CALCIUM - Neuromuscular irritability is lowered by magnesium.

- is the most abundant mineral in the body. Most is in bone, - Insulin-dependent uptake of glucose is reduced in
but the small amount of calcium outside of bone functions in magnesium deficiency. Magnesium supplementation
a number of essential processes. It is required for many improves glucose tolerance.
enzymes, mediates some hormonal responses, and is
essential for blood coagulation. It is also essential for muscle SULFUR
contractility and normal neuromuscular irritability. In fact, - Source of sulfates is mainly amino acids cysteine and
only a relatively narrow range of serum calcium levels is methionine. Proteins contain about 1% sulfur by weight.
compatible with life. Since maintenance of constant serum Inorganic sulfates of Na+, K+ and Mg++, though available in
calcium levels is so vital, an elaborate homeostatic control food, are not utilized.
system has evolved.
- calcium deficiency are similar to those of vitamin D FUNCTIONS of SULFUR
deficiency, but other symptoms such as muscle cramps are 1. Sulfur containing amino acids are important constituents of
possible. body proteins. The disulfide bridges keep polypeptide units
together, e.g. insulin, immunoglobulins.
FUNCTIONS of CALCIUM 2. Chondroitin sulfates are seen in cartilage and bone.
- Activation of Enzymes 3. Keratin is rich in sulfur, and is present in hair and nail.
- Calcium mediates excitation and contraction of muscle
fibers. IRON
- Calcium is necessary for transmission of nerve impulses - Total body iron content is 3 to 5 g; 75% of which is in blood,
from pre-synaptic to post-synaptic region. the rest is in liver, bone marrow and muscles. Iron is present
- Calcium mediates secretion of Insulin, parathyroid hormone, in almost all cells.
calcitonin, vasopressin, etc. from the cells - Blood contains 14.5 g of Hb per 100 mL. About 75% of total
- The bulk quantity of calcium is used for bone and teeth iron is in hemoglobin, and 5% is in myoglobin and 15% in
formation. Bones also act as reservoir for calcium in the body. ferritin.
- Iron metabolism is unique in that it operates largely as a
Calcium homeostasis closed system, with iron stores being efficiently reutilized by
- When serum calcium is low, PTH is stimulated, resulting in the body. Iron usually occurs in foods in the ferric form bound
increased calcium release from bone and decreased renal to protein or organic acids. Before absorption can occur, the
calcium excretion. PTH also stimulates increased production iron must be split from these carriers (a process that is
of calcitriol, which acts to increase absorption of calcium from facilitated by the acid secretions of the stomach) and reduced
intestine. to the ferrous form. Only 10% of the iron in an average mixed
diet is usually absorbed, but the efficiency of absorption can
PHOSPHORUS be increased to 30% by severe iron deficiency.
- Total body phosphate is about 1 kg; 80% of which is seen in - Iron deficiency anemia is considered the most prevalent
bone and teeth and 10% in muscles. Phosphate is mainly an nutritional disorder.
intracellular ion and is seen in all cells.
- Requirement is about 500 mg/day. Milk is a good source,
which contains about 100 mg/dL phosphate. Cereals, nuts
and meat are moderate sources.

