EET B 301

EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM,
INSTRUCTION AND EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
COURSE OUTLINE
COURSE CODE: EET B 301
COURSE TITLE: EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
CONTACT HOURS: 45 HOURS
CREDIT HOURS: 3 HOURS
PREREQUISITES: NONE
Purpose of the course
To familiarize the student-teachers with the
concept of Educational technology, provide
them with a rationale for utilizing instructional
media in the classroom and also expose them
to the various ways and means of designing,
producing, selecting and evaluating media for
instructional purposes.
General Objectives of this course
module
1) Help the learner to develop an understanding of the relationship
between communication and learning.
2) Help the learner to develop an awareness of the range of media
available for teaching and learning so that they can make informed
selection of instructional media to suit their own instructional
situation.
3) Provide the learner with the rationale for utilizing instructional
media in the classroom.
4) Equip the learner with the skills necessary to design, develop,
produce, select, and use instructional media to suit their own
instructional situations.
5) Equip the learner with the skills needed to systematically integrate
instructional media into teaching and learning.
Expected Learning outcomes
By the end of the course the learner should be able to:
 Define the concept of Educational Technology and
explain its role in teaching and learning.
 Explain the relationship between communication,
teaching and learning.
 Identify and describe the range of instructional media
available for teaching and learning.
 Select and use appropriate and relevant instructional
media to suit the different instructional situations
during teaching and learning.
Design, develop, produce and integrate
different types of instructional media materials
to suit their own instructional situations.
Effectively plan instructional programmes in
their respective subjects using the skills and
techniques acquired from the course.
Manage, care for and maintain the various
media equipment and materials available in
their respective schools.
 Course content
Introduction to educational technology: Why
study Educational Technology; Educational
Technology Vs Instructional Technology;
challenges to Educational Technology in Kenya.
Communication process and learning:
Definition and introduction to the communication
process; communication and learning; classroom
communication models and their application to
teaching and learning; barriers to classroom
communication.
 Course Content Continued
Range of media for teaching and learning: role of
media in instruction; range of instructional media
available for teaching and learning (traditional and
emerging technologies; advantages and disadvantages
of using the various types of instructional media during
instruction; trends in the use of media and technologies
in teaching and learning. Systematic planning for the
use of media: concept of systems approach and its
application to teaching and learning; the application of
the systems approach to media selection and use; steps
to follow in systematic planning for the use of
instructional media (ASSURE Model).
 Course Content Continued
Selection and use of instructional media:
criteria for selecting various instructional media
resources for teaching and learning; media
selection process; media selection models.
Creating instructional media: The process for
designing and producing instructional media and
materials for teaching/learning. Utilising printed
and other materials during instruction. Media
integration into the instructional process.
Management of teaching/learning resources.
Care; maintenance and storage of media
equipment and materials.
Practical Work
Apart from the Educational Technology lectures, students
will be required to carry out a series of media related
practicals. These practicals will cover the following areas:
Chalk Board Work, Production of Charts/Flip Charts,
Picture Mounting (still Pictures), Sound Recording,
Video Recording , Construction Skill, Power Point
Presentation, and Use of Textual Materials. Practical
work will be carried out both individually and in small
groups not exceeding four members per group.
Practical work will depend on the COVID-19 situation
in the country since it has to be carried out in a face-
to-face setting.
If the COVID-19 situation in the country will
not allow for any face-to-face interaction
during the semester, you will be advised on
what practical assignments to carry out
individually and submit for marking. However,
should the COVID-19 situation in the country
improve and allow for face-to-face interaction,
you will be advised on the dates for individual
and group presentations based on subject
combinations.
Mode of delivery
On-line Platform, Lectures, classroom
discussions, small group discussions, practical
work, demonstrations, and library research.
Instructional materials and equipment
Power-point presentations, electronic- white
board, white board, Internet, Manila papers, flip
charts, Permanent markers, Overhead Projector,
Transparency markers and Transparencies, real
objects, chalkboard, handouts, Digital Camera,
Video clips, Audio materials.
Course Assessment
This course will be assessed through practical
work and a final examination to be taken at the
end of the semester. A minimum of five practical
assignments will be undertaken including
uploading of power point presentation
accompanied by video and audio clips.
Continuous assessment will carry 30% of the final
examination mark while the final examination
will carry 70%. This course should be passed at
40%.
Core reading materials (Text Books)
Lever-Duffy, J.; McDonald, J.B.; Mizell, A.P. (2015).
Teaching and learning with technology. 5th edition.
New York: Pearson Higher Education Publishers.
Newby, T.J.; Stepich, D.A.; Lehman, J.D.; Rusell, J.D.
& Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. (2011). Educational
Technology for Teaching and Learning. 4th Edition.
Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Smaldino, S.E.; Lowther, D.L.; & Russell, J.D. (2014).
Instructional Technology and Media for Learning. 11th
Revised Edition. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Recommended reference materials
Heinich, R.; Molenda, M.; Russel, J.; & Smaldino,
S.E. (2001). Instructional media and technologies for
learning. 7th edition. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Inc.
Patel, M.M.; & Mukwa, C. W. (1993). Design and
Use of Media in Education. Nairobi: Lantern
Publications.
Morrison, G. R.; Ross, S.M.; Kalman, H.K.; & Kemp,
J.E. (2011). Designing Effective Instruction. 6th
Edition. New Jersey: John Wiley & sons Inc.
 Introduction
This course is meant to familiarize the student-teacher
with the concept of Educational technology and to
provide them with a rationale for utilizing
instructional media in the classroom. The course will
also expose the student-teacher to the various ways
and means of designing, producing, selecting and
evaluating media for instructional purposes. This
knowledge should subsequently assist the student-
teacher when conducting lessons in their areas of
specialisation at the secondary school level in a
competent manner using the approaches and
techniques acquired from this course.
As we all know, effective teaching and learning
requires both the teacher and the learner to make use of
educational technology in solving instructional
problems. Hence instructional media need to be used in
every instructional setting. The student teacher needs to
understand what range of instructional media is
available for selection and use during instruction.
Similarly, learners need to interact with the media in
order to learn the content taught. The student teacher
needs to know how to select and use the media
effectively during instruction so that the planned
learning outcomes can be achieved successfully.
For the student-teacher to realise the above outcomes, they are expected
to cover the following units in this module:
Unit 1: Introduction to Educational Technology
Unit 2: Communication Process and Learning
Unit 3: Range of Media for Teaching and
Learning
Unit 4: Selection of Media for Teaching and
Learning
Unit 5: Creating your own Instructional Materials
Unit 6: Systematic Planning for the Use of Media
Unit 7: Utilizing Printed Materials during Instruction
Unit 8: Integrating Instructional Media into the
Instructional Process
Unit 9: Management of Teaching/Learning Resources.
As you use this module you are advised to
refer to the various resource materials included
among the core reading materials and also to
carry out the activities/tasks included in the
module.
UNIT 1: Introduction to Educational
Technology
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to:
1) Define the terms technology and educational Technology
2) Differentiate between educational Technology and other
related terms
3) Explain the concept of educational technology in the
context of teaching and learning
4) Explain why an education student needs to take a
course in educational technology
5) Explain the benefits of educational technology to
teaching and learning
6) Describe the challenges in the application of educational
technology in Kenya .
INTRODUCTION TO
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
 WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY?  This modification of the
 Technology refers to a natural environment may be
rational discipline designed characterized as human
to assure the mastery of man innovation. “Technology in
over physical nature, through its concrete, empirical
the application of meaning refers fundamentally
scientifically determined laws to systems of rationalized
(Simon, 1983, p. 173). control over large groups of
Technology is the men, events and machines by
modification of the natural small groups of technically
environment to satisfy skilled men operating
perceived human wants and through an organized
needs. hierarch” ( McDermott, 1981,
p. 142).

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 People loosely use the term “ technology” to
refer to manufactured objects such as
computers, telephones, etc. This means that
technology is the application of knowledge for
practical purpose. Technology is both a tool
and a process. As a process, technology
refers to construction uses and organisation of
knowledge for the achievement of practical
purposes in intellectual and social contexts .
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 Technology as a tool refers
to material construction
and operation of physical
systems based on
knowledge of design. For
example, designing a knowledge
curriculum or a lesson
plan. However, Technology
is often thought of in terms
of instruments, machines
and devices.
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 Technology Education is
the study of technology
which provides an
opportunity for students to
learn about processes and
related to
technology that are needed
to solve problems and
extend human potential.
Technology education is
concerned with the broad
spectrum of
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technology which  The Role of Technology in
encompasses but not Education
limited to areas such as:  If one agrees with the
meanings of technology just
design, making, problem
presented, it is clear that
solving, technological technology by definition is a
systems, resources and major component of all human
materials, controls, activities. Therefore, it is not a
inventions, and many question of “having
other human topics technology or not having
technology,” but what role it
dealing with human is allowed to play in human
innovations. activities.

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 Technology is everywhere
and the classroom is no
exception. Not only are
adults constantly connected,
but children are becoming
more in touch with
technology. It is almost
impossible to go anywhere
without seeing a piece of
technology: cell phones,
computers, or digital music
players such as iPods and
MP3 players.
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 Computers, video games, and
handheld digital players are
popular among children and,
although many see them as
toys, they can be wonderful
instructional tools, engaging
and exciting for learners of
all ages.
 There is great need for
methods that will make the
teacher effective, and
multiply his or her efforts and
competence.
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 Teaching is in fact the only
traditional craft in which we
have not yet fashioned the
tools that make an ordinary
person capable of superior
performance. There is need for
a technology of instruction that
can make an ordinary person
capable of superior
performance which means the
use of either printed or
electronic tools to distribute
that instruction (Heinich, 1970,
p.56).
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 The Carnegie Commission
concluded that “technology
should be the servant and not the
master of instruction. It should not
be adopted merely because it
exists, or because an institution
fears that it will be left behind the
parade of progress without it
(Carnegie Commission on Higher
Education, 1972, p. 11).
 There are a considerable number
of writings that discuss
technological inventions that
affect education. For example:
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 The alphabet provided the can produce dramatic
intellectual means for improvements in learning
expressing, recording and outcomes.
preserving the knowledge of  Another valuable role of
mankind. The invention of paper
technology is increasing
and the refinement of writing
teachers’ effectiveness in
instruments reinforced and made
organizing and presenting
more practical the process of
recording information with
lessons. For example,
alphabetical symbols. establishing in distance
education contexts “virtual
 Implemented within a larger
classrooms” mediated by
context of systemic reform,
emerging information
electronic technologies such as
technologies two-way audio and video .

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 A Virtual Classroom is an online classroom that
allows participants to communicate, view
presentations, interact with learning resources and
work in groups from wherever they are.
This can be achieved through asynchronous and
synchronous e-learning. Asynchronous e-learning is
where by learning can take place any time (flexible
learning) using e-mails, charts, discussion forums,
etc. Synchronous e-learning is where learning takes
place in real time using e-resources liKe audio/video
conferencing, charts, discussion forums, etc.
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 Hence Multi-media  Proficiency in using
presentations extend technology for such
teachers’ abilities to make contemporary tasks as
material more meaningful searching the Internet,
and engaging. For example, creating graphs and
Organization of lessons is illustrations, and
facilitated by teachers being communicating through
able to preload lesson multimedia presentations
elements (e.g., PowerPoint, has become an essential
video, images, letters, educational outcome, much
words, etc.) and outlines like being proficient in
directing lesson flow into reading and mathematics.
the computer.
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 Compared to conventional (non-  It is important for teachers to
technology-aided) instruction, employ technology in the
advantages of new technologies classroom to engage learners in
include: literacy instruction, promoting
reading and writing skills through
 (a) valuable immediate review
21st century literacy.
and feedback for students,
 :21st century literacy include a
 (b) immediate data on student
combination of the following
progress for teachers to examine literacy skills
and use as a basis for making
 Digital literacy: the ability to
instructional adaptations, and
communicate with an ever-
 (c) high engagement and expanding community to discuss
interactivity by students during issues, gather information, and
teacher-led instruction. seek help;

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 Global literacy: the  Visual literacy: the
capacity to read, interpret, ability to understand,
respond, and contextualize
messages from a global
produce, and
perspective communicate through
 Technology literacy: the visual images;
ability to use computers  Information literacy:
and other technology to the ability to find,
improve learning,
productivity, and evaluate, and
performance; synthesize
information.
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What is Educational Technology?
Educational Technology relies on a broad definition
of the word “technology”. The word technology can
refer to material objects of use to humanity such as
machines, hardware or utensils, but it can also include
broader themes such as systems, methods of
organization, and techniques.
From the following attempts at defining the term
educational technology, you might be able to see that
meaning of the term depends considerably on who
defines it. E.g.
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 For example: together with the tools and
methodologies
National Academy of developed to assist in
Engineering’s Instructional these applications”.
Technology Committee on  2. Cleary et al 1976 states
Education defines that Educational
Educational Technology as technology “is concerned
The “body of knowledge with the overall
resulting from the methodology and set of
application of the science techniques employed in
the application of
of teaching and learning to instructional principles”
the real world of the (Cleary et al., 1976).
classroom, ...
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 analysis and structuring of the
3)Educational technology subject matter to be
“involves the applications of learned;
systems, techniques, and
aids to improve the process  the selection and used of
of human learning... It is appropriate media for
characterised by four presenting the materials;
features in particular: and
 the definition of objectives  the use of appropriate
to be achieved by the methods of assessing
learner; student performance to
evaluate the effectiveness of
 the application of principles courses and materials
of learning to the
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4)Educational technology is  5) Ed Tech is the
“the complex, integrated “application of
process involving people, technological processes
procedures, ideas, devices and tools which can be
and organisation, for used to solve problems of
analysing problems, and instruction and learning”.
devising, implementing, Educational technology
evaluating, and managing utilises application tools to
solutions to those accomplish the overall goal
problems, involved in all of constructing and
aspects of human delivering optimal learning
learning” (AECT Task experiences.
Force, 1977, p. 164).
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6) The most recent definition of the field has
been published by the Association of
Educational Communications and Technology
(AECT) in 2008. AECT defines Educational
Technology as follows: Educational
technology is the study and ethical practice
of facilitating learning and improving
performance by creating, using, and
managing appropriate technological
processes and resources.
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7) For the purpose of this course,  Educational technology is
we will use a definition that had concerned with teaching and
earlier been provided by the learning with technology. It
Association for Educational focuses on the narrow
Communication and spectrum of technologies used
Technology (AECT:2005). in communication and
According to AECT, dissemination of information.
“educational technology is the
 In today’s classroom, we find a
theory and practice of design,
development, utilization,
wide range of technologies
management, and evaluation of such as computers, interactive
processes and resources for whiteboards, Internet, online
learning” (Lever-Duffy, J.; media, digital media, mobile
McDonald, J.B.; Mizell, A.P. devices , web based media, etc.
(2005).
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 Educational technology involves disciplined application of
knowledge for the purpose of improving learning, instruction and
/or performance. Educational Technology draws from multiple
disciplines, multiple activities, multiple people, multiple tools,
and multiple opportunities to facilitate meaningful change in
teaching and learning. For example, as a teacher you need to
prepare a lesson plan. To prepare that lesson plan requires that
you approach it systematically using the principles and theories
of design all associated with educational technology. Also for
you to deliver that lesson in class requires that you select and use
the most appropriate media resources and activities. To select the
most effective media resources and use them requires that you
apply educational technology.
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 Therefore, this field is relevant This helps us identify
to all of us who are engaged in alternatives, select the best
the business of education option, evaluate and adjust
either as practitioners or as needed. Through
teachers, curriculum designers,
research, we get to know
educational administrators,
what technology is
examiners or evaluators.
Through study/research, we available, when and why it
are able to refine what and should be used, and how
how the optimal solutions to effectively it should be
the educational or instructional adapted, integrated,
problems are determined, evaluated and adjusted.
selected, and implemented.

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By studying educational Alternatively, it helps
technology as a discipline
us to know what
we are able to refine what
and how the optimal technology is
solutions are determined, available, when and
selected, and why it should be
implemented. used, how it is
This helps us to identify the adapted, integrated,
alternatives, select the
best option, evaluate and evaluated and
readjust as needed. adjusted.
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 The term ‘Educational to the use of equipment let alone
Technology’ is difficult to electronic equipment.
define since the term has been Modern tools and techniques
evolving over a long time. are simply the latest
For example, when a developments in a field that
classroom teacher browses the some people believe is as old
Internet for new teaching as education itself (Roblyer,
materials, that teacher is using 2004).
some of the latest educational
The term educational
technology. What you must
realize is that educational
technology therefore has
technology is not new at all, several definitions that
and it is by no means limited might include any of the
following components:
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 All components of  Educational technology is
informational technology that therefore a conceptual
are used to deliver educational framework that helps us to deal
materials; with problems stemming from
the needs of an education or
 complex and integrated
training system to survive, grow,
processes involving people,
and develop the capacity to
procedures, ideas, devices and
adapt and manage change. This
organization for analyzing definition takes the broadest
problems, implementing, view possible and allows us to
evaluating and managing explore the full range of media
solutions in all aspects of that a teacher might use to
human learning; and enhance his/her instruction and
 use of technology to improve assist students to learn.
teaching and learning.
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 Educational Technology could be
defined in simple terms as the
efficient organisation of any
learning system, adapting or
adopting methods, processes, and
products to serve identified
educational goals. This would
involve:
 Systematic identification of the
goals of education, taking into
account nationwide needs (higher
scalability for instance), the
system capabilities, and the
learners’ needs and potential.
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 Recognition of the diversity of
learners’ needs, the contexts in
which learning will take place,
and the range of provisions
needed for them.
 Recognition of not only the
immediate needs of children
but also their future needs in
relation to the society for
which we are preparing them.
 Designing, providing for, and
enabling appropriate teaching-
learning systems that could
realise the identified goals.
43
 Developing a range of support  Appreciation of the role of ET
systems and training, creating as an agent of change in the
the enabling systemic classroom, influencing the
conditions/materials, reaching teacher and the teaching-
these to the school system, and learning process, and its role in
training teachers and students to systemic issues like reach,
use them. equity, and quality. (This
 Research into existing and new appreciation should not be
techniques, strategies and limited to educators alone, but
technologies for solving should extend to planners and
problems of education, enabling administrators as well, since
judicious and appropriate systems both at micro and
application of technology. macro levels will be necessary
to meet the current challenges
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 The term “Educational
Technology” therefore
refers to a conceptual
framework that helps us
to deal with problems
stemming from the needs
of an education or training
system to survive, grow,
and develop the capacity
to adapt and manage
change.
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This definition takes
the broadest view
possible and allows us
to explore the full
range of media that a
teacher might use to
enhance his/her
instruction and assist
students to learn.
45
Existing Position and Latest Concept of
Educational Technology
 Since the term has remained  For those working in audio-
vague for several decades, it visual aids, Ed.Tech. is
has been narrowly confined to the use of audio-
conceived by different visual aids, while mass
individuals depend on where media experts emphasize the
one works or stands within importance of hardware,
the educational spectrum. soft ware and
This has resulted in the communication technology.
formation of varying For experts in individualized
concepts of educational instruction, the focus is on
technology. programming self materials
and computer-aided learning
materials.
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 Those focusing on  Among the problems
management of education include:
consider the application of
systems approach to teaching  Educational planning and
and learning. Hence organisation
educational technology exists  The psychology of
as a fragmented discipline. learning
Currently, educational
technology focuses on the
 Curriculum development
application of systems and course design
approach to the study of the  Production of
multidimensional problems teaching/learning
of education. materials,
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 Audio-visual method of
presentation and
dissemination of
information, storage and
retrieval.
 Innovations
 evaluation
 Cost-effectiveness of
media in education.

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Educational Technology and other
related Terms
Educational Technology and Teaching
Technology
Teaching technology concerns itself with the
systematization of the process of teaching and provides
the necessary theory and practice for teachers to bring
improvement in the task of teaching. The concept of
educational technology is much wider than the concept of
teaching technology since it includes the means and
materials concerning individualized instructions and self-
learning including computer-assisted learning.

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 Technology of education and Technology in Education
The term technology in education refers to the use of
technological advancement such as various equipment,
materials and machines for educational purposes. It involves
the increasingly complex range of audio-visual-equipment,
hardware and electronic devices like projectors, radio, TV, tape
recorders, computer-aided instruction for individual and group
learning.
 Technology of education signifies a system or technological
approach to the problems of education. The term technology of
education cannot limit itself to the role of service as confined
in the case of technology in education.
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Instructional Technology
The term educational
technology is often associated
with another term
“instructional technology” and
often people use the two terms
interchangeably.
Educational technology and
instructional technology
sometimes can be used one for
another (Yalın, 2004). However;
there are differences between
educational technology and
instructional technology.
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According to Heinich, Molenda,
Rusell, & Smaldino (1996, p.
411), Instructional
Technology refers to “a
complex integrated process
involving people, procedures,
ideas, devices, and
organization, for analyzing
problems and devising,
implementing, evaluating, and
managing solutions to those
problems in situations in
which learning is purposive
and controlled”.
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 However, in popular usage,
instructional technology
refers to the use of
communications media–
hardware and software to
help people learn. At
different times different
media have been central to
educators’ conception of
instructional technology.
The term first came into
widespread use in the early
1960s;
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At that time the focus
was on audiovisual
media such as radio,
television, film, slides,
filmstrips, and audio
recordings. But by the
middle of the 1980s, the
focus had shifted
dramatically to
computers.
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 Instructional technology
can therefore be viewed as
the art and science of
designing, producing, and
using with economy and
 According to Armsey &
elegance solutions to
instructional problems.
These solutions may combine
verbal or audiovisual media
and may be experienced with
or without human mediation
and may take the form of
lessons,
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courses, or whole systems that
facilitate learning
efficiently, effectively, and
humanely.
Dahl,
(1973:vii),instructional
technology is made up of
“the ‘things of learning’,
the devices and the
materials which are used in
the process of learning and
teaching”.
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 The Commission on  2) as “a systematic way of
Instructional Technology designing, carrying out, and
defines Instructional evaluating the total process of
learning and teaching in terms
Technology (IT) in two
of specific objectives, based on
ways: research in human learning and
 1) as “the media born of communications, and
communications revolution employing a combination of
which can be used for human resources to bring
about more effective
instructional purposes
instruction” (Commission on
alongside the teacher, Instructional Technology,
textbooks, and the 1970, p.19).
chalkboard” and
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Difference between Educational Technology
and Instructional Technology
 Educational technology is a
process which makes systematic
analysis of problems and
develops suitable designs by the
help of materials, technical,
knowledge and manpower to
find solutions for these
problems. On the other hand,
Instructional technology is
related to technology, as
teaching is a sub- branch of
education and it consists of
arranging the disciplines
according to specific
characteristic, for example;
science teaching technology.
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 In other words educational
technology emphasizes the
discipline of learning-teaching
process, while on the other hand;
instructional technology expresses
guidance activity for any subject
during teaching (Alkan, 1998). The
difference between educational
technology and instructional
technology has to do the scope of
the fields. Educational technology
embraces all areas of technology in
any field of education while
Instructional technology covers a
much narrower field dealing with
all types of teaching and learning.
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Difference between Technology of Education
and Technology in Education
Technology of education is also Technology in education
referred to as educational refers to but not limited to
technology and describes the the use of hardware and
incorporation of IT into the
realms of classrooms.
software , including Internet
Technology in education is not and other related activities
limited to making use of for purposes of increasing
technology to make learning human capabilities.
and imparting of education  NB: While the use of
easier in all ways but also a field
technology in education is
of study for those who are
involved with developing welcome, it is the teachers
technological tools for who use technology and
educational purposes. technology can never
replace the teachers.
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Understanding Educational
Technology as a discipline
 Generally, Ed Tech (ET) as a
term is misunderstood.
 The reason why the term ET is
misunderstood is on account of
the changing nature of ET’s
second key component namely
technology. The basic tenet of
ET, namely using all available
resources (human and non-
human) in a systematic manner
to find viable solutions to
educational problems does not
change.
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 However, as technologies
change and newer ones are
brought into service in
education, the
configurations, structures,
and applications of ET will
also change. This dynamic
and ever-evolving nature
of the discipline needs to
be understood.
57
 There is also a prevalent
belief that modern
technologies are better than
older ones. Certainly, they
offer many exciting
possibilities, but both old and
new serve different purposes
of teaching and learning, and
are probably equally relevant
in different given contexts.
Hence we should not ignore
the traditional technologies
just because of the new ones.
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 We should use both as long
as they help us achieve our
instructional goals and
learning objectives. No
technology is superior to
the other since they have
different and varying
strengths and assist us to
achieve varying
instructional objectives.
58
 The key phrases in Ed Tech In applying the
are appropriate discipline of Ed Tech to
technologies. Technology
the field of education, it
that is, appropriate to the
task at hand for meeting is imperative that the
specific educational media choice must
objectives, and the relate to instructional
organization of all available design as well as to
resources into a workable what is available and
system, which is checked
eminently usable.
again and again to ensure
that it is appropriate and
changing it where it is not
9/1/2020 59
working.
 The key phrases in Ed Tech
are appropriate technologies.
Technology that is,
appropriate to the task at
hand for meeting specific
educational objectives, and
the organization of all
available resources into a
workable system, which is
checked again and again to
ensure that it is appropriate
and changing it where it is
not working.
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In applying the
discipline of Ed Tech to
the field of education, it
is imperative that the
media choice must
relate to instructional
design as well as to
what is available and
eminently usable.
60
Why study educational Technology?
 As a teacher you are basically an instructor. You plan and
arrange the instructional environment to facilitate learning.
Therefore, you need to apply educational and instructional
technology in solving any educational or instructional
problems.
 You need to be able to analyse the educational problem,
analyse the context, identify the problem, identify possible
solutions, select the most viable option, design possible
interventions, develop the selected solution options, implement
and evaluate. Hence you need to be equipped with the
knowledge on instructional design, follow the required
procedure and plan an appropriate intervention.
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 As a teacher today, you must
be prepared to provide
technology-supported learning
opportunities for your students.
You should be able to use
educational technology
effectively in your classrooms
to facilitate learning. You
cannot do this unless as a
teacher you know what
technology is available for
teaching and learning and how
it fits into your own
instructional situation.
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 As you might be aware by
now, for learning to take place,
instruction may be necessary.
Instruction refers to the
arrangement of information
and environment to facilitate
learning. By environment, we
do not just mean where
instruction takes place but also
the methods, media and
equipment that are used or
needed to guide the learner’s
study.
62
 Information and  As the expected learning
environment will change outcomes change, you may need
depending on the to change the way you arrange
the instructional environment.
instructional goal. You need to adapt your
 Educational technologies instruction to changing times
are the tools that a teacher and environments, which
might need to use in order to necessitates that you have a
create an effective thorough working knowledge of
the many kinds of educational
instructional event.
technologies available that
 The emphasis should be on might assist you in your
what teachers and learners teaching and to enhance
can do to positively impact learning simultaneously.
learning.
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 The critical question that a delivery be increased
teacher should ask always is through the use of
“in what ways can educational technology?
educational technology A final question to be
effectively impact how asked is “how can the
learners address a
teacher improve on
learning task?”. Or How
can educational
learner attention and
technology improve the motivation during
efficiency of student instruction through the
learning or in what ways use of technology?
can teacher efficiency
during the lesson
9/1/2020 64
Benefits of Educational Technology
Makes it easier to access Subjects are made easier to
scarce materials. learn through the use of
educational software.
Instructors can post
Differentiated instruction-
materials on course web
provides the means to focus
sites making it possible on active student
for learners to access the participation and to present
materials at a time and differentiated questioning
location they prefer. strategies. Broadens
individualized instruction
Wider participation-
and promotes the dev of
materials are accessible personalized learning plans.
to a wider audience.
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 The Internet has unlocked
a world of opportunities
for students. Students of all
ages, races, status, cultural
backgrounds can connect,
share and learn on a global
scale.
New technologies have
made it possible to
accommodate different
learning styles.
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Use of multi-media
presentations have changed
the way teachers organize
instruction and how students
learn.
Promotes students’
motivation to learn. Offers
stimulus variation during
instruction and helps to
increase the amount of time
that learners spend on
learning tasks.
66
Challenges to educational
Technology in Kenya
 Many exciting applications Undertaking “systemic reform”
of information technology in (sustained, large-scale,
schools validate that new simultaneous innovation in
curriculum; pedagogy;
technology-based models of assessment; professional
teaching and learning have development; administration;
the power to dramatically incentives; and partnerships for
improve educational learning among schools,
outcomes. However, this businesses, homes, and
will not be easily achieved community settings) requires
and there are several policies and practices different
than fostering pilot projects for
challenges to be overcome. small-scale educational
 For example: improvement.
9/1/2020 67
Systemic reform involves  For example, school
moving from utilizing administration should provide
leadership by supporting teachers
special, external resources to
to acquire the new technology in
reconfiguring existing their respective schools.
budgets in order to free up
 Similarly, the MOE should be on
money for innovation. the front-line in training teachers
Without undercutting their for the use of new and emerging
power, change strategies technologies. This however, does
effective when pioneered by not seem to be happening.
leaders in educational  Resistance from teachers. Many
innovation must be modified teachers are resistance to change
to be implemented by typical and not willing to be re-trained for
the use of new technologies.
educators.
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 Although children are Along with being unaware of
exploring technology at a rapid students’ technological skills,
rate, teachers and parents often some teachers are hesitant to
do not recognize the incorporate technology
importance of the skills because they have not been
children develop through trained or exposed to particular
independent use of digital technologies. New
media. If teachers are unaware technologies are coming to the
of the potential technical skills market and invading
students bring to the classrooms yet teachers lack
classroom, these skills cannot the know-how to use them and
be built upon or used to are hesitant to incorporate
effectively promote learning in them into teaching and
other areas. learning.
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What are the basic challenges to the application
of educational Technology in Kenya?
 Poor/inadequate infrastructures  Costs involved in the
such as electricity for internet acquisition of new
connectivity, transmission, technologies
inadequate classroom space, etc,
 Misconceptions about the role
 Lack of funds for the purchase
of technology in education.
and maintenance of required
equipment  Unequal access to technology
 Poorly trained teachers who lack  Challenges associated with
the requisite skills new technologies such as
 Inadequate support structures in security, viruses, hacking, new
schools forms of plagiarism, privacy,
 Resistance to change among copyright, illegal downloading,
teachers and school administration piracy, etc.
 Phobia for technology 
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 Let us examine some of these
challenges in more details.
It is worth noting that the cost of
technology, its rapid evolution,
and the special knowledge and
skills required of its users pose
substantial barriers to effective
utilization.
There are also misconceptions
about the role of technology in
education. Multimedia-capable,
Internet-connected computers are
seen by many as magical devices,
“silver bullets” to solve the
problems of schools
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Teachers and administrators
who use new media are
assumed to be automatically
more effective than those who
do not. Classroom computers
are envisioned as a technology
comparable to fire: just by
sitting near these devices,
students get a benefit from
them, as knowledge and skills
radiate from the monitors into
their minds.
71
 However, unless other
simultaneous innovations in
pedagogy, curriculum,
assessment, and school
organization are coupled to
the usage of instructional
technology, the time and
effort expended on
implementing these devices
produces few improvements
in educational outcomes.
Thirdly, the continuing costs of
maintaining and upgrading a
massive infusion of school-
based technology can be
prohibitive. High performance
computing and
communications requires high
tech skills to keep operational
and yet the technology
becomes obsolete in five to
seven years as information
technology continues its rapid
advance.

