Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 1 Nature of Mathematics

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Recognize patterns in nature and be able to identify and follow patterns in Mathematics.
2. Apply the rules in determining the terms of sequences.
3. Enumerate terms of the Fibonacci sequence.

Nature of Mathematics
Recognizing patterns feels natural like our brain is hardwired to recognize them. Awareness of these patterns allowed human
to survive.

Mathematics is the science of patterns, order, and relationships. Symmetry is a great example of mathematical concepts in
nature which is found in abundance in the natural world.

Patterns and Numbers in Nature and World

Patterns are regular, repeated or recurring forms or designs which are commonly observed in natural objects such
as six-fold symmetry of snowflakes, hexagonal structure and formation of honeycombs, tiger’s stripes and hyena’s
spots. Humans are hard wired to recognize patterns and by studying them, we discovered the underlying
mathematical principles behind nature’s designs.

Fibonacci in Nature:
- Honeycombs, Cannonballs and Bees – Thomas Hales
- Music – Pythagoras
- Foam
- Cracks
- Waves

A fractal is a detailed pattern that looks similar at any scale and repeats itself over time. Its pattern gets more
complex the more you observe it at larger scales. Some of its examples are snowflakes, tree branching, lightning,
and ferns. A fractal is a never-ending pattern.

A spiral is a curved pattern that focuses on a centre point and a series of circular shapes that revolve around it.
Examples of spirals are pine cones, pineapples, and hurricanes.

A Voronoi pattern provides clues to nature’s tendency to favor efficiency: the nearest neighbour, shortest path, and
tightest fit. Examples of this pattern are the skin of a giraffe, corn on the cob, honeycombs, foam bubbles, the cells
in a leaf, and a head of garlic.

Exponential Growth Model

Population growth and bacterial decay can be modelled by the exponential growth or decay formula A = Pert.
A = Pert where:

A = ending amount
P = beginning amount (principal, in the case of money)
r = growth or decay rate (expressed as decimal)
t = time (in whatever unit was used on the growth/decay rate)
 In exponential growth, a population’s per capita (per individual) growth rate stays the same regardless of population
size, making the population grow faster and faster as it gets larger.

Fibonacci Sequence

Sequence

A sequence is an ordered list of numbers called terms that may have repeated values. The arrangement of these terms is set
by a definite rule. Applying the rule to the previous terms of the sequence generates the different terms of the sequence.

Fibonacci Sequence

This sequence is formed by adding the preceding two numbers, starting with 0 and 1. The most aesthetically pleasing
proportion of the Golden Ratio is approximated by the ratios of the Fibonacci numbers.

The Fibonacci sequence is named for Leonardo Pisano (Also known as Leonardo Pisano or Fibonacci), an Italian
mathematician who lived from 1170 – 1250.

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181, 6765, 10946, 17711, 28657, 46368,
75025, 121393, 196418, 317811, ...

Golden Ratio = 1.6180339887498948482...

Examples of Golden Ratio in Nature

1. Flower Petals – lily, buttercups, chicory, daisy, etc.

2. Seed Heads – sunflower
3. Pinecones
4. Fruits and Vegetables – pineapple and cauliflower
5. Tree Branches – sneezewort
6. Shells – snail shells and nautilus shells, goat horns, shape of certain spider’s webs.
7. Spiral Galaxies – Milky Way
8. Hurricanes
9. Faces
10. Fingers
11. Animal Bodies
12. Reproductive Dynamics
13. Animal Fight Patterns
14. Uterus
15. DNA Molecules
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 2 Mathematics for Our World
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Apply mathematical concepts in solving societal problems.
2. Apply mathematics in different organizations for improvement of service.
3. Make predictions in various fields of endeavour.

Mathematics for Organization

A lot of events happening around us needed mathematical tools to help us in make sound analysis and better decisions.
Stores can boost their sales by making necessary adjustments by gathering data on shopping habits of prospective
customers. In the field of social media, analysts can crunch all on line postings using software to gauge sentiments from
netizens regarding particular issues or personalities. More so, endangered animal population can be conserved by plotting
migration routes.