MAGNESIUM
- required for many enzyme activities and for neuromuscular
transmission. Deficiency is most often observed in conditions
of alcoholism, use of certain diuretics, and metabolic acidosis.
The main symptoms of magnesium deficiency are weakness,
tremors, and cardiac arrhythmia.
- Early signs of magnesium deficiency include: fatigue,
weakness, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting.
- The requirement is about 400 mg/day for men and 300
mg/day for women. Doses above 600 mg may cause diarrhea.
More is required during lactation. Major sources are cereals,
beans, leafy vegetables and fish. COPPER
- Total body copper is about 100 mg. It is seen in muscles,
FUNCTIONS OF MAGNESIUM liver, bone marrow, brain, kidney, heart and in hair.
- Mg is the activator of many enzymes requiring ATP. Alkaline - Copper requirement for an adult is 1.5 – 3 mg per day.
phosphatase, hexokinase, fructokinase, phosphofructokinase, Major dietary sources are cereals, meat, liver, nuts and green
etc. need magnesium. leafy vegetables. Milk is very poor in copper content.
- Copper absorption may also be dependent on the protein
metallothionein, since excess intake of either copper or zinc
interferes with the absorption of the other. Copper is present
in a number of important metalloenzymes, including
cytochrome oxidase, dopamine.
- Some of the symptoms of copper deficiency include
hypercholesterolemia, demineralization of bones, leukopenia,
anemia, fragility of large arteries, and demyelination of neural
tissue
FUNCTIONS of COPPER
1. It is necessary for iron absorption and incorpo ration
of iron into hemoglobin.
2. It is necessary for tyrosinase activity.
3. It is a co-factor for vitamin C requiring
hydroxylations.
4. It increases HDL and so protects the heart.
IODINE
- Dietary iodine is efficiently absorbed and transported to the
thyroid gland, where it is stored and used for synthesis of the
thyroid hormones. These hormones function in regulating the
basal metabolic rate of adults and the growth and
development of children. Saltwater fish are the best natural
food sources of iodine and in earlier years population groups
living in inland areas suffered from the endemic deficiency
disease goiter. The most characteristic symptom of goiter is
the enlargement of the thyroid gland to the point where a
large nodule is visible on the neck. Since iodine has been
routinely added to table salt, goiter has become relatively
rare.
ZINC
- Total zinc content of body is about 2 g, out of which 60% is
in skeletal muscles and 30% in bones. Highest concentration
of zinc is seen in hippocampus area of brain and prostatic
secretion. Rich dietary sources are grains, beans, nuts,
cheese, meat and shellfish. Copper, calcium, cadmium, iron
and phytate will interfere with the absorption of zinc. Zinc
and copper will competitively inhibit each other’s absorption.
- Zinc absorption appears to be proportional to
metallothionein levels in intestinal mucosa cells. The exact
function of metallothionein in zinc transport is uncertain, but
it may serve as a buffer for zinc ions as the metal transverses
the intestinal cells.
- Zinc deficiencies in children are usually marked by poor
growth and impairment of sexual development. In both
children and adults zinc deficiencies result in poor wound
healing. Zinc is also present in gustin, a salivary polypeptide
that appears to be necessary for normal development of taste
buds. Thus zinc deficiencies also lead to decreased taste.
ZINC Deficiency
- Poor wound healing, lesions of skin, impaired
spermatogenesis, hyperkeratosis, dermatitis and alopecia are
deficiency manifestations of zinc. There is reduction in
number of T and B lymphocytes. Macrophage function is
retarded. Zinc deficiency leads to depression, dementia and
other psychiatric disorders. Zinc binds with amyloid to form a
plaque in Alzheimer’s disease.
FLUORIDE
- Fluoride is known to prevent caries. Caries is a Latin term,
meaning “decay”. In the pits and fissures of premolar and
molar teeth, bacterial fermentation of residual food leads to
acid production. The acid removes enamel and dentine to
expose the pulp, leading to inflammation and toothache.
Topical application of fluoride will result in a fluoroapatite
layer on the enamel, which protects enamel from the decay
by acid.
- Fluoride is known to strengthen bones and teeth and is