9/1/2020 72
 However, taxpayers now see
computers as similar to
blackboards: buy them once,
and they are inexpensively in
place for the lifetime of the
school. School boards then
begin to resist any additional
costs on maintenance for the
technology already acquired
by the school.
Technology adoption is a
preserve for the few pioneers.
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However, to achieve large-scale
shifts in standard educational
practices, many more teachers must
alter their pedagogical approaches;
and schools’ management,
institutional structure, and
relationship to the community must
change in fundamental ways.
For example, school and
community partnerships should be
promoted in order to support the
funding of technology, between
schools partnerships should also be
promoted so that neighbouring
schools are able to share resources.
73
 Challenge of inequality in
society. No matter how
much access to technology
the students have in
schools, learners differ
greatly in the amount and
sophistication of
information devices in their
homes and communities.
 Certainly, new media are
dropping in price but the
rich will always have more
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information devices of greater
power than the poor,
skewing the advantages of
distributed learning and
increasing inequality? The
challenge for the
educational policy is to
minimize the period during
which the gap between
haves and have-nots widens
by promoting increased
equity.
74
 This is likely to widen the
digital divide. Digital divide
refers to the gap between
those who have access to
digital technologies and
those who do not. In today’s
society, there is a significant
barrier to implementing
technology into the
curriculum due to socio-
economic status of a school
and its students.
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There is also a challenge
caused by generational
digital divide. This refers to
a situation where one group
(youth) has more access and
greater ability to use new
technologies than others
(adults). This is a barrier
since it challenges teachers
who need to keep up with
the ever-changing
technology in the classroom.
75
How can schools promote equity?
Address the issue of access to
educational technologies (tools
and resources). Need to ensure
that all learners have access to
technology.
Type of use: Different learners
use technology differently and
the types of learning
opportunities availed to them
differ. It possible for schools to
limit how different types of
students use technology
available in the school.
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There is need to allow all
students to explore their full
potential in the use of
technology without
discrimination.
Treat all students as capable
and worth of equal access to
educational opportunities.
Special training of teachers
for effective integration of
technology in the classroom.
76
What does the concept of Educational
Technology mean to us as teachers?
 Technology is part of our world  They help in solving
and it is there to stay. instructional problems.
 Technology should be made part  We need to decide on when
of our classrooms best to use the technology
 We need to decide on how to use during instruction and for what
technology to make teaching and purpose.
learning more effective
 We should not be
 Educational technology does not
mean only using computers technophobic. We need to
during instruction. embrace technology and use it
 Whatever other resources that you to enhance teaching and
use to enhance learning will fit in learning.
as part of educational technology.

9/1/2020 77
 An integral part in most This process of planning for
educational settings is the instruction by selecting
teacher. The teacher serves as an appropriate media,
instructional expert. Instruction
is the deliberate arrangement of
organizing the learning
learning conditions and experiences to provide the
environment to promote the required stimuli for
attainment of some intended learning during instruction
goal. The teacher has to plan the is an aspect of educational
environment, select appropriate technology. It is part of the
materials, and organize the process of using technology
learning experiences required to
facilitate learning.
to solve educational
problems.

9/1/2020 78
Self Assessment Activities
1) Define the following terms:
i) Educational Technology (ii) Instructional Technology
iii) Virtual Classroom iv) Digital Literacy v) Information
Literacy
2) Differentiate between Educational Technology and Teaching
Technology.
3) Explain why a course on Educational Technology is relevant to
you as a classroom teacher.
4) In your own words explain what the concept of Educational
Technology means to you as a teacher .
5) Identify the challenges facing the application of Educational
Technology in Kenya.
UNIT 2: COMMUNICATION
PROCESS AND LEARNING
Unit Objectives:
By the end of this unit the learner should be able to:
1) Define the term communication
2) Describe the Communication process
3) Describe at least three communication models
4) Evaluate the available classroom communication models
5) Explain how to use communication in the classroom
6) Explain the various barriers to classroom communication
7) Describe the various communication skills required for
effective classroom communication.
Communication Process and
Learning
 We defined instruction as the
arrangement of information and
environment to facilitate learning.
That transfer of information from
a source to a destination is called
communication. Since new
learning usually depends on
taking in new information,
effective instruction cannot take
place unless communication takes
place. We need to understand the
communication process so that we
can use instructional technology
effectively during instruction.
 The word ‘communication’ has its
origin from a Latin word,
“communis” which means,
“make common”. This could be
stretched to mean, ‘create a
common ground for
understanding’ or share with
others an idea, concept, or
information. Communication
could also be defined as an
attempt to persuade people or
influence them with intent.
Communication is the process
through which information is
passed from one person to
another.
 Communication is the art and
process of creating and sharing
ideas. You have ideas and
information to share with your
pupils. You need to make
deliberate efforts to influence the
pupils to see the ideas and
information the same way you do.
This means that you have to
follow a process that will help you
to share the ideas and the
information with your pupils or
learners. That process is
described as communication.
 Communication does not occur
unless the person receiving the
message interprets it as intended.
This means that both the source
and the receiver must share a
common understanding of the
message when communication
takes place. Communication is
very important in human beings.
We spend 70% of the time we are
awake participating in some form
of communication. Of that time,
9% is spent writing, 16%
reading, 30% talking and 42-
57% listening.
 Communication is a process which consists of several elements.
When we say it is a process, we mean that it has neither a beginning
nor an end and is always on-going. These elements of
communication include:
 Source: encodes the message
 Message: Content of communication
 Channel: the medium of communication
 Receiver: Decodes the message
 Environment: The context of communication
 Feedback: Reaction/response to the communication message.
 Noise: Anything that interferes with message reception.
 The source encodes the message. To encode the
message and convey it as intended to your
audience, the source must have the following
characteristics:
 Possess the necessary communication skills such
as speaking, reading, writing, and listening.
 Have a positive attitude towards yourself (self-
confidence), the receiver of the message and
towards the subject matter.
 Have good knowledge of the target
audience/learners as well as the subject matter to
be communicated.
 You need to know the
characteristics of the learners such
as their age, composition (either
homogenous or heterogeneous
group), ability level, specific entry
competencies, size (how many),
their experience and interests or
their social-cultural background.
 The receiver is the person who
decodes/interprets the message. As
you encode the message, make sure
that you reach out to your target
audience since whatever message
you encode must be interpreted by
the target audience as intended.
 Make sure that your message is
rooted in their experiences.
Remember that meanings are
in people not in words. Take
the case of a student in form
one, what kind of experiences
do they have? Remember that
you will be teaching learners
drawn from various socio-
cultural backgrounds and their
experiences will be very
different. Some of them are
coming from an urban setting
while others are drawn from a
rural setting.
 The channel or the medium of
communication is the means
used to encode the message. The
medium could be spoken word, a
picture, a chart, a machine, music
or a combination of any of these
media. The channel that you
chose to convey your message
affects how the message is
received and interpreted by the
audience or the receiver. It is said
that ‘the medium is the message’
because the channel that you
select determines how effectively
the audience receives the
message.
 Always select the most appropriate
channel by considering the
following factors:
 What are the characteristics of your
target audience? E.g. age, entry
competencies, academic level, how
many they are; special or unique
characteristics.
 What is the nature of your message
or subject matter?
 What is your communication
goal/objective or what do you want
to achieve?
 What channels of communication
are available for you to choose
from?
 Feedback refers to  Feedback could also be
knowledge of results based positive or negative. As a
on the receiver’s response teacher, always be aware of
to the message sent. non-verbal feedback. As the
old adage goes; “one cannot
Whenever you
not communicate”. This
communicate, you need to means that communication
confirm whether the is always on going, it is also
message has been received irreversible, irretrievable,
as you intended. and interdependent. What I
 Feedback could be in say, or not say, or what I do,
affects how you respond and
form of words, what you say or do affects
expressions, gestures, or me but neither of us
other actions (verbal and determines the behaviour of
non-verbal). the other.
The environment refers to the context of
communication or where communication
takes place. This could be the classroom, the
laboratory, in the workshop, or in the open
field. So, make sure that you select
media/medium that fits the situation. An
environment also includes relationships
between the parties involved.
 An additional element in a  The goals of communication
communication process is are:
noise. Noise is any  To establish rapport between
the speaker and the listener so
disturbance that interferes with that they share the message
or distorts the transmission of and interpret it in the same
the message. Noise could way. “Share the frames of
have a serious impact on the reference”.
success or failure of  To break down psychological
barriers between the parties
communication. Noise clouds involved in the communication
and masks information encounter .
transmission to varying  To clarify issues and interests.
degrees and must be  To move from positional
recognized as an obstacle to bargaining to interest-based
be overcome (Kemp & bargaining.
Dayton, 1985).
Communication Models
 The word model can be
defined as a mental picture
that helps us to understand
something we cannot see or
experience directly (Dorin,
Demmin, & Gabel, 1990).
Models are useful in helping
us to create a mental
picture of whatever we are
talking about. A model is
any simplification, substitute
or stand-in for what you are
actually studying or trying to
predict.
 Most communication models
present communication as a
linear process where the roles
of sender and receiver are
clearly distinguished. However,
it is misleading to think of
communication as starting
somewhere and ending
somewhere. Communication
is a process which has neither
a beginning nor an end. It is
always on-going. This is well
captured in the communication
model proposed by Osgood
and Schramm referred to as
“circular model”.
Osgood and Schramm/circular
model”.
This model describes communication as a dynamic process that
involves a source, message and receiver. According to them, it is
misleading to think of communication process as starting
somewhere and ending somewhere. This model emphasis the
circular nature of communication where the roles of the source
(Speaker) and the receiver (decoder) are constantly changing,
shifting back and forth.
Osgood and Schramm’s model visualizes communication as a
process of sharing experiences and shaping and re-shaping of
experience. This means that once the source encodes, the receiver
can decode only in terms of their own experience. There is an
interactive relationship between the source and receiver and their
roles keep shifting back and forth. i.e. at one moment you are the
source, and next moment you are the receiver.
 Another model is Berlo’s
SMCR Model (Source,
Message, Channel, and
Receiver model).
 According to this model,
source and receiver are
influenced by the following
factors: communication
skills, attitudes towards the
source, receiver or
message, knowledge of the
subject
matter/source/receiver;
social systems and culture.
 This model also has some
weakness. For example:
• No provision for feedback / one
do not know about the effect of
the communication. According
to this model, communication
is a static phenomenon with no
provision for feedback.
• Does not mention any barriers
to communication
• No room for noise
• Complex model
• It is a linear model of
communication
 Needs people to be on
same level for
communication to occur
but not true in real life
 Main drawback of the
model is that the model
omits the usage of sixth
sense as a channel which
is actually a gift to the
human beings (thinking,
understanding, analyzing
etc).
Berlo’s SMCR Model
Berlo’s SMCR Model

