Mathematical Models Phenomenon of interest Mathematical Step 1. Identify the problem. representation Replication of Model construction is — Step 2. Make assumptions. a. Identify and classify the variables, Experimentation b. Determine interrelationships between the variables and submodels. Model selection behavior Simulation Step 3. Solve the model. Step 4. Verify the model. a. Does it address the problem? b. Does it make common sense? ¢, Test it with real-world data. Step 5. Implement the model. Step 6. Maintain the modelModeling Using Proportionality y ox ifand only if y = kx for some constant k > 0 (2.1) Of course, if y o x, then x oc y because the constant k in Equation (2.1) is greater than zero and then x = (})y. The following are other examples of proportionality relationships: y ox? if and only if y = k1x? for ky a constant (2.2) y x Inx if and only if y = kz Inx for ky a constant (2.3) y oe" if and only if y = k3e* for ks a constant (2.4) In Equation (2.2), » = kx?,k > 0, so we also have x « y!/? because x (Jp )y'?. This leads us to consider how to link proportionalities together, a transi- tive rule for proportionality: you and xoz, then yor Thus, any variables proportional to the same variables are proportional to one an- other.Kepler's Third Law To assist in further understanding the idea of proportionality, let’s examine one of the famous proportionalities from Table 2.2, Kepler’s third law. In 1601, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler became director of the Prague Observatory. Kepler had been helping Tycho Brahe in collecting {3 years of observations on the relative motion of the planet Mars. By 1609, Kepler had formulated his first two laws: 1. Each planet moves along an ellipse with the sun at one focus. 2, For each planet, the line from the sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.Table 2.2 Famous proportionalities Hooke’s law: F = k5, where F is the restoring force in a spring stretched or compressec a distance S. Newton’s law: F = ma ora = to a net external force F. Ohm's law: V = iR, where i is the current induced by a voltage V across a resistance R. Boyle’s law: V = e where under a constant temperature k the volume V js inversely Proportional to the pressure p. Einstein’s theory of relativity: E = c?M, where under the constant speed of light squared c? the energy E is propostional to the mass M of the object. Kepler's third law: 7 = cR2, where T is the period (days) and R is the mean distance to the sun. F,, where a is the acceleration of a mass m subjectedTable 2.3 Orbital periods and mean distances of planets from the sun Mean distance Planet Period (days) (millions of miles) Mercury 88.0 36 Venus 224.7 67.25 Earth 365.3 93 Mars 687.0 141.75 Jupiter 4331.8 483.80 Satum 10,760.0 887.97 Uranus 30,684.0 1764.50 Neptune 60,188.3 2791.05 Pluto 90,466.8 3653.90Kepler spent many years verifying these laws and formulating the third law given in Table 2.2, which relates the orbital periods and mean distances of the plan- ets from the sun. The data shown in Table 2.3 are from the 1993 World Almanac. In Figure 2.12, we plot the period versus the mean distance to the } power. The plot approximates a line that projects through the origin. We can easily estimate the slope (constant of proportionality) by picking any two points that lie on the line passing through the origin: 90,466.8 — 88 lope = OS x 0.410 S0PE= 990,869.1 — 216 ‘We estimate the model to be T = 0.410R9/2, . m ‘4900080000 120000 140000 200000 (Miles x 10-4)Modeling Using Geometric Similarity DEFINITION Two objects are said to be geometricay similar if there is a one-to-one corre- spondence between points of the objects such that the ratio of distances between corresponding points is constant for all possible pairs of points. For example, consider the two boxes depicted in Figure 2.18. Let / denote the distance between the points A and B in Figure 2.18a, and let /’ be the distance between the corresponding points A’ and B’ in Figure 2.18b. Other correspond- ing points in the two figures, and the associated distances between the points, are ‘marked the same way. For the boxes to be geometrically similar, it must be true that for some constant k > 0Testing Geometric Similarity ‘The principle of geometric similarity suggests @ convenient method for testing to determine whether it holds among a collection of objects. Because the definition requires that the ratio of distances between corresponding pairs of points be the ‘same for all pairs of points, we can test that requirement to see if the objects in a ‘iven collection are geometrically similar. For example, we know that circles are geometrically similar (because all circles have the same shape, possibly varying only in size). Ifc denotes the circum- ference of a circle, its diameter, ands the length of arc along the circle subtended by a given (fixed) angle 8, then we know from geometry that d@ cant mt s=(4)s aah dh 2 th dy ‘Thus, for any two circles, and S120 _ 2 (h/D0~ dy ‘That is, the ratio of distances between corresponding points as we go around any two circles is always the ratio of their diameters. This observation supports the reasonableness of the geometric similarity argument for the circles.