usually added to drinking water
FLUOROSIS
- A level more than 20 ppm is toxic, leading to alternate areas
of osteoporosis and osteosclerosis, with brittle bones. This is
called fluorosis.
Prevention of fluorosis is to provide fluoride free water,
restriction of intake of jowar, supplementation of vitamin C
and regulation of fluoride containing toothpaste.
SELENIUM
- Selenium intake depends on the nature of the soil in which
food crops are grown.
- Selenium functions primarily in the metalloenzyme
glutathione peroxidase, which destroys peroxides in the
cytosol. Since the effect of vitamin E on peroxide formation is
limited primarily to the membrane, both selenium and
vitamin E appear to be necessary for efficient scavenging of
peroxides. Selenium is one of the few nutrients not removed
by the milling of flour and is usually thought to be present in
adequate amounts in the diet.
MOLYBDENUM
- Molybdenum is a component of xanthine oxidase. Most of
the absorbed molybdenum is excreted through urine. Higher
protein and cysteine intake will cause higher excretion of
molybdenum. It is present in cereals. Liver contains maximum
content of Mo in the body.
- Deficiency causes depression of xanthine oxidase activity,
increased excretion of xanthine and decreased uric acid
excretion.
- Deficiency is also associated with increased incidence of
esophageal cancer.
CHROMIUM
- Chromium probably functions primarily as a component of
glucose tolerance factor (GTF), a naturally occurring
coordination complex between chromium, nicotinic acid, and
the amino acids glycine, glutamate, cysteine, or glutathione.
GTF potentiates the effects of insulin, presumably by
facilitating its binding to cell receptor sites.
- Total body content of chromium is 6 mg, and this decreases
with age. Cooking in stainless steel containers increases the
Cr content of food. Daily requirement is 30 microgram.
- The chief symptom of chromium deficiency is extremely variable, allowing millions of antibodies
impaired glucose tolerance, a result of the decreased with different antigen binding sites to exist. This
insulin effectiveness. Also leads to impaired growth, region is known as the hypervariable region.
decrease in fertility and sperm count. - Five isotypes of antibodies are found in different
locations and perform different specific functions.
Manganese - The base of the Y plays a role in modulating immune
- Manganese is a component of pyruvate carboxylase and cell activity. This region is called the Fc region, and
probably other metalloenzymes as well. phagocytes may bind to it to initiate phagocytosis.
- Requirement of manganese is 5 mg/day. - Antibodies that bind to surface antigens on a
- Sources: Nuts are good bacterium attract the first component of the
sources and tea leaves complement cascade with their Fc region and initiate
are exceptionally rich in activation of the classical complement system.
manganese.
- Deficiency leads to Structure of Antibodies
impaired growth and - The antibody recognizes a unique part of an antigen (foreign
skeletal deformities object). Each tip of the “Y” of an antibody contains a paratope
(a structure analogous to a lock) that is specific for one
Manganese, particular epitope (similarly analogous to a key) on an
Molybdenum, and Boron antigen, allowing these two structures to bind together with
Are Other Trace precision. Using this binding mechanism, an antibody can
Elements neutralize its target directly or tag it for attack by other parts
- Manganese is a of the immune system.
component of pyruvate
carboxylase and IMMUNE SYSTEM
probably other metalloenzymes as well.. Boron may also - has two main functions; to recognize invading pathogens
play an important role in bone formation. and then to trigger pathways that will destroy them. The
humoral immune system relies on B lymphocytes to produce
soluble antibodies that will bind the foreign antigens. The
cellular immune system uses killer T lymphocytes that
recognize and destroy invading cells directly.
- The primary immune response occurs on initial contact with
a foreign antigen and results in production of immunoglobulin
M (IgM) and then immunoglobulin G (IgG). If the same
antigen is encountered again, immunological memory leads
to a secondary immune response that produces a much more
rapid and larger increase in specific (IgG).