Source Message Channel Receiver

Source Message Channel Receiver

Communication Skills Code Sight/Seeing Communication Skills
Attitudes Content Hearing Attitudes
Knowledge Elements Touch Knowledge
Cultural Context Structure Smell Socio-Cultural Context
Social Systems Treatment Taste Social Systems
 Another model is the Lasswell’s model which
introduced some of the key elements in
communication and which have survived up to
today namely:
• Who?- source ;
• Says what?- message/content;
• In which channel? Channel;
• To whom? Receiver;
• With what effect? feedback
Classroom Communication
Models
 There are three models  Action Model
 Represents the simplest form of
that are used to classroom communication.
describe the types of Communication is viewed as a
discrete event that is initiated by
classroom the source and in our case the
communication that teacher, and terminated at the
receiver who in our case is the
take place during learner. This model views
instruction. These communication as merely the
sending and receiving of
models include; action messages. This model does not
model, interaction concern itself with how or why
we communicate and what
model and happens after the message has
transactional model. been sent.
 The model also assumes an
active speaker but a passive
receiver with no provision for
feedback. In the action model,
the speaker talks to and at the
receiver rather than with the
receiver. Communication
according to the action model is
sender oriented without any
regard for the receiver of the
message since the receiver is
expected to comply with the
message. It ignores even the
non-verbally expressed modes
of communication such as
gestures, facial expressions, eye
contact, etc.
 Interaction Model
 This model is associated with
face-to-face communication.
Usually the exchange in
communication is completed
when the receiver indicates to
the source that the message
has been received and
understood. For example,
when a teacher gives an
assignment in class and
students indicate to the
teacher that they have
understood the task to be
done.
 The main characteristics of the  Both action and interaction
interaction model of models of classroom
communication are:
communication treat
• the receiver merely complies; communication in the classroom
• it assumes the sender’s position as a “static” event where the
to be correct and the receiver is
therefore required to understand
source speaks, the message
the message since acceptance travels to an audience, the
of the message is implied; audience listens, and perhaps
• the communication process is reacts accordingly. The source
coercive as there is no provision then reacts to the reaction.
for mutual influence and However, treating classroom
exchange; communication this way is an
• Communication is source inadequate description of the
oriented. dynamics of the classroom
communication.
 Why do we say this?
• Communication should be a
reciprocal process with the
source and the receiver
initiating the message,
• Classroom communication
should not be coercive as the
source should pay attention to
feedback from the audience,
• There should be provision for
mutual influence and
exchange in the
communication encounter,
• In a classroom, a lot of
feedback and feed forward is
generated between the teacher
and students.
 Transactional Model
 This is a reciprocal process in
which each participant in a
communication encounter
initiate messages and attempts
to understand the other.
Therefore, feedback is needed
from both the source and the
receiver.
 Characteristics of
transactional
communication:
• It is open-ended;
• Message can be initiated by
any of the participants in the
communication process;
• Roles of the source and receiver  When human beings
shift rapidly back and forth as communicate using the
communication takes place; transactional model of
• Information travels in all communication, each one of
directions; them defines themselves in
• Participants engage in active
relation to the other person
listening;
involved in the communication
encounter. Therefore, your
• The receiver tries to capture both tone of voice, lack of eye
the information and the feelings; contact, movement, posture,
• Both make efforts to read the non- can all affect the other person
verbal communication signal. and influence their attitude
 For effective classroom towards you. This in turn
communication, the transactional affects how the communication
model of communication should encounter proceeds.
be applied.
How do we use
Communication?
Remember that communication can be either verbal or non-
verbal.
Effective Uses of Verbal Communication.
People use oral communication to empathize, cooperate,
rebuke, request, inform, persuade, and attack. Speech,
especially symbolic speech, is one of our most uniquely
human attributes.
Words that are not part of a shared vocabulary between
speaker and listener will either not be understood at all or
taken to mean something that they don’t. Know who you are
speaking to and adjust your language accordingly. If you
yourself do not know the right word for something, look it up.
 An effective oral communicator will constantly attend
to the reactions of his/her listeners. The body
language and facial expressions of listeners is
communicating with the speaker in ways that let the
speaker know if the message is getting through.
 When possible, simply stop talking and check in by
asking listeners if they understand or if they could tell
you what they think you just said. Active observation
and active listening are key aspects of effective verbal
communication.
Non-Verbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is usually understood as
the process of communication through sending and
receiving wordless (mostly visual) cues between
people. Messages can be communicated through
gestures and touch, by body language or posture, by
facial expresssion and eye contact. Nonverbal
messages could also be communicated through
material; meaning, objects or artifacts (such as
clothing, hairstyles or architecture).
non-verbal communication helps people to:
Reinforce or modify what is said in words. ...
Convey information about their emotional
state. ...
Define or reinforce the relationship between
people. ...
Provide feedback to the other person…
Regulate the flow of communication.
How do we Use communication?
 We use communication to develop
self-awareness. Communication
gives us an insight into ourselves
and into others. We are able to
put ourselves into the shoes of the
other person as we communicate
with them (empathise with
others).
 We are able to understand and be
aware of the potential sources of
barriers to communication and
constantly counteract these
tendencies. We make
conscientious effort to ensure
there is minimal loss of meaning
in our conversation.
 Through communication contacts,
human beings basic physical and
social needs are met.
 For influence and persuasion.
Whenever we communicate, we
try to influence with intent. In
most communication encounters,
we try to influence others by
persuading them to think as we
do, like what we like or to do
whatever we do.
 The various communication
models that we have identified
help us to understand that
communication is a complex
process in which things can go
 Communication helps us to • We use communication
structure what we share so
to share information,
that we achieve the goal of
communication. ideas and thoughts.
 We can also use the
communication models to
teach learners the ways in
which they can perfect
different skills at different
points in the communication
process to become more
effective communicators.
Barriers to Classroom
Communication
 There are three types of
variables that might interfere
with the communication of
ideas namely; environmental
factors, psychological factors,
and personal filters. These
are referred to as
“communication barriers or
noise”.
 Noise is any disturbance that
interferes with or distorts the
transmission of the message.
Noise could have a serious
impact on the success or
failure of communication.
1)Environmental barriers
are those barriers within
the environment that
cause a learner to lose
focus and disengage from
active participation in the
communication process.
Such barriers could
include; loud noise from
outside the classroom,
excessive movement,
poor lighting, or poor
seating arrangement.
This could also be caused by
poor physical reception. Clear
understanding of the message
depends on clear, unhampered
and undistorted reception of the
message. For example, written
words or drawings must be large
enough for all students in class
to see and read from every
corner in the classroom.
2)Psychological barriers are
the unique individual
psychological differences that
define and affect the reception
of the communication message.
For example, an individual
emotional state at the time the
message is transmitted.
3)Personal filters also
affect message reception.
Personal filters include;
personal values, social
belief system, religious
beliefs, dissimilar
background, etc. If one for
example holds a belief that
is directly opposed to the
content of the message,
then the information might
be distorted to be consistent
with the belief or rejected
because it is in conflict with
the belief.
Other personal filters • Receiver distortion
include: (selective hearing,
• Defensiveness ignoring non-verbal
• Distorted perception cues
• Misleading of • Assumptions about
feedback such as others (assuming that
body language, tone others see a situation
or other non-verbal as you do.
communication cues • Self-fulfilling
• Unreliable message assumptions
Other barriers to communication
 Poor Listening Skills. Poor • Incorrect reading of Non-
listening skills top the list when it Verbal Signals. One recent
comes to barriers to
study showed that only 7% of
communication. Poor listening
skills can result from: * Lack of our communicating is tied to
involvement with the other what we actually say! A full
person or the topic at hand: you 55% of communication
just don't care enough to listen. happens through non-verbal
*Distractions in the environment signals, and another 38% is
such as excessive noise or
activity.
based on tonality. So if your
non-verbal signals are
* Disagreement with the speaker,
resulting in mentally "shutting contradicting what your
off" the other person. mouth is saying, people are
*Passive listening rather than active going to remember what you
involvement with the speaker. didn't say.
• Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver. A
breakdown in communication
may result when a message is not
adapted to its receiver.
Recognizing the receiver’s needs,
status, knowledge of the subject,
and language skills assists the
sender in preparing a successful
message. If a customer is angry,
for example, an effective
response may be just to listen to
the person vent for awhile.
 Lack of Basic Communication
Skills.
The receiver is less likely to
understand the message if the
sender has trouble choosing the
precise words needed and
arranging those words in a
grammatically-correct sentence.
 Insufficient Knowledge of the
Subject. If the sender lacks
specific information about
something, the receiver will likely
receive an unclear or mixed
message. Have you shopped for
an item such as a computer, and
experienced how some
salespeople can explain
complicated terms and ideas in a
simple way? Others cannot.
 Information Overload. If you
receive a message with too much
information, you may tend to put
up a barrier because the amount
of information is coming so fast
that you may have difficulty
comfortably interpreting that
information. When teaching
young children, consider how
much content to share with them
and for how long. Consider their
span of concentration.
 Channel Barriers. If the sender
chooses an inappropriate channel
of communication,
Communication may
cease. Detailed instructions
presented over the
telephone, for example,
may be frustrating for both
communicators. If you are
teaching the children about
different types of farm
animals, it would be better
to have visuals for each of
the animals rather than
talking about them verbally.
How can you overcome some of these
barriers in your communication?
 Engage in active listening
 Use familiar words/language
 Provide positive feedback regularly
 Use appropriate channels of communication
 Avoid information overload
 Ensure that you have adequate knowledge of the subject
matter that you want to communicate.
 Never make assumptions but ask clarifying questions to
be sure of what you hear or read.
 Etc.
Communication Skills
 There are four basic  Listening Skill
communication skills namely:  Listening is a key component
 Listening, Speaking, to the teaching-learning
Reading and Writing process. We need to promote
All four of these basic skills can active listening in students and
be learned and improved. First, in ourselves. We spend 70% of
you must want to improve your the time we are awake
communication skills. Next, participating in some form of
you must understand them, communication. Of that time,
and recognize their importance 9% is spent writing, 16%
in the communication process. reading, 30% talking and 42-
Then, you need to learn some 57% listening. In a
new skills. Finally, you must classroom, listening is the
practice good skills to become main channel of
a better and more effective communication during
communicator. instruction.
 The amount of time that  Benefits of Active Listening
learners spend listening A. To the speaker: 1. validates
ranges from 53-90% of their strong feelings and emotions
communication time. As a
result, ineffective listening can • 2. encourages the speaker to
be quite costly to the learners. share more of his/her thoughts
and feelings
 Effective communication has
two components: listening for • 3. Fosters empathy [putting
and reflecting feelings; and yourself in the position or
listening for and reflecting shoes of the other
substantive content. Listening person/seeing things from the
for feelings is accomplished view of the other person] . 4.
primarily by active listening and Builds rapport. 5.
listening for content is Acknowledges that the
accomplished by reframing. emotional content of the
message has been heard by
the listener.
• B. To the listener:  Techniques for Active
• 1. De-escalates strong feelings Listening
and emotions  When one engages in empathic
listening, you do not evaluate
• 2. Provides additional
the speaker’s message. When
information that could be
a teacher communicates
crucial to resolving the
empathy to students, several
problem guidelines could be followed.
• 3. Establishes trust For example:
• 4. Increases the likelihood of • be willing to become involved
successful problem solving with the students. Be
• 5. Ensures that the emotional accessible and available for
content of the message has the students.
been accurately heard and • Communicate positive regard
understood for the students. Treat them
with respect.
• Communicate a supportive  Reframing
climate. Emphasise on  Reframing is much like active
understanding than judging listening in that it often
others. accomplishes the same
• Listen to the other person’s objectives: building rapport,
nonverbal as well as verbal clarifying statements and
communication. fostering understanding.
However, in reframing, the
• Accurately reflect and clarify listener is reflecting back the
feelings content of the speaker's
• Be genuine and congruent. message, usually in a way that
 Paraphrase what a speaker makes the message more
says. Paraphrasing is a easily heard by the other party
restatement of both content and or in a way that organizes the
feelings of another person’s message.
message without repeating the
exact words that they have
used.
 The goals of reframing are to:  Engage in empathic Listening
 Reframe positions into interests. as a teacher. When a teacher
 Ensure that both parties hear each engages in empathic listening;
other. one should:
 State issues and interests in a way • be willing to become
that the parties can understand. involved with the students.
 Techniques for Reframing Be accessible and available
 Restate the Speakers’ Message for the students.
Using Similar Words. • Communicate positive
 Ask Clarifying Questions regard for the students.
 Summarize the Speaker's Ideas Treat them with respect.
 Group Messages into a Sequence • Communicate a supportive
or Order. Break Complex Message climate. Emphasise on
into Multiple Parts e.g. It looks like understanding than judging
you have three concerns. others.
• Listen to the other
person’s nonverbal
as well as verbal
communication.
• Accurately reflect
and clarify feelings
• Be genuine and
congruent.
SPEAKING
 Speaking involves the use of
language which is made up of
words. Language is a system
of symbols using sounds that
have been conventionally
agreed to stand for certain
meanings. And as we
mentioned earlier on, words
have no meaning. Meanings
are in the people using the
words and not in the words
themselves. Any language
uses a composition of words
that are unique to it and which
are only familiar to the users of
that language.
 As you speak, consider
the following:
 Use plain and simple words
unless the audience is
specialized in the subject
area.
 Use complete simple
sentences for the message
to be easier to comprehend.
 Do not speak too fast. It is
difficult to comprehend
information if much of it is
presented in a short period
of time.
 Make pauses. Pauses
between sentences and ideas
will give a listener some space
to think the words over and to
understand the message.
 Whenever you use words that
are not familiar to the learners,
define them or explain them for
them to understand the content
of your message.
 Pronounce the words correctly
 Use the right words as you
speak
 Slow down your speech
 Use an appropriate volume
 Use a language that is familiar
and known to the learners
 Use familiar words that the
learners will understand
 Use simple words
 Consider the cultural context of
your communication
 Paint your words using visual
images in order to make the
message understood
 When speaking, use a pace
that will allow the listeners to
understand and follow your
message
 Structure and connect  Support ideas not only with
ideas. Major points
should be presented
in a logical manner.
Otherwise it is difficult
to follow the speaker.
 Make sure that each
next thought
expressed expands
on the subject and on
the previous point.
words, but with intonation
and nonverbal means of
communication as well.
Proper intonation can stress
certain ideas you want to
draw attention to. Nonverbal
means of communication,
such as gestures and facial
expression, establish a closer
connection with the audience,
and enhance the message
being communicated.
VISUAL COMMUNICATION
 How we get and use
Information
 It is important for each of us to
recognize how we learn best. Do
we remember most of what we
read? Most of what we hear? Or
do we learn more if someone
shows us? Research (Sampath
et. al, 1981:15) indicates that
we learn:
 1.0% through the sense of taste
 1.5% through the sense of touch
 3.5% through the sense of smell
 11% through the sense of
hearing
 83% through the sense of sight
 Typically, we also retain
information at these rates:
 10 % of what we read
 20 % of what we hear
 30 % of what we see
 50 % of what we see and hear
 70 % of what we see and discuss
 90 % of what we do
 Hence the adage:
 Tell me and I will probably
forget,
 Show me and I might remember,
 Involve me and I will learn.
 This signifies the important  Visual communication is
role played by the sense of everywhere today, from
sight. The important role that electronic media like Web pages
is played by the sense of sight and television screens to
was recognized a long time environmental contexts such as
ago. In the words of road signs and retail displays in
Confucius (1592-1670), he a super market. We experience
stated that “a good picture is the world predominantly through
our eyes.
worth a thousand words”.
John Comenius also  Visual communication is
contended that “a picture communication that relies on the
use of vision or sight in order to
should be a source of
share and disseminating the
delight to the children and
message.
they should become familiar
with them before they enter  Visuals are necessary in
communication for the following
school”.
reasons:
 convey what words alone  Barriers to effective visual
cannot communication
 help to explain abstract  Although visual aids help
concepts in a concrete way. communication, there is
 aid the retention of also evidence to show that
information they can create barriers to
 help to sustain audience effective communication.
interest during the Usually we create these
communication encounter, barriers when we give
insufficient thought to the
 Help in transferring learning planning and use of the
to the real situation. visual aids for promoting
better communication and
more effective learning.
 How can we create visual
aids that promote
communication rather than
impede it?
 When using or designing
visuals, pay attention to the
following:
 Decide what role you want
the visual to play in your
lesson
 Plan the visual aid carefully
 Make effective use of the
visual
 Make the visual visible to all
 Decide what we require of the
visual aid
 Visual aids should be used as
an important and integral part of
the learning process. They
should be used to create
interest; to help learners
understand the information
being given; to help them recall
major points that they must
remember; and to help them
develop a mental perception of
the information.
 Plan the visual aid carefully
 Good visual aids do not appear
by chance or rarely so.
Usually a great deal of thought  Using a visual aid
goes into their creation. It is  If much effort has been used to
advisable to prepare a rough produce good visual aids, then
sketch and ask the following we should use them to their best
questions: advantage. The following points
• Is it what is really wanted? are well worth remembering:
• Is it as simple and bold as we  Do not obstruct the view of the
make it? audience.
• Can the visuals build the  The visual must be well placed.
information step-by-step to  Do not read a visual word by
control what the audience is word to the audience.
looking for?  The visual should be bold
• Is it as interesting as we can enough for the audience to read
make it? with ease.
• Is the visual neat in
appearance?
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
 Nonverbal communication is Speech also contains
usually understood as the nonverbal elements known
process of communication as paralanguage, including
through sending and receiving voice quality, rate, pitch,
wordless (mostly visual) cues
volume, and speaking style,
between people. Messages
can be communicated through
as well features such as
gestures and touch, by body rhythm, intonation, and
language or posture, by facial stress. Likewise, written
expresssion and eye contact. texts have nonverbal
Nonverbal messages could elements such as
also be communicated through handwriting style, spatial
material; meaning, objects or arrangement of words, or
artifacts (such as clothing, the physical layout of a
hairstyles or architecture). page.
 Nonverbal messages are
unspoken and more difficult to
interpret than verbal messages,
but are just as important. This is
particularly true when you think
that someone is saying one
thing and showing body
language that tells a different
story. Nonverbal cues are often
neglected during interpersonal
communication.
 NB: Non-verbal communication
cannot be faked. Once you have
communicated, it cannot be
undone as in words.
 Why nonverbal
communication matters
 If you want to communicate
better in all areas of your life, it’s
important to become more
sensitive to body language and
other nonverbal cues, so you
can be more in tune with the
thoughts and feelings of others.
You also need to be aware of
the signals you’re sending off,
so that you can be sure that the
messages you’re sending are
what you really want to
communicate.
 Nonverbal communication  Complementing: they may add
cues can play six major to or complement a verbal
roles: message. A teacher who pats
 Repetition: they can repeat the pupil on the back in addition
to giving praise can increase the
the message the person is
impact of the message.
making verbally
 Accenting: they may accent or
 Contradiction: they can underline a verbal message.
contradict a message the Pounding the table, for example,
individual is trying to convey can underline a message.
 Substitution: they can  Feedback and Reinforcement.
substitute for a verbal Both have a powerful effect on
message. For example, a learners’ perception of self,
person's eyes can often school and instructors.
convey a far more vivid
message than words and often
do.
Types of nonverbal communication
 Facial expressions
 The human face is extremely
expressive, able to express
countless emotions without
saying a word. Facial
expressions are universal. The
facial expressions for
happiness, sadness, anger,
surprise, fear, and disgust are
the same across cultures.
Facial expressions are used by
a teacher to manage
interactions in a classroom,
regulate communication, signal
approval or disapproval or to
reinforce.
 Gestures: Gestures are woven
into the fabric of our daily lives.
We wave, point, beckon, and
use our hands when we’re
arguing or speaking
animatedly—expressing
ourselves with gestures often
without thinking. However, the
meaning of gestures can be very
different across cultures and
regions, so it’s important to be
careful to avoid
misinterpretation. For example,
in some communities, a young
person will kneel down when
talking to an elder person or a
person with authority.
 Eye contact: Since the visual
sense is dominant for most
people, eye contact is an
especially important type of
nonverbal communication. The
way you look at someone can
communicate many things,
including interest, affection,
hostility, or attraction. Eye
contact is also important in
maintaining the flow of
conversation and for gauging
the other person’s response. It
is particularly very important
when communicating with your
learners.
 Touch: We communicate a great
deal through touch. Think about
the messages given by the
following: a firm handshake, a
timid tap on the shoulder, a warm
bear hug, a reassuring pat on the
back, a patronizing pat on the
head, or a controlling grip on your
arm.
 Physical attractiveness:
Teacher’s physical attractiveness
based on physical appearance
tends to increase how the
students rate them. Hence,
manner of dress and general
appearance communicate a lot
about us as teachers.
 Body movements and posture
 Consider how your perceptions
of people are affected by the
way they sit, walk, stand up, or
hold their head. The way you
move and carry yourself
communicates a wealth of
information to the world. This
type of nonverbal
communication includes your
posture, bearing, stance, and
subtle movements. In a spatial arrangement in our
classroom, where you sit, stand
communicates a lot about your
level of confidence.
 Space/Proxemics: Refers to
how people use space. The
social distance that you maintain
when engaged in a
conversation. You can use
physical space to communicate
many different nonverbal
messages, including signals of
intimacy, aggression,
dominance, or affection. We
need to be concerned about the
classroom. For example, when
we set students in rows, the
percentage of participation is
greater for the pupils in the front
and center rows.
 Time Keeping/Chronemics
or use of time: Teacher’s use
of time in class can affect the
communication that occurs.
For example, how much time
do you give pupils to answer a
question in class (called wait
time). The longer the wait-
time, the more complete the
answer given by a pupil.
Teachers are afraid of silence
in class as it is viewed to be an
indicator of a teacher who does
not have the content to teach.
 The amount time spent with an
individual student is an indicator
of your attitude towards them.
 Voice: It’s not just what you
say, but how you say it that
matters. When we speak, other
people “read” our voices in
addition to listening to our
words. Things they pay attention
to include your timing and pace,
how loud you speak, your tone
and inflection, and sounds that
convey understanding, such as
“ahh” and “uh-huh.” Think
about how tone of voice, for
example, can indicate sarcasm,
anger, affection, or confidence.
 Paralanguage/Tone of Voice:  Environmental Factors
 This refers to vocal  These include classroom
characterizers such as laugh,
cry, yell, moan, whine, belch, setting and appearance,
yawn, whispering etc. These lighting, ventilation, room
send different messages in temperature, etc. For
different cultures (e.g giggling example, research (Todd-
indicates embarrassment;
belch indicates satisfaction). Mancillas, 1982), established
Vocal qualifiers e.g. volume, that colour, lighting and
pitch, range, rhythm, tempo, temperature affect the
and tone. Vocal segregates classroom climate. Warmer
e.g. un-huh, shh, uh, ooh,
mmmh, humm, eh, mah, lah. colours (yellow and pink) are
Segregates indicate formality, said to be best for classrooms
acceptance, assent, of younger children. If a
uncertainty. classroom is too hot or too
cold, learners find it difficult to
concentrate.
How to improve nonverbal
communication
 In order to send accurate  Create trust in relationships
nonverbal cues, you need to be by sending nonverbal
aware of your emotions and how
they influence you. You also need
signals that match up with
to be able to recognize the your words.
emotions of others and the true  Respond in ways that show
feelings behind the cues they are others that you understand,
sending. This is where emotional
awareness comes in. notice, and care.
 Emotional awareness enables  Know if the relationship is
you to: meeting your emotional
 Accurately read other people, needs, giving you the option
including the emotions they’re to either repair the
feeling and the unspoken
relationship or move on.
messages they’re sending.
Self-Assessment Activities
1) Define the term “Communication”.
2) Describe the communication process in the context of teaching and
learning.
3) Critically evaluate the three classroom communication models.
4) Citing examples from a teaching and learning situation, differentiate
between verbal and non-verbal communication.
5) Identify the key barriers to classroom communication and explain how
you can overcome them during instruction.
6) Bearing in mind the elements of communication and citing examples from
a teaching/learning encounter, explain how you will ensure effective
communication during instruction.
7) Bearing in mind that communication is both verbal and non verbal and
citing examples from a teaching/learning situation; discuss the axiom that
“one cannot not communicate”.
UNIT 3: RANGE OF MEDIA FOR
TEACHING AND LEARNING
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit the learner should be able to:
1) Define the term instructional media
2) Describe the role of instructional media in teaching and
learning
3) Describe Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience and relate it
to media selection and use
4) Identify and describe the range of instructional media
available for teaching and learning.
5) Describe the current trend in media and technology.
Definition of the term Instructional
Media
 From one of the definitions of
educational technology that
we borrowed from Collier et
al., (1971:16), we noted that
educational technology
involves the application of
systems, techniques, and aids
to improve the process of
human learning and it is
characterized by four features