Mathematics for Prediction

To make predictions, mathematical models can generate analysis and interpretation using existing data. Experts can calculate
the chance of an event occurring by applying the concept of probability. A good example is weather forecast. Meteorologists
make forecast which aids us in the preparation of our daily activities.

Mathematics for Control

Natural objects and phenomenon behave by the underlying mathematical structure. Interactions and relationships of nature
can be best described by mathematical equations. Through technological advancement, humans were able to expand their
horizons and be able to prove certain phenomena. Mathematics as a tool, man is able to exert control of himself and the
effects of nature. Examples are climate change and global warming.

Mathematics for Indispensable

Mathematics played a major role in the underpinnings of our world. Different fields of endeavour need mathematics. Logical
reasoning and critical thinking skills are required in any endeavour. In understanding the natural world and making educated
decisions, mathematics is a useful tool.
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 3 Mathematics Language and Symbols
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Understand the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics.
2. Apply the nature of mathematics as a language.
3. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.

Speaking Mathematically

This module is to introduce you with a scientific state of mind that can serve you in a wide assortment of circumstances. It will
also introduce you with a portion of the exceptional language that is establishment for much numerical idea, the language of
factors, sets, relations and capacities.

Variables

Universal Conditional Statement. It refers to a statement that is both universal and conditional which contains some
variations of words “for all” and conditional statements versions of the words “if-then.”

Universal Existential Statement. It refers to a statement that is universal because its initial part says that a certain
property is true for all objects of a given sort, and it is existential because its second part assets the presence of
something.

Existential Universal Statement. It refers to a statement such that first part assures that a certain object exists and is
universal since its second part says that the questions fulfil a specific property for everything of a specific kind.

The Language of Sets

Set-Roster Notation. It refers to denoting a set by enumerating all of its elements between braces.

Set-Builder Notation. It refers to a set of S and P (x) be a property that elements of S may or may not satisfy. We
may define a new set to be the set of all elements x in S such that P (x) is true. The set is denoted as follows:
{ x Î S|P(x) }

Subset. It refers to any two sets denoted by A and B such that every element of A is also an element of B then A is
called subset of B, written A Í B.

Ordered Pair. It refers to given elements a and b, the symbol (a,b) denotes the ordered pair consisting of a and b
noting that a is the first element of the pair; b is the second element. Any two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are said
to be equal if and only if, a=c and b=d.

Cartesian Product. It refers to given sets A and B denoted by A x B read as “A cross B” where the set of ordered
pairs (a,b) where a is in A and b is in B.
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 4 Mathematics Relations and Functions
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Understand the mathematical language of relations and functions.
2. Identify the relation as a function by applying the properties.

The Language of Relations and Functions

Relation. When two sets form a collection of ordered pairs of (x,y) each of which coming from each set then it is said that x R
y.

Function. When two quantities x and y are related so that some range of values of x the value of y is determined by that of x
then we say that y is a function (f) of x.

Equality of Functions. Two functions are said to be equal if and only they have the same set of ordered pairs (x,y).
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 5 Problem Solving
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Apply inductive and deductive reasoning in solving problems.
2. Use patterns in problem solving.

Inductive Reasoning

The type of reasoning where a conclusion is made by means of specific examples. Conjecture is the conclusion formed using
inductive reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning

The type of reasoning where a conclusion is made by applying assumptions, procedures or principles.

Problem Solving with Patterns

Sequence – an ordered list of numbers

Term – the number in a sequence separated by commas

Polygonal Numbers

Geometric shapes associated with numbers.

Triangular numbers = n (n+1)/2

Square numbers = n2
Pentagonal numbers = n (3n-1)/2
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 5 Linear Programming
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Understand the concept of linear programming.
2. Determine the essentials of linear programming.
3. Formulate equation associated with linear programming.

Linear Programming

It consists of methods for solving optimization problems with constraints which is a method used for finding the maximum (or
minimum) value.

It is also referred to as linear optimization.

Essentials of Linear Programming Models

1. Limited resources: Labour, material equipment and finance must have a limited number
2. Objective: The purpose is to optimize (maximize profit and minimize cost)
3. Linearity: Increase in labour input must be proportional to labour output
4. Homogeneity: It Is assumed that products, worker’s efficiency and machines are identical
5. Divisibility: Resources and products are assumed to be divided into fractions

Properties of Linear Programming Models

1. The relationship among decision variables must be linear.

2. An objective function must always be present in a linear model. It states whether to maximize or minimize.
3. Constraints pertaining to resources are essential.
4. Constraints must be nonnegative.