Clonal Selection Theory

ANTIBODIES
- An antibody is a Y-shaped protein produced by B cells to
identify and neutralize antigens in the body.
- An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a
large Y-shaped protein produced by B- cells and used by
the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign
objects such as bacteria and viruses.
- Each tip of the “Y” of an antibody contains a paratope (a
structure analogous to a lock) that is specific for one
particular epitope (similarly analogous to a key) on an
antigen, allowing these two structures to bind together
with precision.
- Though the general structure of antibodies is very
similar, a small region at the tip of the protein is
- A large number of antibody-producing cells exist in an
animal even before it encounters a foreign antigen, each cell
producing only one specific antibody and displaying this on its
cell surface. An antigen binds to cells that display antibodies
with appropriate binding sites and causes proliferation of
those cells to form clones of cells secreting the same antibody
in high concentration.
- Cells that produce antibody that reacts with normal body
components are killed early in fetal life so that the adult
animal normally is unable to make antibodies against self, a
condition called self-tolerance.
- The key cells responsible for immunity in vertebrates are
white blood cells called lymphocytes which arise from
precursor (stem) cells in the bone marrow. There are two
main parts of the immune system which interact to provide
overall protection for the animal:
- the humoral immune response (humor is an ancient term
meaning fluid) relies on the production of soluble proteins
called antibodies (or immunoglobulins) by B lymphocytes, so
called because the cells mature in the bone marrow. As a
common shorthand nomenclature, B lymphocytes are often cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells, target virally infected
called simply B cells. and malignantly transformed host cells.
- The cellular immune response is mediated by T - Malignant neoplasms of blood-forming tissues, called
lymphocytes, so called because their maturation from stem leukemias, can lead to the uncontrolled production of one or
cells occurs in the thymus. In cellular immunity it is the intact more of the major classes of white blood cells. The
T lymphocytes themselves that are responsible for the hyperactivation of granulocytes during an allergic response
recognition and killing of foreign invaders. These cells are the can, in extreme cases, lead to anaphylaxis and death.
cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), also called killer T cells. Other Leukopenia, a depression in the production of white blood
T lymphocytes have another role; they provide essential help cells, can result from physical injury or infection of the bone
for B lymphocytes to produce antibodies and so are called marrow, chemotherapy, ionizing radiation, infection by the
helper T cells. Epstein-Barr virus (mononucleosis), an autoimmune response
(lupus), or the displacement of bone marrow cells by fibrous
Immunoglobulins tissues (myelofibrosis). The resulting deficit in the levels of
- any of a class of proteins present in the serum and cells of circulating leukocytes can leave the affected individual
the immune system, which function as antibodies. vulnerable to infection (immunocompromised).
- Metabolism has two components: catabolism and
Humans have five different classes of antibody molecule anabolism. Catabolism deals with the breaking down of
which differ both in structure and in function. molecules, whereas anabolism deals with the building up of
- IgM is the first antibody produced when an animal responds cells. Both processes take place in the mitochondria. All
to a new antigen. metabolic processes involve energy: They either absorb
IgG is the main immunoglobulin in the bloodstream late in energy (endergonic) or produce it (exergonic).
the primary immune response and particularly during the - The key energy molecule is adenosine triphosphate,
secondary immune response. The only antibody that can pass abbreviated ATP, which forms as a product of the common
through the placenta and so provide immunological catabolic pathway.
protection for the fetus. It is also secreted into the mother’s
milk and is taken up from the gut of the newborn animal into ATP
the bloodstream, thus providing continuing protection after - ATP is recycled within the body. The typical daily
birth requirement for an adult is over 140 pounds of ATP per day.
- IgA is the main class of antibody in secretions such as tears, However, the amount of ATP present in your body at any one
saliva, and in secretions of the lungs and the intestine. It is time is only about one-tenth of a pound. That means each
the first line of immunological defense against infection. ATP molecule in your body is recycled about 1,400 times each
- IgE occurs in tissues where, having bound the antigen, it day.
stimulates mast cells to release a range of factors. Some of
these in turn activate white blood cells to kill various types of ATP as an energy transporter
parasite. - Cells utilize exergonic processes to provide the energy
- IgD is found on the surface of mature B lymphocytes and in necessary for life processes, and the key supplier of this
traces in various body fluids, but its exact function remains energy is ATP. ATP supplies the energy required to force
unclear. endergonic reactions to take place, to provide mechanical
energy (muscle movement), light energy (in fireflies), and
ELISA energy (to maintain body temperature).
- Specific antibodies can also be used to quantify the amount
of the corresponding antigen in a biological sample. Several Molecules Related to ATP
types of immunological assays exist. A popular version is - A few other biomolecules can provide energy equivalent to
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). that which comes from the hydrolysis of ATP. GTP is an
example of such a molecule. There are also a few molecules
BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE that supply more energy.
- White blood cells, or leukocytes, serve as key sentries and
potent defenders against invading pathogens. Neutrophils,
the most abundant type of white blood cell, ingest and
destroy invading bacteria and fungi by a process known as
phagocytosis, while eosinophils phagocytize larger parasites.
Circulating monocytes migrate from the bloodstream to
diseased tissues, where they differentiate into phagocytic
macrophages. Granulocytes such as basophils and mast cells
release stored effectors that attract additional leukocytes to
the site of infection and trigger an inflammatory response. B Where It All Comes From
lymphocytes generate and release protective antibodies with - One of the purposes of the food we eat, of course, is to
the assistance of T lymphocytes. Other lymphocytes, such as supply energy, with carbohydrates and fats being the major
sources of energy. Digestion breaks polysaccharides into
glucose and other monosaccharides, whereas fats are broken
into glycerol and fatty acids. Catabolism converts these
energy sources primarily to ATP. Proteins are broken into
amino acids, which usually do not serve as energy sources
Glucose produces 36 ATP molecules.

What happens if you stop eating?

- Starvation is the total deprivation of food. Here is what
happens during starvation: Initially, the body utilizes its
glycogen reserves. Then it moves on to its fat reserves — the
first ones are those around the heart and kidneys. Finally, the
body relies on the reserves found in the bone marrow. Early
in a total fast, the body metabolizes protein at a rapid rate.
The amino acids are converted to glucose, because the brain
prefers glucose. These proteins come from the skeletal
muscles, blood plasma, and other sources in a process that
produces a quantity of nitrogen-containing products, which
need to be excreted. Excretion requires large quantities of
water, and the resulting loss of water may lead to death by
dehydration. If the starvation continues, the brain chemistry
adjusts to accept fatty acid metabolites, which uses the last of
the fat reserves. Finally, the body resorts to structural
proteins, systems begin to fail rapidly, and death follows
quickly.

- Biosignaling (anomilibro p.421)

- BIOENERGETICS AND METABOLISM (481)
- The Citric Acid Cycle
- Fatty Acid Catabolism
- Amino Acid Oxidation and the Production of Urea
- HORMONAL REGULATION AND INTEGRATION OF
MAMMALIAN METABOLISM (8
- Hemostasis & Thrombosis (1629) Harper81)