namely; the definition of
objectives to be achieved by
the learner;
the application of principles of
learning to the analysis and
structuring of the subject
matter to be learned; the
selection and use of
appropriate media for
presenting material; and the
use of the appropriate
methods of assessing
student performance to
evaluate the effectiveness of
courses and materials.
From the above  Students do not learn much
by sitting and absorbing
definition we note that information passively.
part of educational They should be given an
opportunity to process the
technology focuses on information by using a
the use of resources to wide range of instructional
facilitate learning. We techniques. We should
therefore enrich the
therefore need to use instructional environment
instructional media to with many and varied
experiences including the
physically extend our use of instructional media.
ability to communicate
in the classroom.
 Heinich et al. (1996:8)  Earlier on we defined the term
‘instruction’ as a deliberate
defines a medium as a arrangement of experiences or
means of communication environment to help a learner
since it refers to anything achieve a desirable change in
performance. Therefore,
that carries information instructional media refers to
between a source and a the resources both human
and non-human that a
receiver. For example; teacher deliberately selects
diagrams, printed materials, and uses to carry
computers, PowerPoint information during
instruction to facilitate
slides, and instructors. learning. These are the
Please note that the plural resources that serve an
for medium is ‘media’. instructional function for
education and training.
 The terms used to describe the
instructional resources that
teachers use in the classroom have
changed over the years to reflect
technological advances in the
field of Ed Tech.
 For example:
 Visual Education: to refer to the
times when visual media were
first used in education during
instruction.
 Multi media: when different
media were combined and
integrated into the instructional
process.
 Computer multi-media : When
computers were introduced into
instruction and was able to
combine and use several different
media at the same time.
 Computer -based instructional
media- when the computer
developed the capability to
integrate several different media
by converting them from one
format to another.
 Hypermedia: The ability of the
computer to link different media
in different locations and formats.
Instructional media encompasses all the materials
and physical means an instructor might use to
implement instruction and facilitate students’
achievement of instructional objectives. This may
include traditional materials such as chalkboards,
handouts, charts, slides, overheads, real objects, and
videotape or film, as well newer materials and
methods such as computers, DVDs, CD-ROMs, the
Internet, and interactive video conferencing.
Hamijoyo as quoted in Latuheru (1988) states that
instructional media are the media whose function is
integrated in the instructional objectives stated in the
syllabus.
Heinich (1993) also states that media are considered as
instructional media when they carry messages with an
instructional purpose, i.e., to facilitate communication.
Moreover, Suleiman (1988) asserts that instructional media are
the media that bring information or messages from the
information resources/senders (teachers) to the receivers
(students). He further states that the instructional media are
intended to increase the learning outcome.
Richards (in Kasbolah, 1993:10) defines
instructional media as the media which are
used within the instructional design and are
determined by the requirements of the
objective content and instructional method.
Instructional media also has a meaning as a
means of communication used to carry
messages with an instructional intent
(Heinich,1982).
Edmenger ( 1979:24) in Van Els (1984) lists a
number of points of view from which media can be
considered:
1) the nature of the information conveyed by the
media (i.e. linguistic and non linguistic information);
2) the channel of the information (auditory, visual, or
audiovisual media);
3) the phases in the process of teaching and testing
whether they are used for the presentation, repetition,
and exploitation of learning material, or for testing;
4) the didactic function whether they are used to
motivate learners, to convey information, or to
stimulate free language use;
5) the degree of accessibility and adaptability (Mindt
1978, Macht and Sclossbauer 1978, Heaton 1979:39)
in Van Els (1984);
(6) the possibilities for supporting ,supplementing, or
replacing the teacher (Ahrens 1980) in Van Els (1984)
(7) the use of media by individual or in groups.
ROLE OF MEDIA IN TEACHING
AND LEARNING
 Media serve a variety of
 Help to gain attention
roles in education. Their
 Help in the recall of
primary role is to help
prerequisites
students learn and one way
 Enhance retention and
they do this is by providing
an information-rich
transfer ;
environment (Newby;
Stepich; Lehman;  Support
& Learning
Russell, 2006:120). through examples and
 Media can be used to visual elaboration;
support one or more of the
following instructional
activities:
 Elicit student response  Stimulate problem
 Present new content solving
 Assess Performance  Provoke learners to
 Provide Feedback form or change attitude
of mind
 Help to overcome
physical limitations  Reduce Instructional
during instruction time
 Improve quality of  Help offer instruction
Learning where and when
desired.
 Help learners interpret According to Davies (1980:
information in a way 193), the functions of
that they experience media are as follows:
meanings similar to 1. Aids to instruction.
Media serve to help
those intended by the teachers and instructors
communicator. manage instruction more
 Skillfully used audio- efficiently. Media assist
visual aids reinforce the teachers to communicate
presentation so that you more effectively and take
have both the picture over the operating role of
instruction from teacher
and the thousand words and instructors.
work for you.
2. Aids to learning. • Brown (1983) states that
Media serve to help the functions of media
students learn more are:
efficiently. Media 1. to save time,
promote understanding, 2. to stimulate interest,
assist in the transfer of 3. to encourage
training, and assist in students’ participation,
assessment. Media can 4. to provide a review,
be used in assessing
mastery performance.
5. to help students learn Callahan (1982:360)
communicate ideas stated that the
visually, effectiveness of
6. to provide medium involving media in
for individual or group teaching middle school
reports, and students is as follows:
7. to make a classroom Audio-visual materials
dynamic, relevant, and and devices can add
attractive. interest and variety to
your classes.
Skillful use of audio The main function of the
visual material can be instructional media usage is to
support the instructional
great motivator and can interaction between the teacher
add life and color to the and the student (Latuheru,
classroom. Furthermore, 1988:14). It means that within
the use of audio-visual teaching and learning process,
there should be two-ways
aids puts your points communication, between the
across. Well-used audio- teacher and the students and
visual aids add to the among the students. This
impact of the communication is to deliver
presentation. the instructional materials.
Dale (1969) stated that there are several things
instructional media can do in the teaching
process such as: heighten motivation for
learning, provide freshness and variety,
appeal to students of varied abilities,
encourage active participation, give needed
reinforcement, assure order and continuity
of thought, and widen the range of students’
experience.
Furthermore Dale (1969:108) state that an experience
of doing calls for a good deal of concrete, direct,
immediate action in which people make full use of
our senses and often of their muscles as well. When
people merely observe something, however, the
experience requires less physical or concrete action
than an experience of doing. And in people symbolic
experiences, virtually all the manifest physical action
has been removed; people deal more with the
experience through their thought or their general ideas.
Relationship between Instruction and
use of media
 Psychologist Jerome  An icon is an image that
Bruner proposed that resembles a real object.
instruction should proceed Students learn best when they
observe the reality directly,
from direct experience
but when the reality cannot
(enactive) to iconic be observed directly, the next
representation of best option is to use some
experience such as the use representation of the reality
of pictures and films and through the use of icons such
finally to symbolic as pictures. The last
representation such as alternative to use should be a
use of words (Bruner, symbolic representation of
the reality through the use of
1966:49). words or any other symbols.
Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience
 Writing about concrete-
abstract continuum also,
Edgar Dale in 1969
developed the “Cone of
Experience”. In the cone
of experience, we start with
the learner as participant in
the actual experience, then
move to the learner as an
observer of the actual event,
then we proceed to the
learner as an observer of
mediated event (an event
presented through some
medium), and finally to the
learner observing symbols
that represent an event.
 Dale’s cone of experience
organizes learning
experiences according to
the degree of concreteness
or abstractness required in
any learning.
 For example, information is
high on abstraction since
verbal symbols are used
while motor skills are low
on abstraction and require
direct experiences.
Cone of Experience
 Note that at the bottom of the Learning that involves
cone of experience hands direct and purposeful
on/concrete experiences are
needed but as you ascend the experiences hold the
cone, they begin to drop with learners' attention
the learning stimuli becoming longer and involve
more abstract. active learner
 Note also that the cone is participation. Hence the
broad based at the bottom
where direct and purposeful
need to use the cone
experiences are provided but when planning
narrow at the top where instruction.
verbal symbols are used.
 Also note the following from the Cone of Experience:
1) The degree of abstraction increases as one moves from the base of the
cone towards the apex. Therefore, while direct and purposeful
experiences are more concrete, use of textual materials increases the
level of abstraction in teaching and learning.
2) Despite the fact that we need to make use of teaching/learning
experiences which are closer to the base of the cone; some of the
content that we teach might require the use concrete, less concrete or
abstract learning experiences. For example, when teaching any
content dealing with skill or attitude learning ; use of concrete
experiences is desired but when teaching content dealing with
knowledge of facts or information; then abstract learning
experiences such as use of textual materials is recommended.
3)The different types of teaching/learning materials that can be used
during instruction can either have a low degree of abstraction or a
high degree of abstraction. For example direct learning experiences
where learners are involved directly by observing what has to be
learned is very low on abstraction (concrete experience) while
textual materials are high on the degree of abstraction since words
do not resemble the objects they represent.
4) As you select the types of teaching/learning materials to use always
consider the learning outcomes that you wish to achieve. Some
learning outcomes involve learning how to perform a certain skill
and such outcomes require the use of concrete materials. Other
outcomes deal with learning of facts and can be achieved through
abstract learning experiences.
Relationship between Sensory
Channels and Learning
 How we get and use
Information
 It is important for each of us to
recognize how we learn best. Do
we remember most of what we
read? Most of what we hear? Or
do we learn more if someone
shows us? Research (Sampath
et. al, 1981:15) indicates that we
learn:
 1.0% through the sense of taste
 1.5% through the sense of touch
 3.5% through the sense of smell
 11% through the sense of hearing
 83% through the sense of sight
 Typically, we also retain
information at these rates:
 10 % of what we read
 20 % of what we hear
 30 % of what we see
 50 % of what we see and hear
 70 % of what we see and discuss
 90 % of what we do
 Hence the adage:
 Tell me and I will probably forget,
 Show me and I might remember,
 Involve me and I will learn.
 How does this relate to the cone of
experience?
RANGE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
AVAILABLE FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING
 There are different ways of  Electronic Media refers to
categorizing instructional media. information or data that is created,
For this module we shall use the distributed and accessed using
following media classification: some form of electronics,
1) Non-projected media; electromechanical energy or any
2) Projected media; equipment used in electronic
communications. The common
3) Audio media; equipment we use on a day to day
4) Print Media basis to access Electronic Media
5) Motion media; include; Television, radio,
6) Computer-based multimedia computer, cell phones and other
and hypermedia. devices transporting information
 Note that some media to and from us by means of
classification might include electronic involvement.
electronic media as a category.
 In that case, electronic media  Examples include:
could also include the use of
the LCD projector, the
real objects, models,
electronic white board, etc. field trips, non-
Hence, it is not possible to projected visuals (still
include such a category of
media. pictures, charts,
 NON-PROJECTED MEDIA graphs, drawings,
Non-projected media refers to posters, cartoons and
the range of media resources
that do not require any
comics and book
equipment (hardware) to illustrations) & visual
project them onto a screen for display surfaces.
viewing.
Many of the non-projected media that are mentioned and
discussed are so common that teachers are inclined to
underestimate their instructional value. Most of them are
also readily available from textbooks and magazines, as
well as from the immediate environment of the school. They
are inexpensive, easy to use and can be obtained at a little
cost or at no cost at all.
Please note that media do not have to be expensive or exotic
to be useful for instruction. What matters is the
effectiveness and appropriateness of the media in achieving
the instructional goal.
NON-PROJECTED  Many of these materials can
VISUALS: Non- be easily obtained yet they
projected visuals refer can be used in many ways at
to media materials that all levels of instruction as
appeal to the sense of well as in all disciplines.
sight and do not require Most of them are very
any equipment for
useful in stimulating
viewing. Among the
non-projected visuals creative expression. Many
include; still pictures, of the non-projected visuals
drawings, charts, are available in textbooks
graphs, posters, and other printed materials,
cartoons and comics. from computer software and
multimedia programmes.
Real Objects: Students understand and retain
the meaning of a word better when they have been
shown or have touched some objects associated
with it. For this reason, teachers are encouraged to
make a collection of everyday objects, including
such things as newspapers, posters, bottles, fruit,
vegetables, rocks, cans, dishes, etc (Finocchiaro,
1973:96). For example, when the teacher uses
rocks, apples, bananas, and peaches. He/she uses
them as tools to employ a concept.
 Real objects may be used as they are, or they can be
modified to enhance instruction. Examples of modification
include:
• Specimen where actual plants and animals or parts are
preserved for later use and close inspection.
• Exhibits where collections of artifacts of either historical
or scientific nature are brought together with printed
information to illustrate a point.
• Cutaways where devices such as machines have one side
cut away to allow close observation of the inside details
or inner workings (Heinich et al.; 1996:102).
Besides using real objects to present information, raising
questions, and providing hands-on experiences, real objects
also play a variable role during the evaluation phase of
instruction. They can be displayed in a central place for
learners to identify them, describe their functioning, or to
compare and contrast them.
Models: Models: Models refer to three-dimensional
representations of a real thing. Things in real world always
have three dimensions. They have a length, a width and a
depth. Whenever we teach, we need to create as much reality
as possible by representing the things, as they would appear in
real life. However, this is not always possible.
For example, you might visit a hydro-electricity power station
but still fail to understand how the generator works since you
need to look inside the generator to understand how it works.
In such a case, a model might be necessary. A model is a
scaled representation of the object that it represents. The model
might be a true copy of the actual object, might be larger, or
even smaller. It might be complete in details or simplified for
instructional purpose. Models can provide learning
experiences that real things cannot provide. For example, a
model can be dismantled to provide interior view of the object,
which cannot be done with real objects.
 You use models when:
Inside details must be observed and cannot be better
shown using cross-sectional diagrams.
Too many details which are all relevant appear in a
diagram making it difficult to interpret.
When a third dimension (depth) aids understanding of
a concept such as volume in mathematics.
Models can be manipulated by adding colour,
enlarging them, or reducing them.
 There are four types of models that we can use
namely:
 solid models that are used for the recognition of external
features e.g. the toys that we buy for the children;
 cross-sectional models or cutaways such as those used in
science laboratories e.g. animal and human anatomy,
machines, engines, etc.;
 construction models which can be easily put together; and
 working models which are used to demonstrate how the
object works as they can be dismantled to show inside
details.
Both models and real objects should be used whenever
realism is necessary for learning to take place.
Gerlach and Elly (1980) mentions some characteristics
about real objects and models. They recite that real objects
have the potential of increasing realism, real objects are
preferred when authenticity is desired, real objects and
models help reduce the gap between instruction and later
performance, and real objects and models can frequently be
handled, manipulated, assembled, and observed very
closely. If learning is increased through the use of several
senses, then real objects and models will facilitate learning.
 Still Pictures: Still pictures are
photographic representations of
people, places, activities, and
objects. Among the most
common still pictures that are
used during instruction include;
photographs and illustrations
from books, calendars, and
magazines. Still pictures are
mainly two-dimensional but
using a series of still pictures
taken from different scenes and
angles or positions could
compensate this.
 Photographs are
particularly very useful
when you want students to
observe certain phenomena
and describe their
observations as a way of
training them in analytical
and observation skills.
Still pictures are also
useful when you want to
illustrate a certain concept;
that is, how something
looks like.
 Heinich, Molenda, and Russel, (993) stated the
advantages of using still pictures arguing that:
Non-projected still pictures can translate
abstract ideas into more realistic format.
 They allow instruction to move down from the
level of verbal symbols in Dale’s cone of
experience to a more concrete level.
 Still pictures are easy to use because they do
not require any equipment.
Wright (1989:29) states that pictures are very important to
help students to retell experience or understand something
since they can represent place, objects, people, etc. Pictures
and illustrations are not a substitute for books and other
learning activities. Their function is a helping or
supplementary one. Pictorial materials have proved their
value in ways already enumerated, the chief four of which
are: (1) motivating interest and learning, (2) providing
source material for study and investigation, (3)
providing artistic and esthetic development, and (4)
providing cues which lead to creative effort (Kinder,
1950:102).
 Drawings: Drawings are
graphic materials that employ
graphic arrangement of line and
symbols to represent the outline
inter - relationships or key
features of a person, place,
things or concept. Drawings
show relationships or help to
explain processes such as how
something works or is
constructed. Drawings help to
simplify whatever you intend
to teach and make the message
easier to understand.
 Drawings can be used in all
phases of instruction from
introduction to evaluation.
Drawings are readily
available in textbooks and
other classroom materials.
A teacher should learn to use
drawings especially freehand
ones to provide a conceptual
structure of whatever we
teach in order to aid
understanding.
Brown (1983:83) stated that the most important
aspect on drawings is the communicative aspect.
Drawings will be in the form of sketches, graphics,
cartoons, or other visual presentation. The practice
of drawing will develop skill of drawing itself.
According to Brown (1983:90), there are two
important steps on drawing. They are starting figure
drawing with simple stick figure and adding detail
to character. Sketches of real thing can establish
environments or activities.
 Charts: A chart is a Types of charts
combination of pictorial,
numerical or verbal material  Charts are classified
designed to present a clear depending on their function
visual summary of an
important process or a set of and for classroom purposes;
relationships. Charts are visual we could identify the
representations of abstract following types of charts:
relationships such as
quantities, chronologies of • outline and tabular charts;
events, and hierarchies. Most
charts serve as visual • flow, organization and
summaries containing a mix of process charts;
visual and verbal elements.
They could summarize data, • tree and stream charts;
explain a process, or describe a • time-line charts.
•
set of relationships.
 An important purpose of many charts according to
Brown (1983:112) is to present visually ideas or
concepts which are likely to be difficult to
understand if they are presented in oral or written
form. A chart can also highlight important points
of presentations. An effective chart tends to be
composed of mixture of several different types of
graphics, pictures, drawings, graphs, diagrams,
and verbal materials (Brown 1983:112).
Brown et al. (1983:112) said “Pictures in the
charts should be big enough so the students
sitting in the back of the class can still see
them well.” The size of the picture used in the
charts depends on the kinds of pictures;
situation pictures must be bigger than pictures
of one object.
A chart should have a clear, well-defined
instructional purpose (Heinich, 1993).
Whenever you decide to use charts,
please ensure that:
 you have a clear, well-defined
instructional purpose;
 you represent only one major
concept and if you have a lot of
information to convey, develop
or use a series of charts instead
of using a single complex chart.
(use a flip chart);
 you have included the minimum
of visual and verbal information
needed to aid understanding.
 Graphs: Graphs are used
to provide a visual
representation of numerical
data. They also illustrate
relationships among units of
data and trends in the data.
For example, when you
want to show the
relationship between time
and amounts or yields.
Graphs are more visually
interesting to observe than
when you have raw data.
 There are four major types of
graphs: namely; bar, pictorial,
circle and line.
 Bar graphs are mainly used to
compare similar items at
different times or different
items at the same time.
Pictorial graphs are an
alternative form of bar graph
where a series of simple
drawings or pictures are used
to represent values and each
drawing or picture is then
assigned a specific value that
relates to the total amount.
 Pie or circle graphs involve
dividing a circle into segments
and each segment representing
a part or a percentage of the
whole. They area used to show
fractional relationships.
 Line graphs are used to show
variations in two-dimensions.
e.g. changes in quantities or
values over time. The type of
graph that you use depends on
the complexity of the
information that you wish to
present.
 Posters: A poster incorporates
visual combinations of bold
design, colour and a brief
written message meant to catch
the attention of the viewer
instantly in order to convey
some message. Posters are
meant to catch and hold the
viewer’s attention long enough
to communicate some
message. Usually posters
carry persuasive messages or
messages that influence the
audience to act in certain way.
 For example, you might be
carrying out a campaign in
your school against child or
drug abuse. Posters can also
be used to promote good
health practices such as not
using drugs or how to stop
the spread of COVID-19
Virus. Posters are similar to
charts but they are smaller,
simpler in details and bolder
in content and style.
 A Poster is designed to convey information
vividly, attractively and economically. According
to Brown (1983:118), the more directly the design
suggests the message to be conveyed, the more
effective posters are. Brown et al (1983:118) also
mention the characteristics of the best poster. The
best poster has just one purpose. The treatment is
forceful and clear. It is full of color and the size is
large enough to be easily seen and understood in
brief glance.
 Cartoons and comics: A
cartoon is an interpretive
picture that makes use of line,
symbols and exaggeration to
represent ideas, people, events,
or situations in pictorial form.
Cartoons are mainly used to
influence public opinion.
Cartoons employ the principle
of caricature (gross and
ludicrous exaggeration or
distortion of parts of a whole
to emphasize the part i.e. the
nose, or the chin.
 A comic is a form of cartoon in
which the characters enact a
story in a certain sequence to
create a continuous pictorial
story. Both cartoons and
comics are humorous and
interesting, easy to read and
excite the students.
Appreciation and interpretation
however depends on the
experience and ability level of
the students. Therefore, be
sure that the cartoons and
comics are within the
experiential and intellectual
range of your students.
Brown says that cartoons have power to
capture attention and influence attitude and
behavior. The message of the cartoon is
usually clearly communicated. He also
mentions the characteristics of cartoon. The
first one is that it has minimum details and the
second one is that it contains familiar symbols
or characters, and stereotypes that are quickly
recognized and understood.
 Field Trips: Field trips consist of planned and organized visits
to places of interest outside the classroom but within the
community to study real processes, people, and objects. Such
places could include; factories, industrial plants, agricultural
projects, museums, market places, landscapes, etc. Trips are
organized to places where students can see in practice or in
reality what they have studied in class. . Note that Dale’s cone
of Experience places field trips towards the middle of the cone
because though the experience is real, students are only seeing
and hearing but not directly manipulating them. Once students
undertake such trips, concepts and generalizations that were
difficult to formulate become clearer. Field trips can be
organized in any subject area for any level of students.
 To carry out successful field trips, there is need for preparation
by both the teacher and the learners.
Preparation by the teacher should involve some of the
following activities:
 The teacher needs to examine the syllabus and decide whether
field trips are relevant to any of the topics to be covered.
 The instructional goal or aim and the objectives of using field
trips should be clearly defined.
 The teacher should identify an appropriate site/ place for the
field trip or fieldwork. The selected site should be one that is
likely to yield the expected learning outcomes by considering
the instructional goal.
 The teacher should then make formal contact with the
management of the identified place(s) to agree on a date and
confirm whether the place selected will be able to meet the
learning needs of your students. In case you have identified a
natural feature or a landform, you need to visit the site prior to
taking the students there to confirm that it will offer what the
students need to observe and learn.
 Decide whether the study trip will be undertaken by individual
students or in groups. If the study trip is to be undertaken by
groups, divide the class into groups.
 Make a list of all the equipment and materials needed and
make sure they are available.
Inform the school administration and parents
about the planned field trip. It is necessary to
get the parents’ approval before taking students
out of the school on a study trip.
Make arrangements for transport and meals if
students will be traveling away from the
school; if the field trip will be undertaken
during class time, inform the teachers whose
classes will be disrupted.
 Preparation by the students should involve the following:
 You need to arouse the interest of the class to the idea of a
field trip to the selected place(s). You could do this by
briefly discussing the goal of the field trip, what they will
see and do and how these will relate to what they have been
studying in class.
 Provide background information on the topic under which
the field trip will be organized.
 Assign students specific activities that they will be carried
out in the field either individually or in groups.
 Help the students to plan their field activities by
preparing the questions to ask, or to assemble the tools
and materials to be used to collect the information.
 Brief the students on the rules to be observed during the
field trip; i.e. what to carry, recording what they
observe, how to dress, how to behave etc.
 Inform students of the activities to be carried out while
in the field and when they get back to school.
 Inform students what will happen after the field trip;
i.e. reporting back to class on what thy observed.
 Non-projected Display The chalkboard is the most
Surfaces common display surface in
For you to use many of the the classroom. Though
non-projected visuals such as commonly used to support
photographs, drawings, verbal communication, it
charts, graphs, or posters, can be used to draw visuals
you need to have a certain way to illustrate the content of
of displaying them. The most your lesson. Graphics such
commonly used classroom
as sketch drawings;
display surfaces include; the
chalkboard, multipurpose
diagrams, charts and graphs
board, pegboard, bulletin can be drawn on the
board, cloth board, exhibits, chalkboard for display in
flip charts, and dioramas. class.
•
Chalk Board Writing Skills