Formulation of Linear Programming

Objective Function

It is identified and converted into a suitable objective function. It represents the aim or goal of the system which has
to be determined from the problem. Generally, the objective in most cases will be either to maximize resources or
profits or to minimize the cost or time.

Constraints

When the availability of resources is in surplus, there will be no problem. In real life, organizations to be formed
normally have scarce resources within which the job has to be performed in the most effective way. Therefore,
problem situations are within confined limits in which the optimal solution to the problem must be found.
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 6 Problem Solving Strategies
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Apply Polya’s strategy in solving problems
2. Use different techniques in problem solving

Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem

2. Devise a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Review the solution

1. Understand the Problem

To be able to solve a problem, understanding what the problem asks for is very important.

2. Devise a Plan

Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to solve a problem. The following
techniques are most useful:

Techniques

1. Guess and check

2. Solve a similar but simpler problem
3. Make an organized list
4. Make a table and look for a pattern
5. Work backwards
6. Draw a diagram

3. Carry Out the Plan

Once a plan has been devised it must be carried out.

4. Review the Solution

It is very important once an answer has arrived it must be verified with regards to the given problem. Solutions must
ensure that answers are consistent.
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 7 Data Management
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Uses a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data.
2. Apply the measures of central tendency, dispersion, and relative position in given certain conditions.
3. Advocate the use of statistical data in making important decisions.

Measures of Central Tendency

A data set refers to a collection of numbers or values that relate to a particular subject.

Data Management refers to an administrative process by which the required data is acquired, validated, stored, protected,
and processed, and by which its accessibility, reliability, and timeliness is ensured to satisfy the needs of the data users.

In this module, data sets and how to use the operation of mean, median, and mode to manipulate the data is the one to be
discussed.

Mean. It refers to the sum of the numbers divided by n.

Median. It refers to the middle number of n is odd for a ranked order list of numbers or the mean of the two middle
numbers, if n is even.
Mode. It refers to the number that occurs most frequently in a list of numbers.
Weighted Mean. The formula for the weighted mean of the n numbers x1, x2, x3,…, xn is

Σ (x ∙ w)
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
Σw

Where Σ (x ∙ w) is the sum of the products formed by multiplying each number by its assigned weight, and Σ w is
the sum of all the weights.

Measures of Dispersion

Range. It refers to the difference between the greatest and the least in a given set of data values.

Standard Deviation and Variance. If x1, x2, x3,…, xn is a population of n numbers with mean µ, then the standard deviation of
the population is

Σ(𝑥 − 𝜇)!
s=
𝑛
"($%&)!
And the variance is (%)
. If x1, x2, x3,…, xn is a sample of n numbers with mean

then the standard deviation of the population is and the variance is

Measures of Relative Position

z score. The z-score for a given data value x is the number of standard deviations that x is above or below the mean.

z-score for a population data value:

z-score for a sample data value:

Percentiles. A value called x is called the pth percentile of a data set provided p% of the data values are less than x. Given a
set of data and a data value x,

Percentile score of x =

Quarantiles and Box-and-Whisker Plots. The quarantiles of a data set are the three numbers Q1, Q2, and Q3 that partition the
ranked data into four (approximately) equal groups.

Q2 is the median of the data, Q1 is the median of the data values less than Q2 and Q3 is the median of the data values greater
than Q2. A box-and-whisker plot is a display used to show the quartiles and the maximum and minimum values of a data set.
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 8 Linear Regression and Correlation
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Understand the methods of linear regression and correlation to predict the value of a variable given certain conditions.
2. Uses the normal distribution and shows appreciation in the use of mathematics in everyday life.

Linear Regression

Researchers in doing their studies often wish to know whether two variables are related. The researcher may then wish to find
an equation that can be used to model the relationship when variables are determined to be related. Collection of data is the
first step to do this.

