / t1/ 2

Activity of Radioactive substance:

Activity is defined as the number of disintegrations occurring in a radioactive
substance per second. Higher is the activity of a substance, faster will be its
disintegration.
k  wt. of the element  N A
Activity  kN 
atomic wt. of the element
( N A =Avogadro’s number = 6.023  1023 ).

Nuclear Reactions:

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Nuclear fission: Nucleus in the atoms splits into smaller parts releasing a huge
amount of energy in the process.
92U
235
 0 n1  Ba56141  Kr36
92

Nuclear Fusion: The reaction in which two or more elements fuse together to form
a large element, by releasing a large amount of energy.
H12  H 22  H 32  He24  H11  n10  21.6Mev

Application of Radioactivity:
● Estimation of age (Dating Technique)
Carbon dating technique.
Uranium dating technique.
● Medical use
In therapeutic procedures.
Imaging procedure.

Carbon Dating:
Carbon dating is one of the most widely used methods in archaeology for dating
organic objects up to 50,000 years old. This method is based on the idea of carbon-
14 isotopes radiatively decaying over thousands of years. Scientists have discovered
that radioactive molecules decay at a specific rate determined by the atomic number
and mass of the decaying atoms.
The ratio of radioactive isotopes to the estimated initial concentration of these
isotopes at the time of the organism's death can be used to calculate the approximate
age of the decaying material. Scientists have concluded that the ratio of Carbon-12
to Carbon-14 isotopes in the atmosphere has changed very little, implying that the
relationship between these two should be very similar to how it is today.

Radioactive series:
Any of four independent sets of unstable heavy atomic nuclei that decay through a
series of alpha and beta decays until a stable nucleus is obtained. These four chains
of consecutive parent and daughter nuclei start and end among elements with atomic

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numbers greater than 81, the atomic number of thallium; the members of each set
are genetically related through alpha and beta decay.
The thorium, uranium, and actinium series, known as natural or classical series, are
led by naturally occurring species of unstable nuclei with half-lives comparable to
the elements' ages. These three radioactive series had been fully defined by 1935.
The neptunium series, the fourth set, is led by neptunium-237, which has a half-life
of 2,144,000 years.
(1) If the isotope that results from radioactive decay is itself radioactive, then it will
also decay and so on.
(2) The sequence of decays is known as the radioactive decay series. Most of the
radionuclides found in nature are members of four radioactive series.
These are as follows:

Image: Decay series

Important Formulas:

● Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence: E  mc 2 1 a.m.u  931.5 Me.V, where

1eV  1.6  1019 J and 1MeV  1.6 1013 J .
● Binding Energy per Nucleon:
Total binding energy BE mc 2
B  
Total number of nucleons A A


c2 
A
Zm p  ( A  Z )mn  M  Z 
XA 

0.693 log e 2
● Half life of a radioactive substance: T1/2  
 

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 1 T1/2
● Mean life of a radioactive substance:   
 0.693
● Bohr's atomic model
nh
(a) L  mvr 
2
hc
(b) hv  Ei  E f 

(c) Radius of nth orbit :
n2 n2  h2 
rn  , rn   2 2 
Z Z  4 mk 
(d) Velocity of electron in nth orbit:
Z c  Z 2 Ke 2 1
vn      c (where     fine structures constant)
n  137  n ch 137
● Distance of closest approach:
2 Ze 2  1 
● r0  ,  where E  mu 2  KE of the   particle 
 4 0  E  2 
● Number of emission lines from excited state: n  n(n  1) / 2
● Time period of revolution: Tn  n3 / Z 2 

● Frequency of revolution: Vn  Z2 / n 3 

● Current due to orbital motion: I n  Z2 / n 3 
● Magnetic moment:
(a) Mn  (eL / 2 m)  (nhe / 4 m) ;
(b) M1  (eh / 4 m)  B  Bohr Magneton  9.27 1024 Am2
● Magnitude of angular momentum: L  [ (  1)](h / 2 )
● Angle of angular momentum vector from z - axis
(a) cos   ml { (  1)}

(b) the least angle is for m  i.e. cos min  [ / { (  1)}]

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Common errors or mistakes that should be avoided by the students keeping the
exam point of view:
● Students should have the proper command over the following topics as they
are considered to be the most important topics in this chapter: Nuclear size
and nuclear density, Mass energy relation and nuclear binding energy,
Radioactivity, Alpha, beta and Gamma decay and Nuclear fission and fusion
● Students also write improper units without checking their compatibility.
● The student should avoid calculation errors when doing problems as lots of
calculation problems are asked in the exams.
● Before sitting for exams, students must remember important formulas like
Mass energy relation and nuclear binding energy, the Law of Radioactive
Decay, and Nuclear size and density.
● Students forget to put the correct data in the working formula, which teachers
use to check how effectively the students are learning.
● For questions requiring the reason for a certain condition, first, students are
required to state the cause and then the consequence of the condition.

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