i. Legibility ( Easy to read ): A legible handwriting on the

chalkboard draws the attention of the learners and
encourages them to improve upon their handwritings. In
order to make handwritings more legible, the teacher
should see that a clear distinction is ensured between
every letter, adequate space is maintained between
individual letters and words.
ii. Size and Alignment: The size of the letters written by
the teacher on the board should be uniform and large
enough to be read from the back of the class. The size of
the capital letters should be larger than that of the small
letters and the handwritings should be as vertical as
possible without being diverged from a line.
 iii Blackboard Summary: In order to make teaching
meaningful to the learners the teacher should develop a
chalkboard summary as the lesson progresses. This should be
brief so that the learners can recollect the whole lesson at a
glance.
iv Correctness: While constructing sentences on the board, the
teacher should be careful about correct spelling, punctuation,
grammar, etc.
v Position of the Teacher: While writing on the board, the
position of teacher should not be in between the learners and
the chalkboard.
vi Contact with Pupils: The teacher, at the time of writing on
the board, should maintain eye-contact with the learners. This
is necessary for controlling interactions, maintaining
disciplines, sustaining attentions of the learners, etc.
Dr G L Gulhane 199
 Inappropriate chalkboard Writing Skill

i. Legibility ( Easy to read ): A legible handwritin

Dr G L Gulhane 200
 Appropriate Chalkboard Writing Skill

Dr G L Gulhane 201
 Appropriate chalkboard Writing Skill

Dr G L Gulhane 202
Multipurpose boards: Also
called whiteboards or marker
boards. As the name suggests,
they can be used for more than
one purpose. They can be used to
write on, and to project slides and
overhead transparencies. These
types of boards are preferred for
use around computers since chalk
dust can harm computers and
disks. The smooth, white plastic
surface of a multipurpose board
requires a special erasable marker
to write. You should avoid using
permanent felt-tip markers as they
damage the surface permanently.
Bulletin board: This is a
surface on which bulletins or
brief news announcements of
urgent interest are posted for
public notice. A bulletin
board is a surface of variable
size and shape made of
material that holds pins,
thumbtacks, and other
materials without damaging
the board. A bulletin board
could be used to display
students’ work and help to
reinforce students’ efforts to
do a good job.
Cloth board: A board constructed of
cloth stretched over a backing
material such as plywood,
masonite, or heavy cardboard.
The cloth used could be made of
flannel or felt material with a
rough surface for visuals to stick
on or from an old blanket. The
visuals to be displayed on a cloth
board should be able to hold onto
the cloth by backing the visuals or
other items to be attached with a
coarse, hook-like texture. You
could also use coarse sandpaper
on the back of visuals for
attachment to a cloth board.
Cloth boards are useful
when describing a certain
process or when narrating a
story since the visuals could
be displayed in a sequence
one after the other.
Cloth boards are also useful
in language and creative
activities to illustrate stories,
poems, and other reading
materials.
Flip Chart: A pad of large paper Exhibits: Displays of
fastened together at the top and various objects and visuals
mounted to an easel. Each designed to form an
individual sheet holds limited integrated whole for
verbal/visual message. The instructional purposes.
message can be written while the
Exhibits could include; real
presenter is talking or can be
prepared in advance. The most
objects, models, as well as
common use of flip charts is for graphic materials. For
drawing of key illustrations and example, when teaching a
writing key words during a topic on rocks, you might
presentation. It is convenient to have an exhibition of
use a flip chart since you do not different types of rocks for
need electric power, it is portable, students to identify.
and only requires marking pen for
writing or drawing.
Dioramas: These are static
displays consisting of a three-
dimensional foreground and a
flat or two-dimensional
background to create a
realistic scene. The term
‘diorama’ is derived from the
Greek language and it means
‘to see through’. This refers
to a medium that enables a
teacher to bring little sections
of the real world into a
classroom for the students to
examine.
Dioramas represent three-
dimensional scenes often in
miniature form to represent
natural settings.
Dioramas could be used to
illustrate different concepts.
For example; in geography
they can be constructed to
illustrate how certain
landforms like craters, rift
valleys, etc are formed.
Displays
A display is an array of objects, visuals, and
printed materials e.g. labels and descriptions.
Most displays include descriptive information
about the objects or visuals shown. For example,
if you a teaching a topic on modes of transport,
you could ask students to prepare a display in
class to illustrate how the modes of transport have
changed over time. In such a display, you will
have labels for the different time lines.
Dos while using Display Surfaces
As you use display surfaces, consider the following:
 Organize in advance what you plan to write on the
board and where you plan to write it.
 Cover materials such as maps, text e.g. a poem,
drawings, etc. with wrapping paper or newspaper
until you are ready to talk about them.
 Eye contact with students is important. Face the class
whenever you are talking to them. Never talk to the
board. Do not turn your back to the class unless it is
absolutely necessary.
 Vary your presentation techniques. Do not rely
entirely on the board. Use other forms of media like
handouts, flip charts, video clips, still pictures.
 Use bold letters on the board. Print your letters. For a
classroom which is 10 meters long, letters should be
5-6 cm high and the line forming the letters should be
1 cm thick.
 Check the visibility of the board from several
positions around the room to be sure there is no glare
on the surface.
 PRINTED MATERIALS  Printed materials especially
 Printed materials comprise of textbooks have long been the
all textual and other materials foundation of classroom
that can be run off in large
numbers on a photocopier or instruction. Print media
printing machine to be used by continues to be the most single,
students, or trainees. Printed most common category of
materials include; textbooks, teaching and learning support
fiction and non-fiction books, materials. “Even as computer-
pamphlets, manuals, based multimedia and
handouts, word processed
documents, assignment hypermedia invade the
sheets, study guides, and classrooms, through electronic
resource materials for group communication such as e-mail
exercises such as instruction systems, database networks,
sheets and data sheets. World Wide Web,
Hypertext mail, and
Portable Document
Formats, the role of print
is far from being over.
Instead, the role of print is
being enhanced by
information revolution as
the amount of reading and
printing that a typical
person will do increases.
Therefore, the days of
print media are far from
being over”.
 Types of printed
materials available
1) Text books
2) Handouts
3) Assignment sheets
4) Resource materials for
group exercises
5) Worksheet
Text books: These are printed materials used either for mass
instruction, for individual or for group instruction. They serve
as a source of information for a particular course, subject,
topic or programme. A textbook might be the chief source, a
co-basic source, or a supplementary source of information
meant to enrich the other sources.
Handouts: These comprise of the different types of
information-providing materials that are given out to students
usually in connection with a taught lesson/topic or programme.
They include; sets of notes (complete or in skeleton form),
tables, diagrams, maps, or any other illustrations or support
materials.
Assignment sheets: They comprise of materials given to students
describing the tasks to be carried out. They include; problem
description sheets, reading lists, laboratory recording sheets, briefing
sheets for projects and seminars, etc.
Resource materials for group exercises: These comprise of the
various printed materials that are used in connection with group
learning exercises. For example; background reading material, case
studies, instruction sheets, etc.
Worksheet: Worksheet implies a device by which the teacher helps the
students to work as far as possible to his/her full capacity. Worksheet
encourages students to think for themselves about the results of their
work and to draw conclusions. Work sheets serve as self-instructional
materials .
 PROJECTED MEDIA
Projected media refers to media
formats in which still images are
enlarged and displayed on a
screen for viewing. Projection of
the image is achieved by passing a
strong light through transparent
film, magnifying the image
through a series of lenses and then
casting it onto a reflective surface.
Among the projected media
include; overhead projection, slide
projection, sound-slide projection,
multi-image presentations, opaque
projection, and computer image
projection.
: Please note that most of the
above types of projected
media are no longer
available for use in many
instructional settings since
technology has a time lag of
about 50 years after which it
is replaced by newer
technologies such as the
computer-based
technologies. However, we
could mention a few of them
in some details.
Overhead Projector: Overhead projector has
been the most widely used projection device in
the classroom and in training for a long time. Due
to the fact that the image is large and you can
manipulate or add to it while projecting, the
overhead projector is versatile and can be used to
communicate in every subject in the curriculum.
However, it has now been replaced by the
Computer-image projection also known as Power
Point projection.
 A typical overhead projector is a
simple device. Basically, it is a
box with a large stage on top. For
it to function, light from a
powerful lamp inside the box is
condensed by a special type of
lens called ‘fresnel lens’ and
passes through a transparency
placed on the stage. A laid over the base transparency.
transparency refers to the type of
film used for overhead projection.
A transparency is made of
photographic film that is capable
of being imprinted with an image
by means of chemical or heat
process.
 Transparencies may be used
either individually or might be
made into a series of images
consisting of a base visual with
more transparencies added on
top to form overlays. Overlays
refer to sheets of transparent
film, each containing
additional information that is
Overlays could be used to
explain complex processes in a
step-by-step manner by
flipping the overlays one at a
time and adding additional
details to the base visual.
Computer Image projection
 The computer is capable of
using presentation graphics
software to project computer
images onto a screen.
PowerPoint is an example of
presentation software used on
a computer connected to a data
projector. PowerPoint allows
the user to include text, draw
pictures, produce diagrams,
import digital photographs,
include music, and create
animation.
 With the advent of digital
imaging, digital projectors have
taken a firm hold in instruction.
These computer output devices
such as the data projector, project
digital images onto a projection
screen, large monitor, or
electronic whiteboard so that they
can be shared with a large group.
Note that these images that are
projected could be captured using
digital still cameras, digital video
cameras, or from analogue
videotape using a video capture
card (Lever-Duffy et al; 2005).
 A video capture card is an
expansion card that can be
added to a personal
computer to form a video
input. A recorded video can
then input directly into the
computer via the appropriate
input and then the video-
capture card converts the
video signal into a digital
form and can be stored in
the computer hard disk
AUDIO MEDIA
 As teachers, we can develop
students’ listening skills
using the audio media.
Audio media refers to the
use of human voice and
other sounds for
instructional purposes
(Gathu, 2000:43). Audio
recordings can be prepared
for group or individual
listening and they can be
used in a variety of ways.
 For example, a speech could
be documented, a role-play
or drama could be recorded,
animal sounds could be
recorded, an interview could
be recorded and a meeting
or proceeding could also be
verbally recorded.
Examples of audio media
usage in the classroom:
 Students can use cassette tape
recorders to gather information
on the oral history of their
community or clan;
 Students can learn and
practice language conversation
using audiotapes;
 Students with hearing
problems or with learning
difficulties can revisit
classroom presentations in any
of the subjects taught in order
to reinforce what was taught in
class.
 Advantages of audiotapes:
 Inexpensive: once the tapes and
equipment have been purchased,
there are no additional costs
since the tape can be erased
after use for a new message to
be recorded;
 The equipment is easy to use
and to operate especially with
smart phones.
 Audiotapes are easily duplicated
in whatever quantities are
needed;
 Ideal for teaching foreign
languages;
 Provide a stimulating alternative
to reading and listening to the
teacher;
 Present verbal messages more
dramatically than text can do;
 The audiotape can be replayed at
the convenience of the listener;
 Audiotapes and cassettes are
portable and can even be used in
the field with battery power;
 The instructors can record their
own audio taped lessons easily
and economically and when the
material are no longer needed, the
tape can be easily erased and
reused.
• Disadvantages  Compact Discs ( CD)
• Audiotapes do not provoke  Made using digital
attention. For some students, recording where analog
when listening to an information such as music,
audiotape they become speech or print is
distracted and their attention transformed into digital
wanders away from listening; form. Cds allow a lot of
• It is difficult to vary the information to be stored.
pacing of an audiotape;  To play CDs, you need a
• It is difficult to locate specific CD player or a
segment from an audiotape; computer/Lap top with CD
• Audiotapes can be erased deck.
easily.
 Once digitized, audio media  MOTION MEDIA: These
can be delivered through the refer to those media formats
Internet. The Internet where moving images can be
allows you to find and recorded for playback and
download very specific viewing by the audience. Both
sound and vision (picture) are
audio clips for use in your
recorded. These formats
classroom. The increasing include the film and the video.
availability of Internet audio The video has replaced the
has resulted in it becoming film in most instructional
an emerging audio situations because it is much
technology in today’s easier to produce video
classroom. materials compared to film due
to the costs involved.
 There are different formats  The resultant video files
of video. Among them can be manipulated,
include: videotapes,
edited and enhanced
videodiscs and compact
discs. using a digital video
 Digital Video Camera : The editing software.
most common option for  The digital video
creating digital video camera has the
recording. It captures and capability to capture
stores the target image in a
moving images just like
digital format that can be
downloaded to a personal film and create motion
computer or lap top. just like film.
 Film refers to celluloid
materials on which a series
of still images is chemically
imprinted. When these
transparent images are
projected at a very fast
speed of 24 frames or
images per second, human
beings perceive them as
moving images. Film is used
to create dramatic effects
since events can be slowed
down or speeded up.
 Advantages of motion
media : Moving images
have an obvious advantage
over still visuals when
portraying concepts where
motion is essential to
mastery.
 Processes: Operations, such
as assembly line steps or
procedures where sequential
movements are critical can
be shown more effectively
by means of motion media.
 Risk-free observation:
Visual recordings allow
learners to observe
phenomena that might be
dangerous to view directly
such as volcanic eruption,
warfare, etc.
 Skill Learning: Mastery of
physical skills that requires
repeated observation and
practice. Through recorded
media, performance can be
viewed over and over again
for emulation.
 Affective Learning: Due to
their great potential for
emotional impact, video and
film can be used to shape
personal and social
attitudes.
 Problem solving: Open-
ended dramatizations are
used to present unresolved
confrontations, leaving it to
viewers to discuss various
ways of dealing with the
problem.
COMPUTER-BASED MULTIMEDIA
AND HYPERMEDIA
 Despite technological
advances, education has
changed very little. Teachers
still teach the same way they
were taught and are
comfortable using the tried-
and-true strategies from
which they learned.
However, application of
new technological tools
makes many enhancements
to these strategies possible
(Lever-Duffy et al.; 2005).
 To overcome any possible
resistance to using the
computer, it is best to begin
by becoming more familiar
with computers.
 Due to its capability, the
computer has the capacity to
store and manipulate
information. Hence has
become one of the best
instructional tools in today’s
classroom.
 The computer has the ability In Computer Assisted
to control and integrate a Instruction (CAI) , the
wide variety of media, such learner interacts directly
as; still visuals, moving with the computer as part
images or printed of instructional activity.
information.
E.g when materials are
There are two major presented by the computer
applications of the computer
in a controlled sequence.
in instruction: namely:
Or as a creative activity
 Computer assisted initiated by the student .
instruction and
 Computer managed
instruction.
In Computer Managed To use the computer for
Instruction (CMI) , the teaching and learning, you
computer helps both the need the help of computer
teacher and the student in hardware and software.
maintaining information and Computer hardware includes
guiding the instructional all the components that are
process. The computer is also physical, and touchable pieces
used as a tool during or equipment. Computer
software refers to the
instruction to perform tasks
programmes or instructions
such as; complex
installed on a computer and
calculations, data
written in special computer
manipulation, word languages that tell a computer
processing, and data how to accomplish a given
presentation. task.
 Computer Storage : CD-R (Re-writable) can be
All computers have a hard used to record information
disk drive to store and are reusable.
programmes and data.
However, there are
additional storage devices
such as Flash Disks, CDs
and DVDs .
 Note that CD-ROMs carry
information that you can
only read but cannot be used
to store information.
 Role of Computers in  basics of computing
Instruction including learning about
 The computer can perform data processing and
different functions. A analysis, computer hardware
computer can be; an object and software, creating files
of instruction, an and storing information, etc.
instructional tool, and an  2. As an instructional Tool :
instructional device. You can also use the
 1.As an object of computer to serve the role of
instruction: You can offer a typewriter for word
computer literacy to your processing and desktop
student where you teach publishing,
them the
to create other instructional
media such as slides, to
present information and
data, to communicate with
other people through e-
mails, and World Wide Web
(WWW), and as a source for
data retrieval.
Writing: the computer is
being used widely for word
processing and desktop
publishing.
As teachers, we need to
encourage our students to
embrace the new technologies
and not to teach the way we
were taught. The more we
promote usage of computers by
students to write assignments,
projects, and homework, the
more we promote its usage as a
learning tool. We should even
encourage the students to
integrate media such as
graphics, sound and motion into
the content that they write.
 Retrieving Information: them with complex tasks that
today’s students’ need to can link them with real-world
learn how to manage problems. Such software can
then provide students with
information, to retrieve, opportunities for drill and
sort, and organize practice (drill and practice is a
information, and also to method of learning that presents
evaluate their findings a lengthy series of items to be
(Heinich et al.; 1996:231). rehearsed and it is used with
skills that require repetitive
 3.As an Instructional
practice for mastery), tutoring
Device. Students can now (the computer plays the role of a
use different software teacher), offer simulation to
capable of providing … real-life situations .
 In a simulation, the learner
confronts an approximation
of a real-life situation to
allow realistic practice
without any risk or expenses
otherwise involved) , make
discoveries (a general term
used to describe activities
that are undertaken by
students using an inductive
approach to learning) and
solve problems.
 Besides the roles that we
have discussed, the
computer can play other
vital roles. For example, the
computer can integrate
several media and combine
them into a single
presentation. For example, it
can combine text, graphics,
audio, and even video into a
single digital presentation.
This capability is called
Computer-multimedia.
Multimedia systems provide
learning experiences to
individuals and groups
where multi-sensory
involvement is emphasized.
The computer is also able to
link media (referred to as
Hypermedia or Linked
media). With hypermedia,
one can compose and
display information that
might include text, audio,
and visual information.
Hypermedia are computer
software that use elements
of text, graphics, video, and
audio that are connected in
such a manner that the user
can easily move within the
information. Each user uses
a pathway that is unique to
his/her style of thinking and
processing information.
Hypermedia provides a
learning environment that is
interactive and exploratory.
TRENDS IN MEDIA AND
TECHNOLOGY
 Educational Technology as a
field of study continues to
grow and evolve (Newby et
al.; 2006). Today, we see a
number of trends that will
help us project where the
field is headed for the
future. Among the current
trends include:
 1.Discipline
convergence.
 The disciplines of instructional
design, educational media, and
educational computing are
merging into a single discipline
that we call educational
technology.
 The computer has not only
demonstrated its capability to
integrate other forms of media,
but it has also proven itself to be
the forerunner of the digital
revolution. Due to the advances in
computing, many digital devices
have evolved.
• Once you have a computer Driving these changes and
system in the classroom, the media convergence is the
possibilities for expanding computer’s ability to reduce
its capabilities by the all conventional information
addition of digital devices forms into a common form
are increased. (digital form). The digital
2. Media convergence. form will allow the
Where once media combination of text,
developed separately, each numbers, sound, motion
with its own technological images, simulations,
basis, today all the media integrated learning systems
are converging on the and job aids.
computer.
For example, digital media 3. The growth of the
can be reproduced Internet. Another area of
flawlessly, they can be change in media and
recorded on computer- technology is linked to
readable media such as telecommunication
flash disks, CD-ROMs, revolution.
and DVDs, and can then be Telecommunication tools
sent anywhere in the world permit the computer to
by computers over the communicate with other
internet without loss of computers to share
information.
information.
Today, we live in an era of This has created what is
global computer referred to as
interconnectivity that brings a
whole world of information
‘information
to the personal computer user superhighway’.
through computer networking Information
and telecommunication. By superhighways will
accessing the Internet, one
deliver vast amounts of
can instantly locate up-to-
date information, information to
communicate with others and individuals at school,
explore the far corners of work and home.
cyberspace (Newby et al.;
2006:58)
4. Increasing computer This has implications on
power with decreasing size affordability and access to
and cost. Continuing connectivity. More people
developments in computing can afford to use the
are affecting more than just computer but this has had
media. For example, storage negative effect. For
capacities are increasing, example, security threats
and wireless technologies and misuse of the
are making it possible for technology particularly
people to use computers and when handled by groups and
the Internet without being individuals with sinister
connected to a wired motives and for clandestine
connection. activities.
5.Decentralizing Virtual learning communities
Instruction: A major and environments may take
change in trend is expected students anywhere they wish
in the nature of instruction to learn and at any time they
itself. For example, distance wish to learn. Master
delivery and alternative teachers may also join
delivery modes will redefine together from anywhere to
instruction. Classrooms will team-teach their particular
need to change to areas of specialisation.
accommodate virtual Communities of learners may
communities of learners assemble any time, any place
located anywhere in the and engage in learning.
world.
6. The changing role of the Teachers will no longer
teacher : Teachers might operate from isolated
find themselves in new and classrooms but will become
more challenging roles. part of a collegial network
Rather than directing focused on high quality
instruction in a single educational practices.
classroom setting, they will Technology will play a large
facilitate learning by role in instigating the
creating optimal changes both in our society
instructional experiences in general and education in
and assisting students particular.
through them.
Self Assessment Activities
1) Citing examples from a classroom setting discuss the role
instructional media in teaching and learning.
2) Davies (1980: 193), states that the functions of media are either
“aids to instruction” or “Aids to learning”. Explain what this
statement mean to you as a teacher. Cite examples to support your
answer.
3) Explain how you will apply Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience
(1969) to teach a selected sub-topic from one of your teaching
subjects.
4) Educational Technology as a field of study continues to grow and
evolve (Newby et al.; 2006). Today, we see a number of trends
that will help us project where the field is headed for the future”.
Explain any four trends that will help us predict the trend in
Educational Technology.
5) Brown (1983) identifies the following as the functions of
media: to save time; to stimulate interest; to encourage
students’ participation; to provide a review; to help students
learn to communicate ideas visually; to provide medium for
individual or group reports; and to make a classroom dynamic,
relevant and attractive. Based on a topic from one of your
teaching subjects identify THREE non-projected visual
media, TWO printed media and TWO projected media that
you will use to achieve all the above media functions and
explain how you will use each one of the selected media in
your teaching.
UNIT 4: SELECTION OF MEDIA
FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING
Unit Objectives: By the end of this unit the learner should be
able to:
1) Enumerate the advantages of the various instructional media
in teaching and learning;
2) Identify the criteria for selecting instructional media during
instruction;
3) Describe the media selection Process;
4) Describe the general principles of media utilization according
to Brown and others and according to Erickson and Curl;
5) Describe the various media selection models ;
6) Locate relevant media to use during instruction.
Introduction
 We need to remember that  Information and
our main aim during the environment will change
depending on the
lesson is to help students instructional goal.
learn. You must be aware Therefore, as the expected
by now, that in order for learning outcomes change,
learning to take place, so must the teacher change
instruction may be the way he/she arranges the
instructional environment.
necessary. Instruction For instruction to take place,
refers to the arrangement instructional media are used
of information and since they form part of the
environment to facilitate instructional environment.
learning.
 You need to note that it is
not any media that you use
that can perform the
required instructional role.
Research indicates that most
media can perform most
instructional functions to a
certain extent (Aronson,
1977; Briggs, 1968; Briggs
& wager, 1981; Clark &
Salomon, 1986). According
to Gagne, Briggs & Wager
(1988):
 most writers on media selection
models also agree that there is no
one medium that is universally
superior to all types of desired
outcomes and for all learners.
 However, some media are better
at doing certain things than others
and no single medium can be best
for all instructional situations. We
therefore need to use a variety of
media during instruction. The
million dollar question to ask is,
‘what medium or media shall I
use in my lesson?’
Advantages of different
Instructional Media
• Text books are economical and can be used again and
again by many students;
• Printed visuals provide a representation of verbal
information; they are easy to use and readily available
from books, magazines, newspapers, they can be used
to reconstruct past events etc.;
• Projected visuals allow for instructor control as can
highlight important details;
• Audio media can be used to provide a stimulating
alternative to reading and listening to the teacher, can
present verbal messages more dramatically than text.
• Video clips allow learners to observe phenomena that might be
dangerous to view directly e.g. volcanic eruption, use of
moving images help to effectively portray procedures,
operations such as science experiments in which sequential
movement is critical can be shown more effectively by use of a
video clip;
• real objects are more concrete and provide a hands-on
learning experience emphasizing real world applications;
• Multimedia provide multiple learning modalities and actively
involves the learners; they address different learning styles and
preferences, they cover the various learning domains and
provide a high degree of realism.
 The instructional/learning process
involves the selection,
arrangement, and delivery of
information in an appropriate
environment. Usually the
arrangement of information and
the environment is normally the
responsibility of the instructor and
the designers of media. As a
teacher, you need to select,
arrange, and deliver the
information in an appropriate
environment so that learners can
interact with it and convert it into
knowledge.
 As a teacher, you will have to
decide which instructional
medium or media to use for a
particular learning situation.
 You have to make informed
choices.
 To make an informed choice of
medium/media from the range
of media that we have
discussed, you need to know
the advantages and limitations
of each medium and you need
to understand the media
selection criteria that will
inform your choice of media.
 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING MEDIA DURING
INSTRUCTION
 To select the most appropriate When do I use media?
medium/media for your lesson,
you will need to ask yourself  You will need to use
several questions. The following media if it will assist you
questions can guide you in to achieve your lesson
selecting the most appropriate
media during instruction: objective(s) or learning
 When do I use media during the outcomes. Remember that
lesson? media can be used at the
 What will the media do for my introduction to a lesson,
students?
during the lesson, or when
 How will I select the right media?
concluding the lesson.
 How will I prepare for the use of
media?
 What will the media do for my
students? Active learner
participation enhances learning
and the most effective learning
situations are those that require
learners to perform some
activities building towards the
lesson objectives. According to
Romiszowski (1988:62), media
selection is based on two classes
of media characteristics. These are
the essential media characteristics
that control the clarity of the
message, and optional media
characteristics that improve the
quality of presentation.
Each type of media has a set of
advantages (e.g. motion, realism,
sound) and a set of educational
limitations (e.g. room size, group
size, room darkening, etc).
 How will I select the right
media? In selecting the right
media, two main steps have to be
followed.
 The first step is that you must
determine your instructional
goal(s) and secondly, you must
select the most appropriate media
to meet the instructional goal(s).
 To determine the instructional  To select the media that meets your
goal(s), you need to consider: instructional goal(s), you will need
1) The nature of the subject being to answer the following questions:
taught;  What are the characteristics of my
learners? (e.g. the number of
2)The general and specific
students, their preferred learning
instructional objectives to be
styles, learner variable such as
achieved. For example, what reader or non-reader, entry
information, skills, attitudes, or competencies, etc).
behaviour should the students
 Will the media be used for large
have acquired at the end of the
group, small group or individual
lesson as a result of instruction on instruction/study?
that particular topic?
 Will the media be visual, oral/audio,
3)The nature of subject audio-visual, a combination,
matter/content to be learned. projected, or non-projected? (What
media matches your instructional
goal and objectives?).
 What specific purpose should
the media achieve? (arouse
motivation or maintain interest
in the lesson).
 What media options are
available to choose from?
 Which medium or combination
of media will be most
economical yet effective?
 Will the media selected
provide for learner
participation?
 The general media selection
criteria include the following:
1.The expected learning outcomes
or nature of instructional
objectives,
2. Nature of Content,
3.Instructional Strategies being
used ,
4.Types of learning tasks facing the
learners,
5.Learner Characteristics
6. Essential Media Characteristics,
7.Practical Constraints
8.Teachers’ attitudes towards media
9. Appropriateness of the Media.
Expected Learning Outcomes: Your awareness of the
expected learning outcomes influences the choice of media.
Before selecting any instructional media, always ask your-self
this question; “What type(s) of media can help me to produce
the behaviour required from the learner at the end of the
instructional process?”.
Learning outcomes could include: psychomotor, attitudinal,
intellectual, cognitive and verbal learning outcomes. The type
of learning outcome is important in selecting the most
appropriate medium or media to use for any given content or
lesson. Suppose you are dealing with the psychomotor
learning, what types of media could you use?
Nature of Content: The media that you select to use should suit the
content to be delivered. If for example you are teaching a lesson in
Geography that focuses on World Climates, you will need to use a
world map to help the learners locate the different regions of the
world that are influenced by the different climates. If you are
teaching a lesson in Biology on blood circulation, you might need to
use a model so that students can observe inside details to understand
how blood flows to and from the heart.
Instructional Strategies being used: Learning strategies refer to the
various procedures used to involve the learners in the learning process. For
example, asking questions, reflection after reading, group work, etc. Some
of the learning strategies include: interaction, self-paced learning, sharing
of experiences, and drill-and-practice.
 If in your lesson for example you would like the students to work
together and share experiences, then you cannot use a one directional
medium such as audio media. Alternatively, if students have to learn a
certain skill and demonstration is necessary, then you will need to use
real objects or simulations.
Learner Characteristics: As you select media, you need to have a
good knowledge of the target audience or students. You need to know
your students in terms of:
 How many are they? You cannot hold a single photograph in front of a
class of forty students and expect all of them to view it clearly from
their seats.
 What are their entry competencies/prior knowledge/assumed
knowledge?
 What are the students preferred learning styles? Some learners depend
more on language or spoken word to learn, others depend on visualization,
others on hands-on experiences, while others depend on logical reasoning
and experimentation.
 What is their background experience? If learners are entering a new
conceptual area for the first time or they are meeting the content for the
very first time, they will require direct and concrete experiences.
 Learner’s social-cultural background- It is important to consider the
learner’s cultural background when selecting media because some media
are interpreted based on the audience cultural experiences.
 Unique learner characteristics- Learners in class might have some very
unique characteristics. For example, learning disability. It would be
unrealistic to use printed materials with a group of slow learners since this
would create more problems for them.
Types of learning tasks facing the learners: The learning tasks
facing the learners influence the choice of media. For example,
what type of skill do you want the learners to acquire? Is it
observational skills? In such a case, you will need to use
descriptive visuals that answer the question; ‘What do you see?’
or you want them to develop problem solving skills?
Practical constraints: Include things like; cost, availability,
technical capability to use the media, etc. You can only use media
if available when needed and if you are able to use it. So, always
consider having an alternative type of media. You cannot use
media when it is not available even if it is the best option for the
lesson.
 Appropriateness of the media: Each type of media has certain
unique advantages, which makes it more suitable in meeting certain
instructional goals compared to others.
As you select your media, ask yourself the following questions:
 Will the selected media accomplish the desired learning task?
 Is the media suitable for the class level?
Teachers’ attitudes towards media: If the teacher has phobia for a
certain media, he/she is unlikely to use it even when it would be the
best alternative for the given instructional situation. Usually attitude
is linked to teachers’ lack of skills needed to use the media. It is
common to find that teachers will occasionally choose media when
it fits their teaching habits, skills and preferences.
Essential Media Characteristics: Media have different
properties. Some media allow us to transport events through
time such as photographs, some media create motion, some
allow interior details to be observed, while other media can be
transported through space and reproduced anywhere, such as
radio and Television broadcasts allowing information from a
central place to be heard. These are the qualities of media that
we need to exploit when selecting media.
Each type of media has certain unique advantages, which
makes it more suitable in meeting certain instructional goals
and objectives compared to others.
Factors Influencing Media Selection

Subject Matter and

required student
Type of performance
Learning task Target Population
(Objectives) –Location, Size,
etc.
Methods
Selection

Practical design
Constraints: money,
Characteristics of time, what is available
Students: learning
style, skills

Media Selection (the last

decision)

Teachers’
attitudes, skills, Teaching space,
etc. lighting, facilities,
etc

(Adapted from Romiszowski, 1988:57)

MEDIA SELECTION PROCESS
 Since media selection
should be systematic, for
you to select the most
appropriate media for any
lesson you need to follow a
certain process.
 Step by Step Process in
Media Selection
 For you to select the most
appropriate instructional
media during the lesson, you
will need to follow the
following steps:
1)Determine whether the
purpose of your lesson is to
transmit information or
instruction. When a lesson
involves transmission of
information, the learners are
not held responsible for
measurable, specific actions
or performance since the
content is presented to give
an overview of ideas,
subject matter, to generate
interest or to provide
background information.
 When a lesson involves 2)Determine the transmission
instruction, learners are method. This focuses on
required to give the methods used to
demonstrable proof that they transmit the content to the
have learned and they are learners. The most
held responsible for the dominant methods are;
success of the lesson. Both direct instruction, indirect
of these categories have instruction, interactive
sufficiently different instruction, and
characteristics to suggest individualized
that different media might
instruction.
be justified.
In most cases, direct and
indirect instruction are
teacher-centered approaches
and the most commonly
used media are those which
are teacher controlled while
interactive and
individualized instruction
which are learner-centered
are best presented using
instructional media that are
leaner controlled.
 3)Determine the lesson
characteristics. Once the
lesson objectives have been
formulated, the learning
outcomes are determined
and this helps you in
deciding on the learning
experiences that will be
organized for the students.
The learning experiences
help in selecting the types of
media to be used.
 4)Select an initial class of others are also able to
media. The selection of the communicate with graphics,
media format depends on certain but can also add an element of
practical considerations with motion.
respect to media characteristics.
Other media are especially
Each type of medium has a
made to provide sound, while
number of characteristics,
other media tend to involve the
including special capabilities
and limitations, according to the
learners more easily than
quality and type of others. Some media are
communication you are economical in presenting
expecting of it. For example, verbal information, while
some media are capable of others are convenient to
presenting information in produce, modify and revise.
graphic forms,
 5)Analyse the media
characteristics. You need to
refer to your initial choice of
media and review the list of
unique characteristics of each
medium, its advantages and
disadvantages for presenting
that particular lesson content.
This helps you to review your
media selection and to refine
the selection by either
retaining the same media
selection or reconsider your
decision.
If you decide that the initial
media selection is no longer
appropriate, then you have
to go back and make another
choice of media format.
Once you are satisfied with
the choice of media format,
you should go ahead and
obtain specific media and
materials.
 A media format refers to the  Obtaining specific materials for
physical form in which a the identified media format will
given message is involve one of three
alternatives:
incorporated and displayed.
1) selecting available materials
Media formats include for
2) modifying existing materials
example, flip charts, audio,
video, or computer 3) designing new materials.
multimedia. Each media  The simplest, most cost-
effective way to incorporate
format has different
instructional materials into a
strengths and limitations in lesson is to use existing
terms of types of messages materials. Locating and
that can be recorded and selecting instructional materials
displayed. involve the following steps:
 Determine needs. What are
you trying to accomplish?
What needs might specific
instructional materials
address?
 Check a variety of sources.
 Obtain and preview the
materials.
 Compare any competing
materials.
 Make your selection.
 If you cannot locate entirely
suitable materials and media
off the shelf, you might be able
to modify what is available.
For example, you might have a
video clip that shows a needed
visual sequence but the audio
portion of the video is
inappropriate because it is too
advanced for the students. In
such a case, you might show
the video with the sound
turned off and then provide a
narration yourself.
 In case you fail to find any
readily available media or
media that could be
modified to meet your
instructional needs, then you
might have to design new
media. In the event that you
have to design new media,
you need to consider certain
basic elements when
designing new materials.
These include:
• Instructional objectives- what do
you want the students to learn?
• Audience- What are the
characteristics of your learners?
Do they have the prerequisite
knowledge and skills to use or
learn from the materials?
• Cost- Do you have sufficient funds
to meet the costs of the materials?
• Technical expertise- do you have
the necessary technical expertise
to design and produce the kind of
materials you wish to use?
• Equipment- do you have the
necessary equipment to
produce or use the materials
that you intend to design?
• Facilities- if your design
calls for use of special
facilities for preparation or
use of the materials, are
such facilities available?
• Time- can you afford to
spend whatever time
necessary to design and
produce the kind of
materials you have in mind?
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
MEDIA UTILISATION
Brown et al. (1973:27) 1. No one medium is best
proposed some general for all instructional
purposes. The best choice of
principles in media use
media depends on what type
which are useful in of media shows best the
media-selection principle being taught. For
decision-making. These example, if the third
principles should guide dimension plays an
us as we select and use important part in
communicating your
media. Among these
message, then you should
principles include: expect better results from a
model.
2. Media uses should be
consistent with objectives.
3.Users must familiarize
themselves with media
content.
4.Media must be appropriate
for the instructional format.
5.Media must fit student
capabilities and learning
styles.
6.Media are neither good
nor bad simply because they
are concrete or abstract.
7.Media should be chosen
objectively rather than on
the basis of personal
preferences or bias.
8.Physical conditions
surrounding uses of media
affect significantly the
results obtained.
 Erickson and Curl (1972:163) • identify and write out
also suggest five media appropriate teaching
utilization principles which purposes and specific
should inform the teacher in performance criteria and
making day-to-day decisions
conditions in clear and
about their use of media. These
consistent form;
principles include:
1) Teachers should base their • locate suitable media
selection of media on valid format;
learning objectives and the • select specific media to
unique characteristics of make optimum
learners. This basic ability contributions to the
demands subsidiary abilities objectives that are
to: formulated.
2) Use of media should be
preceded by the development
of adequate learner readiness
for effective participation. As
a teacher, prepare a readiness
plan of what to do as you
utilize the media; guide the
learners in determining
individual or group needs for
the media selected; and relate
specific media to specific
problem-solving activities.
3)Physical facilities and
conditions for using media
should be arranged by the
teacher in a manner that
provides for economy of time
and optimum learner attention
and participation. You need the
ability to control equipment
and physical facilities. This
demands that as a teacher
should make efficient
arrangement for using and
responding to media
presentation.
4)Teachers should guide 5) Teachers should subject both
learners in their response to media and their own utilization
experiences with media. The techniques to continual
teacher needs to identify and evaluation. The teacher should
call for learner activity in have the ability to appraise the
value of media and the
direct relationship to
appropriateness of utilization
teaching purposes and
techniques. This demands that
objectives, organize student the teacher has the ability to
action around imaginative, judge the worth of all media in
challenging and unique terms of specific learning
problem-solving objectives, without losing sight
experiences. of human values.
 MEDIA SELECTION MODELS
 To assist in media selection
decisions, media selection
models are used. These model
consist of basic elements that
need to be taken into
consideration when choosing
media.
 Several media selection
models have been used.
Among them include; the
basic model, matrix- based
models, worksheet-based
models, and flowchart-based
models.
 The Basic Model : This model is
based on the application of the
systems approach. The systems
approach is a procedural way of
thinking about problems in
education. A systems approach
can be defined as; ‘an overall
approach that involves tackling
problems in a disciplined manner
keeping priorities in mind. The
sub-system making up the overall
system can be designed, fitted,
checked, and operated so as to
achieve the overall objective
efficiently (Rowntree, 1974).
 A system can be defined as
the sum total of interrelated
parts working together to
form a complete whole.
In a systems approach, each
decision is justified in terms
of pre-planned objectives.
The systems approach is a
problem-solving method
that helps to:
1) Define the problem as
clearly as possible;
2) Analyze the problem and
identify alternative
solutions;
3) Select from the alternatives
and develop the most viable
solution mix;
4) Implement and test the
solution;
5) Evaluate the effectiveness
and worth of the solution.
 The systems approach has
four key components
namely:
1) Analysis: analysis of needs
(i.e. of students’ needs, of
system resources like space,
time, materials and students’
abilities). These analysis
leads to a statement of the
problem in terms of the
overall objectives.
2) Design: which involves
identification of the required
solution and strategies for
addressing the problem including
the formulation of objectives.
3) Development: which involves the
planning of available resources,
preparation of materials and
selection of presentation media.
4)Implementation/Evaluation: which
involves trying out the solution
either in a small or large scale and
evaluating the effectiveness of the
solution for improvement.
STEPS IN THE BASIC MODEL OF
MEDIA SELECTION
1) Define behavioural objectives
for each topic
2) Practice “instructional events’ for
each objective
3) 3a. Match the necessary stimuli to
the appropriate sensory channels
for communication
• b. Identify the desired student
activity and
• c. Appropriate learning grouping
(numbers/ leaders/ teacher control
4) 4a. Assemble a short list of
suitable media which satisfy
requirements of 3 above
 4b.Delete any that are
impractical/unavailable
 4c. Delete any which are unlikely
to suit your target students.
5) Look for media appropriate to
several related objectives or topics
and plan an ideal ‘media mix’ for
your presentation (consider
teacher preferences and skills)
6) 6a. Inspect available presentations
in the selected media
6b.Prepare a detailed specification
for each presentation.
7) 7a.Select for agreement with
the steps 1,2,3 above
7b. Produce, or commission
if specialist skills required.
8)Design system for
implementation, follow-up
and evaluation of lesson.
9) Implement the lesson
10) Evaluate the lesson
Decisions for Selecting Visual Media (adapted from Romiszowski, 1988:67)

Does the topic Is object too Are important Is the

deal with large or too aspects of the Object
concrete small to be object hidden
easily or obscured?
available?
observable
observed?
objects?