Least-Squares Line. Ordered pairs of bivariate data are given. The line that minimizes the sum of the squares of the
vertical deviations from each data point to the line is referred to as the least-squares regression line or least-
squares line for a set of bivariate data. The equation of the least-squares line for the n noted pairs (x1 y1), (x2 y2),
(x3 y3),…, (xn yn), is where

When the value of the other variable is known, the equation of the least-squares line can be used to predict the
value of one variable.

Linear Correlation Coefficient. It is the one that measures the strength of a linear relationship between two variables.
The closer the value of |r| to 1, the stronger the linear relationship is between the variables. For the n ordered
pairs (x1 y1), (x2 y2), (x3 y3),…, (xn yn), the linear correlation coefficient is

Normal Distribution

Frequency Distribution. A frequency distribution displays a data set by dividing the data into intervals or classes and listing
the number of data values that fail into each interval.

Normal Distributions and the Empirical Rule. It is a bell-shaped curve that is symmetric when you draw a vertical line through
the mean.

Using the Standard Normal Distribution. It refers to a normal distribution that has a mean equal to 0 and a standard deviation
of 1. The z-score can be used to convert any formal distribution into the standard normal curve between them.
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 9 Simple Interest
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Understand the concept of simple interest.
2. Distinguish between ordinary and exact interest.
3. Solve problems on finding ordinary and exact interest.

Simple Interest

It is an interest computed based on the original principal during the whole life of investment.

Formula for Finding Simple Interest

I = Prt
Where:

I – Interest
P – Principal
r – rate
t – time

Maturity Value (F) is the total amount the borrower would need to repay a loan.

F=P+I since I = Prt then

F = P (1 + rt)

Example: Find the interest and maturity value on a loan of Php 10, 000 for three years with an interest of 10%.

I = Php (10, 000) (0.10 or 10%) (3)

I = Php 3, 000

F=P+I
F = Php 10, 000 + 3, 000
F = Php 13, 000

Ordinary Interest – interest computed on the basis of a 360-day year

Exact Interest – interest computed on the basis of a 365-day year

Approximate Time – calculated assuming that each month of the year has 30 days.
Exact Time – as the name suggests, refers to the exact number of days as found in the calendar.
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 10 Compound Interest
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Understand the concept of compound interest.
2. Compute for the compound interest and amount.
3. Find the present value.

Compound Interest

It is an interest computed based on the original principal and the accumulated past interest.

Compounding or Conversion Period (m) – time between successive interest computation

Total number of conversion periods (n) = tm

An amount may be compounded or converted:

Annually m=1
Semi-Annually m=2
Quarterly m=4
Monthly m = 12

Formula for Finding Compound Amount (F)

F = P (1 + i)n
Where I = j/m
I=F–P

Example: Find the interest and compound amount on a loan of Php 54, 600 for 5 years and 6 months with an interest of 8%
compounded quarterly.

F = Php (54, 600) (1 + 0.02)22

F = Php 84, 410.49

I=F–P
I = Php 29, 810.49

Present Value is defined as the principal (P) which is invested at a given time (t) at a given interest rate (r) which will amount
to F when F is due

P = F (1 + i)-n

Example: Find the present value of Php 42, 000 due at the end of 3 years and 9 months if money is invested at 5.6%
compounded quarterly.

P = Php (42, 000) (1 + 0.014)-15

P = Php 34, 094.16
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 11 Simple Annuity
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Understand the concept of simple annuity.
2. Identify different kinds of annuities.
3. Solve problems involving annuities.

Annuity

It is a sequence of equal payments made at equal periods. Payments may be made annually, semi-annually, etc. Some good
examples are monthly payments of rent, weekly wages, and annual premiums on life insurance policy.

Annuities are classified according to:

1. Annuity Certain – it is one in which payments begin and end at fixed times.
2. Contingent Annuity – it is one whose payment depends on an event that cannot be foretold accurately.

Kinds of Annuity Certain:

1. Ordinary annuity payment is made at the end of the term.

2. Annuity due payment is made at the beginning of the term.
3. Deferred annuity payment is not given at the beginning or end of a period but in some later period.