Why not use

the real
object?
Does the topic Does topic
deal with concepts require a three
not themselves dimensional Consider
observable, but
presentation? using a
with observable
effect? model or
mock-up

Does the topic

require that students
learn to recognize or A motion
film/video
copy motions?
or working
model or
live
demonstra
tion
needed
Visual media
probably not Still visual
necessary media are
good enough
Decisions for Selecting Verbal and Sound Media (adapted from Romiszowski, 1988:70)
Sound media is
Are Sounds an
essential for
integral part of the
topic? effective learning
(Live or pre-
recorded)

A written text will

be superior to
Is verbal Is the topic
spoken
communication complex or
commentary
abstract or is its
the main
structure
objective?
involved?

Is the topic Conside

Can the topic be Is the audio taught ra
adequately content regularly and recorded
communicated capable of the treatment tape/dis
by visuals and being pre- c
always the
written caption? prepared as same?
script?

Consider Live commentary

purely visual by a teacher or
media instructor
Media Stimuli and types of Learning (adopted from ‘Media stimuli and types of learning’ in audiovisual Instruction)
Locating Relevant Instructional Materials
Learning Objective Learning factual Learning visual Learning Learning Performing Developing
information Identification principles, procedures skilled perceptual desirable
concepts and motor acts attitudes, opinions
rules and motivations

Type of Instructional
media

Still pictures Medium High Medium Medium Low Low

Motion Pictures Medium High High High Medium Medium

Television Medium Medium High Medium Low Medium

3-D Objects Low High Low Low Low Low

Audio Recordings Medium Low Low Medium Low Medium

Demonstration Low Medium Low High Medium Medium

Printed materials Medium Low Medium Medium Low Medium

Oral Presentation Medium Low Medium Medium Low Medium

Locating Relevant Instructional
Materials
 Thousands of instructional
materials are available for use
in various learning situations if
you can locate them. Possible
locations include:
1)At school. You need to
develop a culture of collecting
instructional materials and
building a collection of such
resources in your school. So
check what types of resources
your school might have
accumulated over time.
In the neighbourhood. Identify
potential sources of instructional
materials in the local area. These
could be the University library,
national libraries, foreign
embassies accredited to the
country, international
organizations, National
Curriculum Center, Government
Ministries and departments, etc.
Your local daily newspapers are
also a potential source of
instructional materials as they
contain pictures, photographs, and
textual materials (articles) of
interest in your subject.
2) The Internet. The World
Wide Web is a valuable source
of instructional materials. You
could use search engines to
search for the materials and to
access the various databases.
Huge amounts of already
prepared materials could be
located and you are no longer
limited to textbooks and
resources in the library as the
Internet makes available
information resources from
around the world.
3) Professional organization. Use
the opportunity when you are
holding subject meetings to find
out from colleagues what types
of instructional materials might
be available for teaching in your
subject.
4) Commercial Vendors. Most
suppliers of textbooks and
stationery also supply some
instructional materials like
charts, laboratory manuals,
workbooks, software, which
provide a wealth of information
for classroom use.
5)Publishers: Commercial
publishers and distributors
publish a catalogue listing
the various types of
instructional materials
available for the different
subjects. Please consult
your local publishers for
advice.
Self Assessment Activities
1) List the advantages of using the following media in teaching and
learning:
(i) Print media (ii) Audio media (iii) Non-Projected visual media
(iv) Multi media (v) Projected media.
2) Explain four factors that you will consider when selecting media
for teaching and learning .
3) Erickson & Curl (1972:163) proposed five general media
utilization principles which should inform the teacher in making
day-to-day decisions about their use of media. Explain how you
will apply these five general media utilization principles as
proposed by Erickson and Curl when selecting and using media in
your class.
4) Media selection should be systematic and for you to select the
most appropriate media for any lesson you need to follow
certain steps. Describe the steps that you will follow in order
to select the most appropriate media for any given lesson.
5) Explain the media selection Process.
6) (a) List three media selection models that you could use to
select instructional media for teaching and learning.
(b) Describe the steps to be followed when using the basic
model to select instructional media in a classroom.
7) (a) Define the concept “ Systems Approach”.
(b) Explain how the systems approach relates to media
selection and use in a classroom setting.
UNIT 5: CREATING YOUR OWN
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit the learner should be able to:
1) Explain the rationale for creating your own
instructional materials.
2) Identify the design process to follow in creating your
own instructional materials.
3) Describe the procedure for designing and producing
different instructional materials.
2) Design, plan and produce different instructional
materials.
•
Introduction
Teachers have long been known for their creative use of
available tools and resources to produce instructional
materials. Creating your own instructional materials is
sometimes unavoidable in a classroom, given that
teachers are faced with different and unique
instructional situations. Since our students differ in
their characteristics and learning needs, available
instructional materials might not always work for our
own situations. This calls for creativity on the part of
the teachers to design and produce their own
instructional materials.
So far we have discussed the various types of instructional media
materials that we could use in our teaching but think for a
moment about your own classroom where you attended your
secondary education. Were most of the media that we have
discussed in unit 3 used by the teachers in your school?
If you think hard about the reason why the teachers never used
different types of media, the main reason is that media were not
readily available. The situation is not likely to be much different
when you eventually become a high school teacher and join those
teachers who taught you. But with a little creativity, you could
design and produce your own instructional media to meet your
instructional needs and make media materials available in the
classroom.
The Design Process to Follow in
Producing own Instructional Materials
Admittedly the instructional materials are very scarce in our
classrooms yet we all want is to improve the way we help our
students learn by enriching the learning environment with
appropriate instructional media and materials. Therefore, we
have to be creative as teachers in order to make our
instructional environment more interesting and motivating in
order to help the students learn.
 Designing or creating instructional materials deals with
creative thinking and an analysis of how the creative thinking
process is successfully used.
Three steps are followed in the process of creating
instructional materials. These steps include:
 Desire: You need to have an initial motivation to want to solve an
instructional problem with which you are concerned;
 Preparation: You need to gather information relative to the
problem as revealed by the planning stages of audience
identification, objective statement, and content listing.
 Manipulation: You need to play with a number of ideas to devise
one or more possible solutions, or to find a new pattern of
treating the content that differs from that which has been familiar
(Kemp & Dayton, 1985). Remember that most instructional
media can perform most instructional functions to a certain extent
but some are better at achieving certain learning outcomes than
others. Hence be selective in your use of media.
 Creation of instructional media by you as a teacher could be
influenced by any one of the following intentions that might be
served by media when you use it either with individuals, small
groups, or with large groups:
 Motivate an interest or a degree of action
 Present information;
 Provide instruction.
For motivational purposes, dramatic or entertainment
techniques may be employed. The desired result is to generate
interest or stimulate learners to take certain action. This should
involve accomplishing objectives that affect personal attitudes,
values, and emotions.
For informational purposes, the instructional media would be used
in a presentation made before a group of learners. The content and
form of the presentation would be general in nature, serving as an
introduction, an overview, a report, or background knowledge. For
example, you might be teaching a lesson on mining in Kenya. In
such a lesson, you might need to inform the students where different
minerals are found in Kenya before proceeding with the details.
Usually, when viewing informational-type materials, the individuals
are passive viewers or listeners.
For instructional purposes, while presentation of information is
important, attention is also given to involving the participants in
either mental or overt activities relating to the instructional media
being used so that learning can take place.
 The materials themselves should be designed more systematically in
terms of learning principles in order to provide effective instruction
but at the same time, they should be enjoyable and provide pleasant
experiences. It is desirable to make provision for the individual
learners to use instructional media on their own.
 Once you have formulated an idea, you need to build on that idea
by translating the general idea into clear-cut and specific
statement of one or more objectives for the planned learning
within an instructional context.
 Depending on the content to be taught, you formulate objectives to
address each one of the broad learning domains. For example, you
might state your instructional objectives to address the following
learning outcomes:
 Help learners to apply certain steps
in a given process;
 Help learners to practice a certain
skill or attitude;
 Help learners to respond to a certain
social need.
As you design instructional
materials, always consider the
following :
1) Prepare a lesson Plan and refer
repeatedly to your instructional
plan. The lesson plan contains the
direction and activities that you
have determined your students
need. Within the plan, look closely
at the overall learning objectives
and the key activities that need to
occur so that students meet them.
Ask your self the question: ‘What
needs to be constructed so that the
activities are successful?’. For
example, do students need some
explanation, guided practice or
some observation?
2) Put yourself in the learners’ shoes.
What would you want to
experience in order to effectively
learn the materials?
3) Construct the draft set of the
materials suited to the learning
outcomes.
4) Review the materials to ensure that
you make all needed changes.
HOW TO DESIGN AND PRODUCE DIFFERENT
TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
 Process of Visual Design
Designing a visual display begins
with gathering or producing the
individual pictorial and text
elements that will be used in the
display. At this stage, it is
assumed that you have already
determined the students’ needs
and interests regarding the lesson
to be taught and have decided on
the objectives to be achieved
through the visuals that you are
planning to present whether via a
bulletin board, flip chart, picture
mounting, overhead
transparencies, PowerPoint
presentation, printed handouts, or
other computer screen displays.
 In your visual design, you need
to consider how you will
achieve the visual design
goal, which encompasses;
ensuring legibility, helping
the viewer to quickly see your
message, and focusing
attention on key points.
The key design suggestions to
consider include:
• Visual elements
• Verbal /Textual elements
• Elements that add appeal.
 Visual elements
The type of visuals selected
for a particular situation
depends on the learning
task. For example, based on
Dale’s Cone of Experience,
visual symbols can be
divided into three
categories, namely;
realistic, analogic, and
organizational (Houghton
& Willows, 1987).
 Realistic visuals show the actual
object under study. The degree of
realism can be heightened by use of
realistic colours, which is one of the
major purposes that colour serves.
The realistic visual is the closest it
gets to the original.
 Analogic visuals convey a concept
or idea by showing something else
and implying a similarity. Teaching
about electricity flow by showing
water flowing in series and parallel
pipes is an example of using
analogic visuals. Such visuals help
the learner to interpret new
information in light of prior
knowledge and thereby facilitating
learning.
 For example, when you are
teaching about blood circulation
in human beings, you might draw
a well labelled diagram of a
human heart in order to help a
learner understand the concept of
blood circulation.
 Organizational visuals include
flowcharts, time line charts,
graphs, maps, classification
charts, etc. They are mainly used
to show relationships among
concepts or points in textual
material.
 Verbal Elements: These refer to
lettering style and location. Most
displays incorporate some type of
verbal/textual information in
addition to visuals. When
evaluating a display for its
instructional potential, or in
preparing your own visuals, you
need to consider the lettering as it
can communicate effectively too.
At a minimum, ensure that
lettering is legible in terms of
size and spacing and of style
that is consistent with your
intended message.
Lettering Style
The lettering style should be
consistent and harmonize with
the other elements of the
visual. For informational and
instructional purposes, a
plain (not decorative) lettering
style is recommended. It is
recommended that a display –
or series of related visuals,
such as a slide series-use no
more than two different types
of styles, which should be
harmonized with each other.
For best legibility, use lowercase
letters, adding capitals or
uppercase only where normally
required. The colour of the
lettering should contrast with the
background colour for purposes of
legibility since legibility depends
on contrast.
Size of letters
Displays such as bulletin boards
are meant to be viewed by people
situated at a distance of ten (10)
meters. In such cases, the size of
letters is crucial for legibility. A
common rule of thumb is to make
lowercase letters 1.2 centimeters
for each four (4) meters of viewer
distance.
Spacing between letters
The distance between the letters of
the individual words must be judged
by experience rather than on
mechanical basis since some letters
are irregular compared to others.
However, maintain consistent spacing
between the letters .
Spacing between lines
Vertical spacing between lines is
important for legibility. If the lines
are too close together, they blur the
distance and if they are too far apart,
they will seem disjointed. You could
assist yourself here by drawing lines
of equal distance using a ruler.
You could assist yourself with
spacing for lettering by using lettering
guides. A wide variety of lettering
techniques for visuals exist. The
simplest is freehand lettering with
markers and felt-tip pens which come
in an array of colours. Letters can
also be cut from construction paper or
other materials. Pre- cut letters are
available in stationery and office
supply stores. The letters are easy to
use as they come with an adhesive
backing. You could also purchase
lettering guides from the stationery
stores. Desktop publishing systems
also frequently use lettering in various
styles and sizes.
 Tips for designing visual aids
 Decide what you require of the
visual aid- e.g. Create interest,
help recall major points; help
develop a mental perception of
the information; aid
understanding, etc.
 Do not overcrowd the visual with
too many details such as visual
symbols or words.
 Keep visuals as simple as
possible.
 A visual is better understood
when it has one clear meaning.
 Use a series of pictures to
explain more than one thing
or a sequence of events.
 Visuals are more successful if
they are based on what is
familiar locally e.g. faces,
clothes, houses, utensils, and
so on.
 Avoid making very small
objects or animals too big.
 Always include a key and
title for graphics such as
diagrams.
 Plan the visuals carefully.
Answer the following
questions as you design the
visuals:
 Is it what is really wanted?
 Is it as simple and bold as we
can make it?
 Can it build the information
step-by-step?
 Is it as interesting as we can
make it?
 Is it neat in appearance?
 Make visuals as simple as
possible; avoid excessive
details;
 Use bright and light colours to
focus attention on important
elements;
 Use lettering and visuals that
contrast with background
colours;
 Use large visuals that can be
easily seen from a distance;
 Avoid illegible details in a
visual.
Examples of Visuals that you could
design
 Graphic materials
Graphics is an art form where
ideas are expressed in diagrams,
pictures, graphs, charts, collages
and posters. Much of graphic
material is made for display on
bulletin boards, flannel boards
and chalkboards. Much of the
graphic media is not only useful
as motivational materials but you
and your students can easily
create them.
Posters in particular are very
effective in promoting school
activities, campaigns and special
events.
One form of poster that you could
involve your students in creating
is collage. A collage is an art form
that uses layers and textures of
materials to portray a symbolic
picture. Materials for making
collage could be obtained from
pictures, cloth, newspapers, etc.
Collage means to glue. It is a
technique of art production where
artwork is created from an
assemblage of different forms. For
example, newspaper clips,
photographs, and other objects
can be glued to a board to create a
new visual.
 The visual created can take the
shape that you want to portray or
depict. For example, a map of
Kenya, the human heart, shapes of
animals, objects, etc.
Lettering in Graphics:
 Centre the title at the top of the
visual;
 Use short, concise and descriptive
titles with key words;
 Eliminate unnecessary words;
 Minimise text on the visual;
 Use lettering and visuals that
contrast with background
colour.
 Use consistent background
colours in a series of visuals.
 Limit the number of colours in
a visuals.
 Use pleasing layout that
appears balanced and orderly.
 Keep your audience’s attention
and help them learn from
visuals by asking direct
questions about it.
 Flannel Board
Used to display visuals such as
pictures, diagrams, small maps,
photographs, etc.
How to make a flannel board:
 Obtain a large piece of cardboard,
plywood at least one metre in size.
 Cover it with a piece of cloth or old
blanket.
 Select the materials to be displayed
e.g. Pictures, graphs, photos.
 Apply some adhesive on the back of
the visuals such as sand paper and
then display them.
 Mobiles
A mobile is a three- dimensional
wall chart on which individual
components can move about. In a
mobile, instead of displaying
related pictures on a flat surface,
the pictures are drawn on cards or
manilla paper and then cut-out,
then hung independently from the
roof using a thread. The resulting
display which turns and changes
shape as it is affected by air
currents makes such visuals to
acquire the name mobiles.
 Flip Charts  Arrange the sheets in the correct
Flip chart refers to a group of sequence for presentation.
large-sized papers fastened  Fasten the sheets together using a
together at the top and mounted string.
on a piece of wood or metal easel.  Fasten a cover of heavy paper or
Each individual sheet holds a light cardboard on the top of the
different visual message. The sheets.
sheets can then be flipped over to  Hung the sheets for display.
reveal the message.
How to make a flip chart:
 Determine the no of manilla
sheets you wish to include .
 Make the visuals on each separate
sheet.
 Designing Text
The process for designing
text is similar to that of
designing visuals. Once you
have created your message,
you will need to assemble
the elements. Remember
that text is designed using
word processing from your
computer.
Remember that paragraphs are
aligned at the left margin, not at
the right margin or at both
margins; the left margin alignment
provides best readability.
Next, arrange the elements. Use
space by moving elements closer
together or further apart before
using styles like bold, italic, or
underlined text. Use text styles to
reinforce the underlying pattern of
the document. For example, make
subheadings bold and nothing else
bold.
Note that on a vertical dimension,
you need to decide on the spacing
between lines of text, between the
title and other text, and between
text and subheadings.
Note that titles may be aligned
with the left margin or centered
on the page. If you center the title,
take care that it looks centered
and not simply misaligned. The
subheadings should be aligned
with each other, if they are
centered each one appears to be
aligned differently and the viewer
may have trouble identifying
them.
All regular text should be aligned
at the same margin except for lists
and block quotations.
Move blocks of text close to their
subheadings and away from other
text on the page. Use of space
helps the viewer make sense of
the page easily and quickly.
Always spell-check your work
and ensure that words that you
have used are in the right places
so that the text makes sense to a
reader.
 Designing Audio Media. Audio media is effective in
Audio media can be effective teaching many of the
during instruction especially subjects offered in the
to achieve motivational, secondary school
informational or instructional curriculum. For example,
purposes of teaching and teaching of English
learning. language, literature either in
Audio materials can easily be English, French, Kiswahili,
designed and produced by History, geography.,
both the teacher and students Religious Education,
since all that you need is an Biology, Chemistry, etc.
audio tape recorder and blank
audiotape or a smart phone.
 You can use audio media to
individualize instruction
particularly when you have slow
learners in your class or when you
are teaching topics that students
have difficulties understanding
like in Mathematics.
 Procedure for designing and
producing audio media
1) Formulate an instructional goal.
Decide what you want to achieve
by using audio media. Either for
motivation, information sharing or
for instruction.
2) Formulate the instructional
objectives that will form the basis
of the audio programme to be
produced.
3) Select the content to be presented
and decide on the scope of content
coverage. It is recommended that
an ideal audio programme should
only run for fifteen (15) minutes.
Therefore, if you have a lot of
content to be covered prepare a
series of audio programmes.
4) Prepare a recording script.
A script is an outline description
of the content to be presented and
prepared in a format that will be
used for reading as opposed to
talking. A script identifies even
the presenters or the people who
will be involved in the
presentation of content and the
actual content that they read.
As you prepare a recording script,
consider how you will involve the
learners in meaningful learning
activities. Remember that audio
media appeals only to the sense of
hearing;
Therefore to captivate the students’
attention requires that they get
engaged in some activities as they
listen to the recorded materials.
To captivate the attention of the
listeners, make sure that you
provide variety through appropriate
sound effects, music, short dialogue
and voices of experts in your field.
All these might be included in the
script that you prepare since all
presenters need to know in advance
what ever they will be required to
say during the recording.
Be creative in your script writing
and be conversational. Since
audio media is meant for
listening, converse with the
audience as you would normally
converse with a friend. Explore
the content with the students
rather than lecturing to them.
As you present the materials,
direct the students’ attention to
whatever will be discussed before
discussing it. Inform the students
what to pay attention to as they
listen to the audiotape.
For example, if they have to
refer to a certain diagram,
instruct them what to look for or
observe and give them time
during the presentation to do
exactly that. This means that
you will need to pause
occasionally for students to
carry out specific tasks or
activities that you will identify
for them. When you pause the
tape, provide a music interlude
for students to know that the
presentation is still continuing.
When the presentation ends, it is
useful to summarize the key
points or ideas covered during the
lesson.
Finally prepare some follow-up
activities for the students to assist
in learning transfer and to
reinforce what will have been
presented.
As you record an audio
programme, ensure that the area is
free from noise and sound .
Chalkboard Work
The chalkboard is probably the
most widely used media display
in the classroom since even the
poorest of the schools at least has
a chalkboard. It is also the easiest
media to use either for writing or
for displaying other types of
media. To make the chalkboard an
effective instructional media also
requires planning and effective
chalkboard techniques require
practice.
Effective use of the chalkboard
Before you use the chalkboard ask
yourself these questions; ‘what
part of my lesson is important
enough to be placed on the
chalkboard?’, ‘what aspects of the
lesson are likely to be unclear to
some of the students?’, ‘what
diagrams/drawings/figures or
statistics can I use on the
chalkboard to illustrate the
content?’, how can I capitalize on
the immediate feedback from the
chalkboard?’, how can I involve
the students in developing the
chalkboard work?’.
Therefore, think before you write
or draw on the chalkboard to
consider what you want to show
and how best to present it.
The chalkboard can be used to
prepare hidden drawings or
writing. You can draw your
diagrams or illustrations in
advance before the class
commences and then keep it
hidden or covered and reveal it
when you want to talk about that
particular content or refer to the
diagram for illustration.
 Colour should also be used as a
way of motivating students and
helping to emphasize specific
aspects of the lesson.
Improving your use of the
chalkboard:
 Always use a clean chalkboard
since a key element to good
visibility is contrast. The clearer
the board, the better the visibility
of what is written.
 Make your chalkboard work
readable. Whatever you write
should be read from the back of
the class.
This is achieved by producing
bold, clear lines and letter
characters. Spacing is critical in
achieving readable writing.
Spacing refers to regulation of
distance between elements of a
letter, letters in a word, words in a
line, and between successive lines
in a piece of writing. Spacing
determines the shape of the
letters. To ensure good, legible
letters, the space between the
downward strokes of letters like
u, and the breadth of letters like o
must have uniform appearance.
 The spacing of letter elements
should be constant. Letters and
the spacing between the letters
should be uniform and letters
forming a word should be written
close together to ensure legibility.
 Legibility of words is affected by
excessively small spaces.
Successive lines of writing must
also be properly spaced for good
legibility.
 Good spacing in writing requires
conscious attention and regular
practice until it becomes a habit.
 Have a plan for your chalkboard
work and do not write all over the
board. Only use the chalkboard to
record important information to
emphasize the key points in the
lesson.
 Use a pointer to direct the students’
attention to specific items that you
have written on the board.
 Use mechanical lettering guides
such as rulers, coloured chalk, or
templates (ready designed shapes).
 Always walk to the back of your
class and confirm that what you
have written on the board is legible
and well organized.
 Maintain eye contact with  Print your lettering
the class. So face the class rather than using
when you talk. Talk to the
cursive writing.
class first and then turn to
write on the board and stand  Use drawing aids such
at an angle. as rulers, stencils, and
 Vary your presentation templates to save time.
techniques. E.g. use
handouts, flip charts, OHP,
and other media during
instruction.
 Power Point Presentation
Use of the computer in teaching and learning is one way of integrating
various media materials into teaching and learning.
As we have already indicated, a major strength of the computer is its
capability to combine various media (multi media) into the instructional
process and also its ability to link media (hyper-media) found in
different locations.
Multi media presentations have the following advantages:
1) Produces multi learning modalities and actively involve the learner.
2) Addresses different learning styles and preferences
3) Effective across various learning domains
4) Provides a high degree of realism in learning.
 The power point presentation is one effective way of making use of
multi media presentation. Power point presentation allows you to
combine text with visuals such as photographs, pictures, graphics,
audio and video clips, clip arts, etc.
Procedure for making Power Point Presentation:
1) Prepare a lesson plan where you specify the expected leaning
outcomes, the teaching/learning activities as well as the required
resources or media.
2) Specify the expected learning outcomes to address different
learning domains.
3) Select the content for presentation to address the three steps in a
lesson plan namely: introduction, lesson development and
conclusion.
4) Identify appropriate media resources to support content
delivery.
5) Obtain the media and resources; modify the media and
resources or produce the media and resources.
6) Prepare the power point presentation. As you prepare the
power point presentation take note of the following:
i. You need to decide on the total number of slides required;
ii. You need to integrate visuals, video or audio clips, clip arts
etc into the presentation;
iii. The first slide should specify the lesson objectives;
iv. Include a lesson summary and a list of reference materials
used.
 Take note of the following as you prepare Power Point slides:
1) Video and audio clips could be downloaded from the Internet
but you could also record your own and then upload/import into
your presentation. Many of these materials could be obtained
from teaching/learning channels through Internet search.
2) Still visuals and pictures could also be downloaded from the
Internet through key word search.
3) To add any of different media you need to do the following:
 Open a new slide, inside the slide you get options like: insert
table, insert chart, insert smart Art graphic, insert picture from
file, clip art and insert media clip. Each one of these options
will allow you to import the various types of media.
Once you click on your selection, it will direct you to where
the media materials are located. Note that in the case of clip
arts, once you select it; it allows you to search the Internet by
typing the key search words and then browsing the Internet to
get options available. From there you can select the preferred
media options.
Media Practical
Practical Assignment 1: Chalk Board Work
Select some text from one of your teaching subjects
and practice writing on the chalk board using the
lettering principles that have been discussed in units
3 and 4. The text should be based on the syllabus for
either form one or form two. When your are satisfied
with the practice, write the final text for grading.
Your chalkboard work should fill up the entire
chalkboard. Note that this activity will be carried out
by individual students.
 Practical Assignment 2: Power Point Presentation
Procedure:
1) Select a sub-topic from one of your teaching subjects where power -
point slides can be developed to enrich classroom teaching.
2) Plan, design and produce a maximum of 12 slides to be used in
presenting the content. Include visuals such as photographs or other
still visuals in your slide presentation, clip arts, table, chart, video
or audio clip.
3) Include a lesson summary and a list of references used.
4) Upload your presentation to the following e-mail:
educationalassignment@yahoo.com.
 Media Practical for Group work
If the COVID-19 situation in the country will allow for face-to-face
contact, the students will be expected to undertake this practical
work in groups not exceeding four members per group.
Procedure for the Practical Work
1) Select a topic/sub-topic from one of your teaching subjects that are
offered at the secondary school level in Kenya.
2) Divide the topic into at least four sub-topics/or four specific parts.
3) Develop a lesson plan.
4) Identify four suitable media formats from the list given below
which could be used to support your teaching of each of the sub-
topics identified above.
 Consider the following criteria in your media selection:
 Relevance to stated instructional objectives
 Suitability for targeted audience/Learner characteristics
 Nature of content
 Then, select, modify or design and develop the media
materials for each of the media options selected. Accompany
your final media production with a lesson plan indicating how
the media will be integrated into the lesson.
Media Options
 Project No. 1: Flip Chart
Plan, design and develop a flip chart with a minimum of three
charts and a maximum of 5 charts with each chart carrying a single
visual message. The visuals could be in form of maps, diagrams,
drawings, poster, textual information e.g. a poem, etc.
 Project No. 2: Still Pictures (Picture Mounting)
Identify appropriate still visuals that can be used in presenting a sub-
topic in the lesson that you have selected. These could include;
pictures, photographs, diagrams, drawings, posters etc.
Arrange the visuals in the sequence in which they will be
presented during the lesson. Caption each visual and number
them.
 Project No. 3: Sound Recording
Identify an aspect in your topic where sound recording could be used to
enrich your teaching.
Select the content to be included in the sound recording. Develop and write
an audio script which will be presented during the lesson and not to exceed
five minutes of recording.
 Project No. 4: Video Recording
Identify an aspect in your topic where video recording could be used to
enrich your teaching.
Select the content to be included in the video recording.
Develop and write a script which combines both visual and audio
components.
 Carry out location shooting of the video recording or download a
video clip from the Internet.
Alternatively, identify an existing video tape/clip which contains
materials/content that could be used to enrich your own lesson.
Select the segment that you would like to use during the lesson and
copy it into an empty video tape as a video clip.
 Project No. 5: Construction
Construct a three-dimensional teaching aid either in form of a
model, a diorama, or use real object/specimen to illustrate certain
concepts in your topic. Use locally available materials in your
construction such as papier-mache, clay, cardboard, glue, and
wood.
 Project No 6: Power Point Presentation
Identify a sub-topic where power -point slides can be developed to
enrich classroom teaching.
Plan, design and produce a maximum of six slides to be used in
presenting the content. Include visuals such as photographs or other
still visuals in your slide presentations.
 Project No: 7: Textual Material
Identify appropriate textual materials in form of printed media that
could be used to support the content of your lesson. This could be in
form of a poem, literary works, comprehension passage, etc.
Prepare a lesson plan indicating how you will integrate the textual
materials into your lesson.
UNIT 6: SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR
THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
Unit Objectives
By the end of the lesson the learner should be able
to:
1) Explain the concept of systems approach in teaching
and learning.
2) Describe the steps to follow under the systematic
planning for the use of media.
3) Apply the ASSURE Model in planning a lesson that
incorporates the use of instructional media.
 All effective instruction  Gain learners' attention.
requires careful planning  Inform learners of
and use of instructional objectives
media is no exception.  Stimulate recall of prior
learning
 Teaching and learning  Present the content
process progresses through  Provide "learning guidance"
several stages and Gagne  Elicit performance
refers to those stages as the (practice)
nine events of instruction  Provide feedback
(Gagne, 1985). These nine  Assess performance
events of instruction  Enhance retention and
include: transfer to the job
 Similar steps should be
followed whenever we plan a
lesson that incorporates the use
of instructional media. We
need to ensure that we have
adequately prepared the
learners for the use of media,
and as we use the media, we
need to involve them in the
utilisation process. We should
also be able to evaluate the
impact of the media on the
lesson. This means that we
have to be systematic in the
selection and use of
instructional media.
 We need to apply the systems
approach or thinking in our
planning for the use of media.
Systems approach is an approach
that we use to solve problems by
understanding that any problem
can best be understood in the
context of the overall system
which is made up of component
parts. The component parts
making the system are also sub-
systems. Systems are goal
seeking with interactions
occurring between the component
parts.
 According to Rowntree,
(1974), a systems approach
is an overall approach that
involves tackling problems
in a disciplined manner
keeping priorities in mind.
The sub-systems making up
the overall system are
designed, fitted, checked
and operated so as to
achieve the overall objective
efficiently.
 The systems approach is a
problem-solving method that
helps to:
 Define the problem as clearly
as possible;
 Analyze the problem and
identify alternative solutions.
 Select the alternatives and
develop the most viable
solution mix.
 Implement and test the
solution.
 Evaluate the effectiveness and
worth of the solution.
STEPS TO FOLLOW UNDER THE SYSTEMATIC
PLANNING FOR THE USE OF MEDIA
 A procedural model has
been developed to guide in
the planning and carrying
out of instruction where
instructional media are to be
used. In other words, this
model has to be followed in
a step by step manner
whenever we plan to
conduct any lesson and
instructional media will be
used.
 The procedural model that we use
when planning a lesson which
will require instructional media to
be used is referred to as the
ASSURE Model. This procedural
model involves following a series
of steps as you plan a lesson that
will require instructional media to
be used. ASSURE stands for:
 A- Analyse the Learners
 S- State Objectives
 S-Select methods, media and
materials
 U-Utilize the media and Materials
 R- Require learner participation
 E- Evaluate and Revise.
This model is an acronym coined
from the first letter of each of the
six steps that one needs to follow
progressively and systematically
in order to plan a lesson and
incorporate instructional media.
Note that if you do not follow the
steps procedurally or
progressively, then you have not
followed the ASSURE model.
 Let us discuss each one of these
six steps.
 A- ANALYZE THE LEARNERS
Before selecting any media, you
need to analyze the learners in
terms of:
• General learner characteristics;
• Specific entry competencies;
• Learning styles.
General learner characteristics
include the broad audience
identification descriptors such as
age, gender composition, grade
level, learning ability, homogeneous
or heterogeneous group, socio-
cultural background, size of the
audience, and any special learning
needs.
Specific entry competencies
refer to knowledge and skills that
learners either possess or lack
such as pre-requisite skills, and
attitudes.
Learning styles refer to the
spectrum of psychological traits
that affect how we perceive and
respond to different stimuli such
as anxiety, aptitude, visual or
auditory preferences, etc.
They describe the approaches
used by students in information
processing, and problem solving.
 Certain traits affect our
ability to learn effectively
from different methods and
media. However, it is not
clear which traits are most
important. Gardner (1993)
who was dissatisfied with
the concept of IQ used to
measure one’s intelligence
and its unitary view of
intelligence identified seven
aspects of intelligence
namely:
 verbal/linguistic (language),
 2)logical/mathematical
(scientific),
 3) visual/spatial,
 4) musical/rhythmic,
 5)bodily/kinesthetic
(dancing/athletics),
 6) interpersonal (ability to
understand other people), and
 7) intrapersonal (ability to
understand oneself).
 Gardner’s view implies that
teachers, curriculum planners
and media specialists should
work together to design a
curriculum in which students
have a chance to develop these
different aspects of intelligence.
It also implies that students vary
widely in terms of their
strengths and weaknesses in
each of these areas. The teacher
should ensure that students are
engaged in a wider variety of
methods and media.
Perceptual Preferences and Information Processing Habits
Strengths There are four categories of
Learners vary as to which sensory learners based on information
gateways they prefer using and processing. Namely: : concrete
which they are especially adept at sequential, concrete random,
using. The main gateways abstract sequential, and
include; auditory, visual, tactile, abstract random.
and kinesthetic. Based on our
earlier discussion, we noted that Concrete sequential learners
most of the information that we prefer direct, hands-on
receive is obtained thorough our experiences presented in a
sense of sight. This view was logical order. They are best
conformed by Dale’s Cone of with workbooks, demonstration,
experience. and structured laboratory
exercises.
Concrete random learners Abstract random
lean towards a trial-and-error learners have the ability
approach and reaching
conclusions from exploratory
to draw meaning from
experiences. They prefer human-mediated
methods such as games, presentations as they
simulations, independent study respond to tone and style
projects and discovery of the speaker as well as
learning.
the message. They do well
Abstract sequential learners in group discussion,
decode verbal and symbolic
messages and readings as well
lectures with question-
as listening to presentations are and-answer periods.
preferred methods.
 Physiological Factors Hence, analyzing the
These are factors related to learners will help you as a
gender differences, health, teacher in making decisions
and environmental about the types of
conditions. For example, instructional media to use.
boys and girls respond You are able to select media
differently to school that are within the ability
experiences with boys level of the students, that
tending to be more fits the size of the class, or
competitive and aggressive media that will appeal to the
than girls and consequently information processing
respond better to competitive habits of the students.
instructional games.
 STATE OBJECTIVES
You need to decide on the
learning outcomes that each
learner will be expected to
achieve. An objective is a
statement of what each learner
ought to get out of the lesson. It
should be as specific as possible.
Statement of objectives influences
the choice of instructional
methods, media and materials as
well as the sequence of learning
activities. Statement of
instructional objectives also helps
to ensure proper lesson
evaluation.
 When stating the instructional
objectives, always consider the
characteristics of a well stated
objective. A well stated objective
starts by naming the Audience of
the learners for whom the
objective is intended, then
specifies the Behaviour or
capability to be demonstrated, the
Conditions under which the
behaviour or the capability will be
observed, and finally it specifies
the Degree to which the new skill
must be mastered. This criterion
is referred to as the ABCD of
well-stated objective.
A- Audience: specify the learner Be sure to include equipment,
for whom the learning outcome is tools, aids, or references the
planned. learner may or may not use,
B-Behaviour: Specify the and/or special environmental
behaviour to be exhibited. What conditions in which the learner
do you want them to do? The has to perform.
behaviour or capability needs to D- Degree: How well do you
be demonstrated as learner want them to demonstrate their
performance, an observable, mastery? Degree to which the
measurable behaviour, or a real- new skill must be mastered or the
world skill. criterion for acceptable
C-Condition: Under what performance (include time limit,
circumstances or conditions are range of accuracy, proportion of
the learners to demonstrate the correct responses required, and/or
skill being taught? qualitative standards.)
Example of an Instructional As you state the objectives,
Objective: consider the learning
By the end of the lesson, the domains which are used as
form one learner should be basis for classifying
able identify at least three of instructional objectives.
the five climatic zones given For example; is the learning
a map of Kenya. outcome primarily:
Or given a topic, the form • 1.Cognitive?
two learner should be able to
compose a one page formal • 2.Affective?
letter that contains no more • 3.Psychomotor / Motor
than two errors in grammar”. Skill?
• 4. Interpersonal?
 S- SELECT METHODS,
MEDIA, AND MATERIAL
The selection process has three
steps:
1) decide on the appropriate
method for the given learning
tasks
2) choose a media format that is
suitable for carrying out the
method, and
3) select, modify, or design specific
materials within that media
format.
In a lesson, several methods are
used. For example, during the
lesson introduction, you might
want to use a simulation activity
to capture the attention and arouse
interest among the learners, but
you might use a demonstration to
present the new information,
finally you might arrange for drill-
and-practice activities to provide
practice in the new skills.
Media format could include non-
projected visuals, audio media,
print media, etc.
Remember to use the criteria we
have discussed in class to select a
media format. E.g. learning goals,
instructional objectives, learner
characteristics, nature of subject
matter, practical constraints,
unique media characteristics, etc.
Obtain specific materials: this
could be achieved by either
selecting from available existing
materials, modifying existing
materials, or by designing new
materials. To select from
available materials means that a
teacher has to be resourceful.
Being resourceful means that you
know where to look for
teaching/learning resources and
build a collection of such
resources. As a resourceful
teacher, you need to build a
collection of media materials by
creating a media centre where all
relevant instructional materials
that you come across are filed and
collected.
When you cannot locate entirely
suitable materials and media off
the shelf, you might be able to
modify what is available.
 There are times when you have no
choice but to design new materials
that would suit your instructional
objectives. Whenever you decide to
design new materials, consider the
following design elements:
• Objectives- what do you want your
students to learn?
• Audience- what are the
characteristics of your learners? Do
they have the prerequisite
knowledge and skills to use or learn
from the materials?
• Cost- is sufficient money available
in your budget to meet the cost of
supplies that you will need to
prepare the materials?
• Technical expertise- do you have
the necessary expertise to design
and produce the kind of materials
you wish to use?
• Equipment- do you have the
necessary equipment to produce or
use the materials you intend to
design?
• Facilities- if your design calls for
use of special facilities for
preparation or use of your materials,
are such facilities available?
• Time- can you afford to spend
whatever time necessary to design
and produce the kind of materials
you have in mind?
 UTILIZE MEDIA AND • Preview the Materials;
MATERIALS This step • Prepare the materials;
involves the actual use of media • Prepare the environment;
and materials by the students • Prepare the learners; and
and the teacher. Since the focus
• Provide the learning experience.
of any lesson is to help the
students learn, learner Review the materials to confirm
involvement in the use of media that it meets the learning needs of
your learners and your intended
and materials is critical.
learning outcomes. It is also
At this stage, the “5Ps” apply important to review the materials
either for teacher-based or before using them to ensure that it
learner-based instruction. The is age and culturally appropriate
five Ps include: for your audience.
Prepare the media and the
materials to support the
instructional activities that you
plan to use. First, gather the
materials and equipment that you
and your learners will need. Then
determine the sequence in which
the media and materials will be
used. Decide what you will do as
you present the materials and
what the learners will do. It might
be necessary to practice using the
materials before actually using
them in class.
Prepare the environment:
Wherever learning will take place
whether in a classroom, in the
laboratory, or in the field, etc, the
facilities have to be arranged for
proper students’ use of media and
materials. For example, the
seating arrangement and space,
the lighting, and ventilation
should be considered depending
on the type of media being used.
Some of the media require a
darkened room, convenient power
source and access to light
switches.
Before using any equipment,
check to confirm that it is
working. In the case of the
overhead projector, ensure that the
light bulb is not blown-off. Incase
you want the students to discuss
the media after using it, arrange
the seats so that students can see
each other as they discuss the
topic.
Prepare the Learners: What
students learn depends on the how
well they are prepared for the
lesson.
What you could do to prepare the
learners for the use of media?
• Provide an introduction and give a
broad overview of the lesson
content;
• Tell learners what to pay attention
to as they use the media;
• Direct the learners’ attention to
specific aspects of the lesson.
• If students do not have the
prerequisite knowledge to
understand the media being used,
provide some information to assist
their understanding of the
materials presented;
In case there are certain
vocabularies that will be
mentioned and need to be
explained, discuss them before
presenting the media.
Provide the Learning Experience
Provide opportunities for the
learners to engage in some
learning experiences. You should
play the role of a guide to
facilitate learning by helping them
explore and discuss the content,
etc. The learners should be
actively involved in the use of
media and materials and not just
be silent observers.
 REQUIRE LEARNER
PARTICIPATION
Active participation in the
learning process enhances
learning. Cognitive theories of
learning which focus on internal
mental processes have also
supported the principle that
effective learning demands active
manipulation of information by
learners. The most effective
learning situations are those that
require learners to perform
activities that build toward the
objective.
Participation could include;
practicing new spelling of
words, solving some
mathematical problems,
creating a product, observing
some visuals and interpreting
them, drawing , etc.
Application exercises can
provide opportunities for
practice and feedback during
instruction while follow-up
activities can provide further
opportunities for practice.
 EVALUATE AND REVISE
Evaluation as we know it, is an
on-going process and it can be
done before, during and after
instruction. For example, before
instruction, you might want to
find out whether learners have the
necessary prerequisite knowledge
to enter a new learning experience
especially with regard to the use
of the planned media and
materials. You might also evaluate
the media and materials before
presenting it in class to confirm
that it will meet your intended
learning outcomes.
During instruction, evaluation is
used in form of student practice of
a desired skill, or self- evaluation.
Evaluation at this stage is mainly
diagnostic to help detect any
teaching/learning problems and
difficulties in the instructional
process that might interfere with
attainment of objectives.
Evaluation of learner
achievement- Can they display
the capabilities specified in the
original statement of objectives?
At this stage, you want to assess
whether the skills acquired by the
learners meet this criterion.
 Evaluation of Media and
Materials- Evaluation should also
include the assessment of
instructional media and materials.
After using the media and
materials, you need to reflect back
and ask the following questions:
 Were the instructional materials
effective?
 Could they be improved?
 Were the materials cost-effective
in terms of student achievement?
 Did your presentations take more
time than it was worth?
 Were the materials interesting
enough to motivate students?
 Did the media and materials
help students meet the
objectives?
 Did the media and materials
provide meaningful student
participation?
Alternative ways of evaluating
media and materials include; use
of class discussions, individual
interviews, and observation of
student behaviour.
These methods of evaluation
might provide you with
information that you might not be
able to capture from an evaluation
checklist.
Revision- The final step of the
instructional cycle is to sit back
and look at the results of your
evaluation data gathering. You
need to find out whether there
were any discrepancies between
what you intended to happen and
what happened. Did students’
achievement fall short on any of
the objectives?
 How did the students react
to the use of media and
materials? Are you satisfied
with the media you used
and the way you used it?
 If your evaluation data
indicates any shortcoming
on any of the above
questions, then go back to
your plan and revise.
Change what needs to be
changed for future lessons.
Self Assessment Activities
1) Using a sub-topic from one of your teaching subjects to
illustrate the answer, progressively list and explain the steps
that you will follow to plan and conduct a lesson where
instructional media will be used.
2) You have opted to use a video clip in one of the lessons that
you are going to teach. Explain how you will apply the “5Ps”
as you conduct the lesson.
3) Citing examples to u[support your answer, explain how
learner analysis and statement of the lesson objectives
influence media selection and use during the lesson.
UNIT 7: UTILIZING PRINTED
MATERIALS DURING INSTRUCTION
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit the learner should be able to:
1) Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of using printed
materials during instruction.
2) Explain the procedure for selecting printed materials during
instruction.
3) Explain how printed materials could be used in different instructional
settings.
4) Identify the creative approaches to use to ensure effective and efficient
use of printed materials in the classroom.
5) Describe the criteria to use when selecting printed materials for
classroom use.
6) Select and use printed materials during instruction.
 As we have already
mentioned, printed materials
are among the most commonly
used form of instructional
materials in most classrooms
in Kenya.
In spite of the recent public
fascination with new electronic
media, it is unlikely that
printed materials will ever be
eliminated as a vehicle of
instruction and will always
have an important role in
instruction.
In deed the current spreading
trend towards computer-based
electronic communication (e-
mail systems, Database
Networks, and World Wide
Web Hypermedia such as;
Portable Document Formats
(PDF), and Hyper Text Mail
Language (Html), have just
added several new media of
transmission for printed
messages and added to the
amount of reading that a
typical person can cope with
(Romiszowski, 1988:128).
364
The role of printed materials is
being enhanced by information
revolution and the days of
printed media are far from
being over. However, this does
not suggest that printed materials
are used effectively and efficiently
during instruction. Quite often
instructors abuse the printed
materials during instruction. The
abuse of printed materials result
from the ease with which they can
be obtained, reproduced and
circulated which often leads to
excessive and inappropriate use in
the instructional process.
We have identified the various
types of printed materials that
we can use during instruction.
Among them include: text
books, handouts, assignment
sheets, individualised study
materials, worksheets and
resource materials for group
exercises. There are some
advantages in using printed
materials. Among the
advantages include:
1) Availability. Printed media
are readily available on a
variety of formats.
365
2) Flexibility. Printed materials are
adaptable to many purposes and
they may be used in any
environment.
3) Portability. They can be easily
carried out from place to place
and do not require any
equipment or electricity.
4) User friendly. Properly designed
printed materials are easy to use
and do not require special efforts
to navigate through. Students
can stop at any point in the
material to refer to other sources
such as dictionary, reference
text, etc.
5) Economical. Printed materials are
relatively inexpensive to produce,
purchase and can be re-used. Text
books in particular are
inexpensive compared to other
forms of media (Heinich, et al.:
107).
6) Individualization of instruction.
Printed materials allow students to
proceed at their own pace. Lesson
materials can be designed in a
variety of ways to allow for self-
paced instruction (Anderson,
1983).
366
7) Organization of instruction.
Printed materials especially text
books help to organize instruction
by providing common reading
experiences, suggested learning
activities, recommended readings,
and questions.
8) Tutorial Contribution. Text books
in particular help students to read
better, to study and to weigh
evidence presented. Printed
materials also allow for cross-
referencing of information from
different sources.
9) Improve Instruction. Printed
materials help to improve
teaching practices especially
through the suggestions contained
in teachers’ editions and in
manuals.
 Disadvantages of print media
1) Reading level. Most printed
materials are written at a certain
reading level. It is important as a
teacher to remember that some of
the students in our classes are
nonreaders, poor readers, or lack
adequate literacy skills and
therefore some reading materials
might be above their reading
level.
367
2) Prior knowledge. Readers who
lack prerequisite knowledge
might struggle to comprehend
the text.
3) Abuse of printed materials.
Printed materials especially
textbooks can easily be abused.
For example, when teachers
require students to memorize
many facts and definitions
from a particular textbook, or
when teachers use particular
textbooks as the only source of
information, carry them to
class, read from them, and
make notes from them.
4) One-way presentation- most
printed materials are not
interactive and they tend to
be used in a passive way
without comprehension.
5) Curriculum determination.
Some textbooks dictate the
curriculum rather than being
used to support the
curriculum. Text books are
often written to
accommodate the
curriculum guidelines of a
particular country.
368
6) Vocabulary. Some texts
introduce a large number of
vocabulary terms and concepts
in a short amount of space.
This places a heavy cognitive
burden on students which
might be overwhelming for
some students (Heinich, et al.:
107-108).
7) Presentation of information.
By presenting the information
logically and in a predigested
form, printed materials denies
the reader the ability to think,
organize the information, and
arrive at independent
conclusions.
Hence printed materials especially
text books do not stimulate
interest on the part of the user to
pursue any of the information
presented much further.
8) Ignore instructional innovations.
Printed materials rigidly prescribe
and pre-arrange all learning
outcomes which deny students the
ability to apply knowledge into
novel situations. Most printed
materials especially text books do
not aim towards inquiry, problem-
solving, or critical thinking.
369
 A single text books used in a
particular class level is not likely
to meet the varied learner abilities
in atypical class.
9) Outdated information. The
process of publishing printed
materials particularly text books is
long and involving such that by
the time a text book is published,
most of the information is
obsolete. This makes it difficult to
keep the information contained in
printed material current and up to
date.