Formulas for an Accumulated Amount (F) for Annuities

R – periodic payment
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 12 Bonds and Bond Validation
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Understand the concept of bonds.
2. Validate bonds by determining its current value.
3. Determine the yield rate of bonds to give the best investment.

Bond

It is an interest-bearing contract which obligates the borrower to make payments of interest and principal on specific dates to
the holder of the bond. This is usually issued by a government or a company for large loans by individuals, companies or
other investors.

Borrowed Principal (H) refers to the face value or par value of the bond.
Nominal Rate (r) is the bond rate or coupon rate.
Periodic Payment (K) represents the interest earned date or coupon date also referred to as coupon annuity payments.
Final Redemption Value (V) is the amount where the borrower is obliged to pay before the bond is surrendered to the
borrower.

Bond Validation

The process of determining the current value of a bond. It includes the computation of the present value of the bond’s future
interest payments and the value of the bond on the maturity date.

Formulas:
*
V = Hrr and K = H (+)

Bond Validation by General Formula

A bondholder can freely sell a bond before its maturity date.

Yield or Investment Rate (i) – specified rate

Price (P) – amount on which a purchaser is willing to pay for a bond on any coupon date
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 14 Logic Statements and Quantifiers
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Distinguish between simple and compound statements.
2. Write compound statements in symbolic form and vice versa.
3. Use quantifiers appropriately.

Logic Statement

It refers to a statement that is either true or false but not both true and false sentence which is declarative.

Simple Statement – it is a statement that reveals a single idea.

Compound Statement – it is a statement that reveals two or more ideas.

Truth Value and Truth Tables

Truth Value – if a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F)

Truth Value of a Compound Statement – it is dependent upon the truth values of its simple statement and its connectives
Truth Table – It is dependent upon the truth value of a compound statement for all possible truth values of its simple
statements

Logic Connectives and Symbols

Statement Connective Symbolic Form Type of Statement

not p not ~p Negation
P and q and PÙq Conjunction
P or q or PÚq Disjunction
If p, then q If … then P®q Conditional
p if and only if q If and only if P«q Biconditional

Truth Value of a Conjunction – If both p and q are true then the conjunction p Ù q is true.
Truth Value of a Disjunction – If each of p and q is true or both p and q are true then disjunction p Ú q is true.

Existential Quantifiers – uses some and there exists and at least one in a sentence.
Universal Quantifiers – uses none, no, all and every I n a statement. Quantifiers none and no denies existence of something
whereas all and every assert that every element of a given set satisfies some condition.
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 15 Mathematics of Graphs
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Define graphs and its parts.
2. Distinguish between complete and equivalent graphs.
3. Identify the path and degree of a curve.

Graph

It refers to a set of points (vertices) and line segments or curves (edges).

It is used to represent many scenarios.
Generally speaking, graphs can include vertices that are not joined to any edges, but all edges must start and end at vertices.

A graph is said to be complete if it is a connected graph in which every possible edge is drawn between vertices.
A graph is said to be equivalent if the edges form the same connection of vertices.
A path or a circuit in a graph refer to the movement from one vertex to the other by trans-versing edges. Movement can be
referred to using vertex letters.
A path is said to be closed if it starts and ends at the same vertex.

Euler circuit is one that uses every edge but never uses the same edge twice.

The degree of a vertex refers to the number of edges that meet a vertex. A graph is said to be Eulerian if it has an even
degree.

A path is referred to as a Euler path if it uses every edge once and only once.
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 16 Mathematical Systems
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Identify different mathematical systems
2. Understand modular arithmetic and how it works
3. Perform operations in modular arithmetic and solve congruence equations

Modular Arithmetic

It is associated with clock arithmetic by determining time by using a 12-hour basis.

It can also be done with a 7-day a week period. Associating each day of the week by numbers from 1 to 7.
Time in the past and present can be determined by using modular arithmetic.
Situations that form a pattern or cycle can be represented mathematically using modular arithmetic or arithmetic modulo n.

Congruent Modulo n
,%-
Given two integers a and b, we say that a º b modulo n if (
is an integer where n is the modulus.

Example:

29 º 8 mod 3 is a true congruence since 29 – 8 = 21 and 21/3 = 7, and 7 is an integer.

15 º 4 mod 6 Is not a true congruence since 15 – 4 = 22 and 11/6 is not an integer.