370
How to select different types of printed
materials for your class
 Before you can select and use  Mass Instruction
the different types of printed In the case of mass instruction, the
materials, it is important for you role of printed materials is
essentially a supportive one, by
to know the type of providing the teacher/instructor
teaching/learning situation with tools that help him achieve
where the materials will be specific objectives. The most
used. There are three basic important of these tools are the
various forms of information
types of teaching/learning providing handouts that could be
situations namely; mass given to the students, sets of notes,
instruction, individualized tables of data, copies of important
instruction, and group diagrams, maps, etc. A greater
proportion of the time is devoted to
learning. Printed materials play activities like exercises or
different roles in each of the discussion.
three types of teaching/learning
situations.
371
Apart from handouts, assignment  Individualized Instruction
sheets are also useful for mass In the case of individualized
instruction. Examples of instruction, printed materials
assignment sheets include; constitute the actual vehicle for
problem sheets, worksheets, carrying out instruction. Self-
laboratory sheets, etc. As in the instructional materials not only
case of handouts, appropriate use convey the information, but also
of such materials can greatly structure and control the process by
increase the effectiveness of mass which information is presented to
instruction. For example, a well and assimilated by the learner.
designed worksheet at an Printed materials can play three
appropriate point in the lesson can main roles in individualized
improve student participation and instruction. Firstly, they can be
help to maintain their used as the actual medium of
concentration and interest. instruction such as structured notes,
worksheets, or programmed text.
372
If such materials are well designed, Third, printed materials can
they allow the student to master the be used to support other
basic facts and principles of a subject
or topic at their own pace. individualized learning media.
Second, printed materials can be used They can for example, provide
as a vehicle for structuring and worksheets for use in
controlling the process by which conjunction with audio-visual
learners acquire information rather programmes or computer-
than as a means of conveying the
information itself. A good example is
based learning systems,
a study guide which can be used to provide illustrative or
direct the student’s attention to the extension materials or to
relevant chapters in the text book or provide learners with personal
instruct them on how to make
copies of key materials for
optimum use of other individualized
learning media such as audio-tapes, subsequent study or revision.
multi-media packages, etc.
373
 Group Learning
Unlike mass instruction and
individualized instruction, group
learning is essentially a process-
centered activity with the
emphasis being on the interactions
that take place between the
learners involved rather than on
the teaching and learning of facts,
principles, etc. Hence the role
any instructional materials that
might be used in conjunction with
a particular group learning
exercise is usually mainly
supportive.
Of the various media that can be
used to support group-learning
exercises, printed materials are
almost certainly the most versatile
and important. They can for
example be used to provide the
basic source materials on which the
exercise is centered, provide the
participants with instructions or
guidance on how to carry out the
exercise, and provide illustrative
materials of various types. In most
exercises that involve simulation or
role play, printed materials are used
to establish the basic scenario and
brief participants on their respective
roles.
374
Application of Printed Materials
The most common application of  Students may also use printed
printed materials is the materials to augment either the
presentation of content information presented by the
information (Heinich et al. teacher or other forms of media.
1996:108). Students frequently also refer to
Students are given reading supplementary printed materials
assignments and held accountable such as books and journals from
for the material during class the library or media centre to
discussion and on tests. Teacher- locate information on specific
made handouts can also topics not covered in their
complement a teacher’s textbook.
presentation or be used by
students as they study
independently.

375
 Application of printed materials Under psychomotor learning,
should be linked to types of printed materials can be used to:
learning and the various learning  Teach steps in psychomotor skills.
domains, namely; cognitive,  Demonstrate positions of things
affective , psychomotor and social during motion.
interaction.  Teach the various psychomotor
Under cognitive learning, skills such as drawing,
printed materials could be used measurement, etc.
to: Under affective learning, printed
 Provide factual information such materials can be used to:
as basic facts, procedures and  Provoke emotional responses in the
principles. learner through drama, visuals etc.
 Teach recognition and  Teach on positive and negative
discrimination of relevant stimuli. attitudes.
 Present vocabulary.  Etc. (Anderson, 1983:115).
 To provide directions,
 Etc.
376
Utilizing Printed materials
 Intelligent use of printed materials
can help teachers ensure
maximum benefits from printed
materials during instruction. In
this respect, some creative
approaches can be used by the
classroom teacher to ensure
effective and efficient use of
printed materials. Among the
intelligent approaches include:
1) When using printed materials for
instruction, one of the main roles
of the teacher is to get learners
actively involved with the
material.
1) One technique to use is to have the
students apply the “SQ3R” method:
Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and
Review.
o Survey requires the students to skim
through the printed material and to
read the overview and/summary. In
the Question step, students write a
list of questions to answer while
reading.
o In the Read stage, students are
encouraged to look for the
organization of the material, put
brackets around the main ideas,
underline supportive details, and
answer the questions written in the
previous step.
377
o Recite requires them to test
themselves while reading and to put
the content into their own words.
o Review suggests that the students
look over the material immediately
after reading it, the next day, a week
later, and so on (Robinson, 1946
cited by Henich et al., 1996:110).
2) Direct student reading by
providing some objectives or
guiding questions as well as some
worksheets in form of questions to
help students work as far as
possible on their own. Let the
printed materials be problem-
centered.
3) Emphasize the use of visuals in
printed materials and teach
students how to read visuals.
Make full use of the visual
content contained in print media
and train the students to interpret
the visuals.
4) Use printed materials especially
textbooks as teaching assistants.
In other words, adapt the textbook
to your instructional purpose and
do not treat the materials as a
course outline.
5) Add reality to printed material
abstraction. This can be achieved
by relating what they study from
printed media to real life
experiences.
378
You could achieve this
by organizing field trips,
exhibitions, displays or
organizing audio-visual
media experiences to let
students explore the 7) Develop research skills among
information contained in
print media.
6) Individualize instruction through
independent study assignments.
This will demand that you
produce your own self-
instructional materials to
accompany the print media
especially the textbook.
the students by asking them to
read several textbooks to
compile a summary, to compare
different points of view from
different authors, etc.
379
Selection of Printed Materials
 As a teacher, you need to know how
to select the most appropriate
printed materials for use by your
class and you need to know the
criteria to use when selecting
printed materials during instruction.
 The following selection criteria
should be followed:
1) Relevance of printed materials
especially textbook to prescribed
syllabus. Textbooks selected for use
either as the basic text or as co-
basic text should adequately cover
the syllabus for the target class or
subject. Both teaching and
examination syllabus.
2) Relevance of the materials to
curriculum needs of the target
learners. When selecting printed
materials especially textbooks,
consider the extent to which the
materials address the needs of the
target learners. The content should
be appropriate for target class
level in terms of content coverage,
vocabulary, layout, and leaner
involvement.
3) Scope of content coverage. It is
possible for a textbook to cover
the prescribed course content but
380
 fail to treat the content to the details
required for a particular class level.
The scope of content coverage
indicates whether a textbook relates
sufficiently well to the curricula
interest of the course of study. For
example, a textbook might be either
too detailed or too shallow.
4) The methodology used in presenting
the content. This refers to language
use in the materials, use of
illustrations, inclusion of exercises
for practice and the way the content
is presented.
5) Portrayal of gender in the materials
especially in textbooks. Attention
should be given to gender roles
depicted in the materials since such
roles are image forming.
6) Mechanical features of the printed
materials. These includes the size of
prints, layout, quality of paper,
physical characteristics, durability,
quality of binding, and cost.
7) Format of presentation. This should
address issues like; use of chapter
summaries and review, statement of
chapter objectives, use of references
in each chapter, use of self-
assessment exercises, etc
381
8) The intended use of the materials.
Will the materials be used as a
basic text, supplementary
materials or as library materials?
Library materials for example are
intended for the enrichment and
support of the curriculum taking
into consideration the varied
interests, abilities, and maturity
level of the students.
9) The instructional objectives to be
achieved. Just like any other
media, print media could be used
for any of the four functions
namely; entertainment,
motivation, information and
instruction.
Assuming you want to achieve a
certain instructional, or information-
dissemination objective, then you will
need to ask yourself the following
questions: is use of print media
desirable component? , if so, what
will be the role of print media? What
are the characteristics of the message?
its content, when and how in the
instructional process will it be used?
So you will need to specify the print
media in your lesson plan and then
existing materials will be selected,
adapted, or new materials developed
to satisfy the message design criteria
specified in the lesson plan.
382
Self Assessment Activities
1) List five advantages and five disadvantages of using printed media
during instruction.
2) Explain the role that is played by printed media under the following
instructional settings:
3) (i) Mass Instruction (ii) Individualized Instruction (iii) Group
Learning
4) Intelligent use of printed materials can help teachers ensure maximum
benefits from printed materials during instruction. List and explain
five creative approaches can be used by the classroom teacher to
ensure effective and efficient use of printed materials.
5) You have been appointed the Head of Department in your school and
you need to recommend a list of text books to be bought. Explain any
five factors that you will consider as you make the recommendations.
UNIT 8: INTEGRATING INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INTO THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS

Unit Objectives
By the end of the unit the learner should be able to:
1) Define the term media integration.
2) Explain why media integration is necessary in the
instructional setting.
3) Explain how to integrate media into the instructional process.
INTEGRATING INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA INTO
THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS
 What is media Integration?
Media integration refers to the
combining of different types of
media during instruction and
incorporating them into your lesson
plan and making them part of the
total instructional process.
As we are aware, multimedia
facilities are now becoming a
common-place on desk-top personal
computer systems. In order for such
facilities to be of use to the users, it
is important that the different media
are integrated so that users can use
the computer to perform different
roles.
 Why Integrate Media into
Instruction?
The fact that teachers bring
instructional media into the
classroom does not suggest that
students learn from the media.
For the media to be useful in the
instructional process, it must be
integrated into the lesson. The
media must be properly selected,
incorporated into the lesson, and
students involved in the utilization
process. Media should be made
part of the instructional process.
385
According to Duhaney (2000:71),
technology use in the classroom
should only be considered
appropriate if it is used for
specific purposes in the teaching
and learning process and that its
incorporation in this process
should not just be as an
appendage, but as an integral part
of the teaching and learning
objectives.
Often instructors use media and
delivery systems with little
thought as to how they fit into the
instructional system experienced
by their students (Belland,
2000).
Heide & Henderson (2001)
contends that technology can
be used to enhance instruction
and expand the limits of the
existing curriculum as it can be
used to obtain, organize,
manipulate and communicate
knowledge and information.
Therefore, technology can be
used to address the range of
different learning styles and
different modalities of
individual learning strengths.
386
We want students to learn how
to acquire information where
and when they want it and
develop both their cognitive
and communicative skills.
According to Kershaw (1996),
for delivery systems to be
effective, they must act as a
means of facilitating teaching
and learning rather than an end
in itself. This is illustrated by
trends shifting from teacher-
focused delivery systems to
learner focused.
Researchers think the
introduction of the Internet into
the classroom will support
inquiry learning and analytical
skills by making available a
wide variety of new resources
(Braun et al; 1998; Windschitl,
1998;), accommodate different
learning styles and non-linear
thinkers (Keller et al. 1996),
change the role of the teacher
from knowledge source to
learning facilitator (Jonassen et
al., 1997),
387
break down the classroom’s According to Van fossen
physical limitations and (2001:58), in spite of the potential
expand students’ experiences benefits of Internet/WWW for
(Wilson, 1995), and expand elementary and secondary school
students, recent research has
student experiences with visual
indicated that only a minority of
technologies (White,1997). classroom teachers has attempted
Becker (1999:32), concluded, to employ the Internet/WWW in
that “along with word their classrooms.
processing, the Internet may be This seems to confirm what
the most valuable of the many Coley; et al. (1997:9) concluded
computer technologies when they argued that, “the
available to teachers and presence of technology in the
students” classroom does not automatically
inspire teachers to rethink their
teaching”. 388
For the instructional media
including computers to have an
effect on instruction, teachers
must be able to integrate them
into the curriculum and into
their teaching.
Effective integration of
instructional technology in the
curriculum and in teaching and
learning is a complex process
that will require restructuring
of schools and classrooms.
For example:
 Instructional media facilities and
computer equipment need to be
made available in schools.
 In-service experiences must be
provided to train instructors in
media development and utilization
and teacher education
programmes need to employ the
latest form of educational
technology in their teacher
preparation and certification
experiences.
389
 Dalton (1989) recognized that
when teachers lack confidence to
integrate innovation, they ignore it
while Beck (1980), argued that
teachers poorly informed or not
informed at all, become
bewildered by new technologies.
 HOW TO INTEGRATE
MEDIA INTO THE
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS
As we have indicated above,
media should not be seen as an
appendage but an integral part of
your lesson. You need to conceive
the media that you intend to use
as part of your whole lesson.
Plan when to use media in
your lesson and how it will
be used and include it into
your lesson plan. Since in a
lesson plan you specify the
teacher and learner activities;
indicate what will be the role
of the teacher as well as the
role of the students when the
media is used. Also specify
in your lesson plan when a
particular media will be used.
390
This suggests that as you state
the lesson objectives, you need
to specify the intended
application of instructional
media to the different types of
learning outcomes; i.e.
cognitive, affective, social or
psychomotor depending on the
role that you want the media to
play in your lesson and the
outcomes that you wish the
students to achieve by using
the selected media.
Before selecting and using the
media always ask yourself the
question; “what is it that you want
your students to learn and how
can media help? After selecting
the media, you again need to ask
your-self the following questions;
“what will be the role of media
during the lesson? At what
point of the lesson will the
media be used? What will be the
role of the teacher and of the
students as the media is used?
 How can you integrate print
media into your lesson?
391
Preparing to Integrate the Internet in a
Learning Experience
 Uses of the Internet You can use the Internet to
You and your students can use the join discussion groups
Internet in a variety of ways. The where you can ask
main uses of the Internet include;
communication, information
questions, discuss problems
retrieval, and information and share experiences.
publishing. Information retrieval
Communication
A lot of information is
Electronic mail (e-mail) is the
available on the Internet for
most widely used service on the
Internet. Anyone with a computer students and teachers to
connected to the Internet can retrieve. A lot of that
communicate with anyone else in information is available free
the world that is connected. of charge.
392
Information Publishing
You and your students can
publish materials on the
Internet. You could create
your own Web Site where
you could post materials
created by students such as
poems, short stories, etc.
You could also share your
teaching ideas with other
teachers in your discipline.
 Integrating the Internet into the
Learning Experience
First, consider the leaner
characteristics. When using the
Internet, consider the students’
abilities to access the Internet for
communication, information
retrieval, and information
publishing. If students do not have
such skills, you will need to teach
them.
 Second, specify the instructional
objectives. Why use the Internet?
393
Third, provide the necessary
resources. To use the Internet,
students should have access to
computers with Internet
connection. The type of
connection in your classroom or
computer laboratory might limit
your options. For example, dial-
up connection on the Internet
tends to be slower than broad
band /wireless connection.
Fourth, Prepare. Preparation is
key to success.
Prepare the learning environment,
prepare the learners, and proceed
with the lesson. Provide written
guidelines on the activities to be
undertaken by the students.
Five, when the lesson begins,
monitor individual students to
keep them on task and to be
sure they are following the
Internet use guidelines. After the
lesson, you and your students
need to take time to evaluate how
the Internet worked. Determine
whether the students learned from
the experience.
394
Self Assessment Activities
1) Define the term “media integration”.
2) Explain why a teacher needs to integrate media into
the instructional setting.
3) Bearing in mind that you could use the Internet
either for communication, information retrieval and
information publishing; explain the procedure that
you will follow in order to integrate the Internet into
a learning experience.
UNIT 9: MANAGEMENT OF
TEACHING/LEARNING RESOURCES
Unit Objectives
By the end of the unit the learner should be able to:
1) Define the terms “ Learning Resources and “ Learning
Resource Center”.
2) Explain why a school needs to establish a learning resource
center.
3) Explain the benefits of a learning resource center.
4) State the objectives that a learning resource center could
achieve.
5) Explain how a learning resource center should be arranged.
6) Explain how to maintain, care and store teaching/learning
materials .
Management of Learning Resources
What is a Learning resource ?
Learning resources refers to texts, videos, software,
and other materials that teachers use to assist students
to meet the expectations for learning.
What is a Learning Resource Centre?
A learning resource centre is a facility within a
school, staffed by a specialist, containing several
information sources. The purpose of a resource
center is to advanced the learning experience of
students and teachers in any educational sector.
397
Why establish a resource centre?
Learning Resource Centers (LRCs) are important as they offer
students the chance to utilize traditional and
modern resources in an environment that enhances learning.
The group areas in a LRC allow students to develop their
interpersonal and social skills, and the quiet areas allow them
to study individually.
A key area in learning is to allow students to take
responsibility for their own learning through the use of
Resource-based learning (RBL).
Resource-based learning (RBL) is the instructional strategy
where learners construct meaning through interaction with a
wide range of print, non print and human resources.
398
Resource Based Learning therefore :
(a) has strong relationship to inquiry learning,
project-based learning, and problem based learning,
(b) provides opportunities for practicing information
literacy skills and critical-thinking skills necessary to
deal with the explosion of information that is
available at our fingertips,
(c) is learner-centred and allows them to discover
knowledge for themselves, and
(d) promotes the teacher as a facilitator and guide.
399
As RBL facilitates individual learner to learn according their
characteristics and learning styles, it can be also applied for all
kinds of learning situations either in or out of classroom, for
formal education or non-formal education, for the purposes of
open/distance/flexible learning.
Part of the incentives for the development and adoption of the
learning center approach has the prospect of finding cheaper and
more flexible means of delivering courses to the students. The
students with different learning styles can enrich their skills by
using information and services provided by the learning center.
Those whose life styles do not permit regular attendance at
classes can drop in and work through multimedia and interactive
packages.
400
Importance of a Learning Resource
Centre
A Learning Resource Center has the following benefits:
1) Learning resource centers benefit students by supplementing
the learning process.
2) They function as a place to introduce, reinforce and expand
student learning, and can be school- or community-based.
3) Centers provide access to learning materials or serve as a
peer learning center. There are a various types of learning
centers, each geared toward providing students with
resources to expand their educational experience.
4) Serve as enrichment and skills center.
5) Serve as interest center.
401
 Enrichment Centers
Enrichment centers are learning resource centers that help to
reinforce and extend learning of concepts, skills or topics
introduced in the classroom. Not every student will understand
a concept right away when it is taught during the lesson. So it
is important that they have a place where they can go for
further help.
 Enrichment centers can be set up in the classroom and may
include a visual display of the information, additional books
on the topic, or a step-by-step explanation guide of the
concept. Encourage students to utilize the enrichment center
by providing time during class for students to review the
enrichment materials. 402
Skill Centers
Skill centers focus on reinforcing essential skills such as
reading, writing or math.
Learning centers focused around these skills may provide
tutors who can help with the skill process, editors who will
edit papers and resources such as citation guides, practice
worksheets or read-a-long stations.
Providing students with a skill-based learning center helps
them build confidence in their abilities and allows them to
seek out help outside of the classroom if they are stuck.

403
Interest Center
Get students involved in learning by providing a resource
for them to learn more about their own interests.
Interest-based learning centers are important to student
learning because they encourage students to pursue their
individual interests. Students take responsibility for their
own learning at interest learning centers by choosing what
they want to study, and how they will study it. Libraries
are the most typical form of an interest learning center.

404
Management of Learning Resources
Resources that are used for instructional purposes should be easily
available and accessible to the teacher and the learners. In that case,
they should be stored in a resource centre. A resource centre is the
place where different types of instructional materials are pooled and
made available for the benefit of those who want to use them for
their desired purposes.
The main objectives of establishing a resource centre include:
1) To pool, produce, organise, maintain, and provide services of the
various types of material resources related to the teaching-learning
process. The centre should be able to engage in activities focused
on production of teaching/learning materials; acquire instructional
materials from various sources; acquire the needed information,
knowledge and skills from various sources.
405
2) To conduct and help in the organisation of various types of
activities related to knowledge and application of educational
technology for the benefit of the students and the teachers.
3) To conduct and help in the organisation of training to help
teachers and students acquire knowledge, information and skills
related to educational technology for improving the processes
and product of education.
4) To work as a centre for the dissemination of information and
knowledge related to the development and application of
educational technology.
5) To work as a motivating and inspirational source for the
development and application of educational technology.
406
6) To work as a coordinating agency for the
development and application of educational
technology among the resource centres at the local,
regional and national levels.
7) To have provision of extension services to the
community in extending application of educational
technology aiming to spread the fruits of education
among the masses.

407
Organisation of the Resource Centre
Since educational technology has a significant role to play in a
school setting, the organisation of the Resource centre must occupy
a prominent place in the planning and scheduling of the school
management. For example:
 It should be centrally located to provide access to the classrooms
and subject related instruction.
 It should have adequate space with essential furnishing and
accommodation for the essential services to be carried out with ease.
 An adequate budget should be allocated for the purchase of
resources and equipment.
 There is need to establish a management team to manage the centre
in order to assist the centre achieve its mandate.
408
MAINTENANCE, CARE AND STORAGE OF
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND MATERIALS

Most users of technology are not We also know that

and do not expect to become
electronic wizards or specialists
but they want to be able to use
the hard-ware safely and
effectively.
The most fundamental elements
of effective technology use are
simply getting the equipment
properly set up, keeping it
running, and being ready to
cope with snags, which always
seem to occur at the most
inopportune times (Heinich et
al., 1996:364).
electronic equipment are
expensive to buy and we
need to take good care of
them through proper
maintenance and handling
in order to increase their
life span. Care over
equipment and proper
maintenance ensures
continued use of the
equipment for a longer
time.
409
HOW TO HANDLE, OPERATE, MAINTAIN AND
STORE MEDIA EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

 Measures that you could take to ensure effective

maintenance and care of equipment :
Different equipment and instructional materials need to be
handled and operated differently in order to ensure effective
maintenance and care. For example:
Audio Equipment: For general maintenance of audio
equipment, all tapes, tape recorders, CDs and CD players must
be kept clean if they are to operate properly. To improve the
quality of your recordings, you should use a cassette head
cleaner to clean the cassette recorder regularly.
 Video Equipment: In order to ensure satisfactory
performance from your video equipment, careful handling
is necessary. For example:
 Never aim the video camera at the sun or other bright light
since this can damage the video tube.
 Turn the camera off when if it will not be used for a period
of time.
 Replace the cap if the camera will not be used for some
time.
 Keep the camera lens clean by dusting with a soft brush.
Similarly, never expose the video  Compatibility of equipment.
tapes, DVDs, to dust, high When purchasing computer
humidity, or extreme equipment, consider the
temperatures. Remember to store compatibility between different
your tapes away from TV brands and between older and
receivers or other equipment that upgraded versions of a single
could generate a magnetic field brand (Roblyer, 2004:32).
which causes the recorded signal  Expandability. When purchasing
on a video tape to erase. a computer, consider the
Computer Equipment possibility of your computer
Purchase of equipment is an having the capacity to
essential consideration when accommodate additional hardware
buying computer equipment. so that you do not discard it too
Among the purchase soon after the purchase.
considerations include:
412
 Maintenance of Computer
equipment
Computers and related
technologies are subjected to
the common problems of any
equipment such as; regular
breakdown, malfunction,
damage or being stolen. We
will mention some ongoing
maintenance and security
concerns that could assist in
the maintenance of your
equipment.
1) Laboratory rules. Most
laboratory rules are intended to
extend the lives of the resources
that you buy. The lab rules and
regulations should be posted
prominently and should apply to
everyone who uses the lab from
the head of the institution
downwards. Such rules should
cover areas like:
 No eating, drinking, or smoking
should be allowed near
equipment.
 Lab resources should be reserved
for instructional purposes only.
413
 Only authorized lab personnel
should check out lab resources.
 Schedules for use should be
strictly observed.
 Problems with equipment should
be reported promptly to
designated personnel.
 Lab users should show respect for
others by maintaining appropriate
noise levels.
2) Maintenance needs and
options. Each teacher who uses
the equipment needs training in
simple troubleshooting such as
 making sure a printer is plugged
in and on-line or what to do
when the computer gives a
certain default message like “a
disk is unreadable”.
 Schools could minimize repair
problems if users follow good
usage rules and conduct
preventive maintenance
procedures. For the computer
and other equipment, it is
necessary to have a maintenance
policy.
414
3) Securing the resources.
Security is a separate but
equally important maintenance
issue since loss of equipment
from vandalism and theft is a
common problem in schools.
Many of the computer
accessories are very portable
and can easily be stolen. A
school needs to device a
security system that would
work for them to protect the
equipment from being stolen.
4) Dealing with the problem of
viruses: Computer viruses are
programmes written specifically
to cause damage or do mischief to
other programmes or information
(Hansen & Koltes, 1992). Like
real viruses, these programmes
can be passed to other
programmes with which they
come in contact. For instance, by
connecting one computer to
another via telecommunications or
by inserting a disk containing the
virus into a computer.
415
Some viruses are carried into a
computer system on Trojan
horses or attractive programmes
designed for another purpose but
which carry instructions that get
around protection codes (Lee,
1992). Some viruses are worms
or programmes designed
specifically to run simultaneously
with other programmes.
Many different strains of viruses
plague computer systems and
more are being generated.
The impact of the virus takes
many forms. Some viruses eat
through data stored in a computer;
others replicate copies of
themselves in computer memory
and destroy files. Viruses have the
general effect of tying up
computer resources, frustrating
users and wasting valuable time.
To deal with the problem of
viruses, Dormady (1991)
recommends a four-point
programme to minimize the
impact of viruses namely:
416
1) establish good practices (scan Therefore, an area should be
systems and disks regularly, created and partitioned where the
2) back up important data or files, equipment and materials can be
3) enforce safety policies (no stored. For convenience, shelves
unauthorized programmes), should be erected for storing the
projectors and other equipment.
4) use virus management Make sure that all equipments
programmes. have an outer cover to protect
 Storing equipment and them from dust. For good
Materials maintenance, essential spare parts
Storage of equipment helps you to such as projection lamps, belts,
use them longer and more fuses, etc. should always be made
efficiently without regular available for replacement when
breakage. the old ones are broken.

417
Materials like CDs, DVDs,
CD-ROMs, should be kept
in racks built in cabinets and
arranged with serial
numbers for easy retrieval
and quick reference.
To store transparencies, use
card boxes with cover and
use a layer of paper in
between the transparencies
to prevent them from
sticking against each other.
For other materials like
charts, posters, etc, store
them in reasonably wide
drawers and lay them flat to
prevent them from being
folded.
Cut-outs from magazines
and newspapers should be
put in files or in large
envelopes before storing
them in drawers or cabinets.
418
Self Assessment Activities
1) Define the following terms:
(i) Learning Resource (ii) Learning Resource Center
(iii) Resource Based Learning
2) Explain why a school needs to establish a Learning Resource Center.
3) You have recently been appointed to head a committee that will be
responsible for the establishment of a Learning Resource Center in
the school where you are teaching.
(i) What organizational structure will you recommend for the school?
(ii) What resources will your committee recommend to be bought by the
school and why?
4) Electronic equipment are expensive to buy and we need to take good care
of them through proper maintenance and handling in order to increase
their life span. List the maintenance measures that you will recommend
for the computer equipment and materials for your school.