Arithmetic Operations Modulo n

To evaluate modular expressions using modulo n where n is a natural number, perform arithmetic operations and then divide
by the modulus n.

The remainder, upon dividing by the modulus, is the answer.

Example: Evaluate (23 + 18) mod 12 = 1 since 23 + 18 = 61 and 61 / 12 = 5 remainder 1.

Adding the modulus n in modular arithmetic does not alter the equivalent value of the number.
Example: 13 º 6 mod 7 adding 7 to 13 equals 20 º 6 mod 7

It is also possible to use negative numbers modulo n.

Example: -2 º 5 mod 7

Multiplication in modulo n is possible by multiplying the 2 numbers, and the product be divided by the modulus n;
the remainder is the answer.
Example: (15 × 23) mod 11 = 4 since 15 x 23 = 345 / 11 = 31 remainder 4

Solving Congruence Equations

To solve congruence equations, it is necessary to try out natural numbers less than modulus. Once a solution is found, other
solutions can be obtained by adding the modulus to it.

Example: To solve 3x + 5 º 3 mod 4, x = 2 is a solution since 3(2) + 5 º 3 mod 4 is 11 º 3 mod 4, by adding 4

to 2 gives other solutions to this equation such as 6, 10, 14, …
However, not all congruence equations have a solution. There is no solution if no whole number x less than the modulus
would be a solution.

Additive and Multiplicative Inverses

To determine the additive inverse of a given modulo, find a whole number which, when added to the number, gives a sum
equal to the modulus. Consider only numbers less than the modulus.

Example: 3 is the additive inverse of 5 in mod 8 since 3 + 5 = 8 and (3+5) = 0 mod 8

To determine the multiplicative inverse, try out numbers less than the modulus giving a result equal to 1.

Example: The multiplicative inverse of 5 is 3 in mod 7 since 5 × 3 º 1 mod 7.

Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 16 Introduction to Group Theory
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Understand the concept of group.
2. Identify the properties of a group.
3. Distinguish different types of groups.

Introduction to Groups

An algebraic system is one in which elements use one or more operations to combine the elements. A good example is the
set of real numbers with the operations of additions and multiplication which is also regarded as a field. An algebraic
operation where only one operation is involved is called a group.

A group is an algebraic system that satisfies the following properties:

1. It is closed with respect to the operation.

2. The associative property is satisfied in operation.
3. It has an identity element.
4. Every element has an inverse.

Abelian group – the group which satisfies the commutative property.

Non-abelian group – one which does not satisfy the commutative property.
Permutation group – special kind of group which uses the permutation of objects.
Mathematics in the Modern World | Module 17 Applications of Modular Arithmetic
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Apply modular arithmetic in determining ISBN Check digit and UPC.
2. Determine a valid card number using modular arithmetic.
3. Encode messages using modular arithmetic.

ISBN and UPC

ISBN – International Standard Book Number. It is a 13-digit number created to help ensure the orders for books are
filled accurately and catalogued correctly. The first three digits are 978 or 979, followed by 9 digits into 3 groups of different
lengths. These identify the country or region, the publisher, and the title of the book. The 13th digit, which is the last digit, is
the check digit.

Formula for ISBN Check Digit

UPC – Universal Product Code. It is a 12-digit number that satisfies a modular equation similar to the ISBN. The last digit
is the check digit.

Formula for UPC Check Digit

Determining a Valid Credit Card Number

To determine whether a credit card number is valid, companies that digits are used tissue credit cards also use modular
arithmetic. The coding method is based on the Luhn Algorithm based on mod 10.

Normally, credit card numbers comprised 13 to 16 digits long. The first one to six digits is used to identify the card issuer.

To determine whether a credit card number is valid using the Luhn Algorithm, begin with the next-to-last digit reading from
right to left and double every other digit. Find the sum of the new list of digits; the final sum must be congruent to 0 mod 10.

Cryptology – it is the study of making and breaking secret codes.

Plaintext is a message before it is coded.
Ciphertext is a message after it has been coded.
Encryption is the conversion from plaintext to ciphertext.
Decrypt a message means converting it from ciphertext to plaintext.