Physiological Psychology

PSYC 9: PHYSIOGCAL PSYCHOLOGY
LECTURE
PROF NOEL BASAN
1st SEMESTER A.Y 2023-2024
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTON A. INVASIVE TECHNIQUE
I. WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL 1. Lesioning

PSYCHOLOGY?  Electrical
Physiological psychology is also known as  Chemical
behavioral neuroscience. It is the study of the  Radiofrequency
human neurological functions as they relate to 2. Electrical Recording
behavior and perception and the physical 3. Cannulations
mechanisms within the human body that affect the 4. Push-Pull
mental processes (Lyons, Timothy, psychology- 5. Invivo Autoradiography
info.com). 6. Others
The idea of studying physiological psychology is
to bring an understanding of the various B. NON-INVASIVE TECHNIQUE
physiological mechanism, in the context of how they
affect the human body. Furthermore, how it 1. X-Ray
influences certain pathological behaviors that are • Typical X-Ray receive at the physician's office
interfering with our lives. An example of this would • Can use to examine brain structures
be the function of cells or the brain about • Dyes injected and brain structures examined
psychopharmacology. It is advantageous to gain
• Air inserted into the spinal column and brain
information that is from the biological underpinnings
structures examined.
of pathology as both a tool to teach and as a way of
understanding in actual treatment settings. The Advantages:
study of behavioral neuroscience has the • Is relatively cheap.
overarching purpose to link mental processes and • Good to look at basic structures
problems with the actual physical form of the human • Good for bones and other things
body. The study enhances the ability to differentiate
between those issues which are physically related Disadvantages:
and those that are more in line with a somatic • When injecting air causes a major headache
symptom disorder. It is also true when there is no • Cannot look at the function
explanation for a psychological disorder that • Cannot see detail as well as other procedures
attributes to any physical issues. In this way, the • Cannot be used to examine function.
knowledge gained from physiological psychology can 2. Cerebral Angiography
assist in helping clients to choose the best course of
• Uses radio-opaque dyes
action when it comes to treatment.
• Inject dye into the vertebral or carotid artery.
• X-ray the brain
II. RESEARCH METHODS IN PHYSIOLOGICAL
• Dyes blocks x-rays and allows to see brain
PSYCHOLOGY
arteries exceptionally well.
Various research methods developed
• Allows seeing vascular deformities
throughout the years enable neuroscientists to
• Balloon shape – aneurysm
discover a further understanding of the structure,
• Deformity from where the artery should be –
functions, and connections of the nervous system
Tumor
and its components
3. Computerized Axial Tomography CT or CAT
(https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/psyc372/lesson
• Generally, is a fancy X-Ray but uses a
s/lesson02/lesson2.htm).
computer to create the image
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• X-Ray unit moves around the structure (e.g., C. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS THAT
head) and puts X-Rays through to a detector on EXAMINE BRAIN FUNCTIONING
the opposite side
• Basically, gives a picture of a slice of tissue. • Often involves giving a battery of tests.
• Gives a good picture of the tissue at that level. • Tests based on what is trying to examine
• Motor function
4. Positron Emission Tomography • Memory
• Similar to A CT Scan • Sensory-Perceptual Ability
• Can use to look at brain structures • Abstract Reasoning
• Not used for as much today • Others
• Primarily use to examine brain functioning Two Approaches:
• tumor sites 1. Patient-centered
• places that are using lots of glucose • It is more flexible
• Have a scanner pick up the particles • Types of tests based on presen ng symptoms and
• Computer makes a picture of where the referral issues.
glucose concentrated
2. Fixed Battery of Tests
• People with Schizophrenia show more activity • Involves giving specific tests to everyone
in the Frontal and Occipital lobes than • Adding others if necessary
normal Types of Tests:
• People with depression show decreased 1. HALSTEAD-REITAN NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL
glucose usage than normal TEST BATTERY
• Can use with a variety of disorders. • Contains ten subtests that examine a
variety of brain functions
5. Magnetic Resonance Imagery • Abstract reasoning
• Similar to a CT scan but uses magnetic fields • Kinesthetic and Sensorimotor ability
instead of X-Rays • Attention
• Causes the nuclei of some atoms to spin in • Auditory Perception
specific orientations • Sensory-Perceptual ability
• When add specific radio frequencies, the • Others
nuclei from water Some tasks:
molecules (Hydrogen) emit frequencies as well • Have a person close their eyes with
• Have a detector for the Hydrogen frequencies their hands held out. Have them say
• Is use also to examine brain structures which hand is touched when touched.
• Great to determine things about • Which ear receives a barely audible
• Tumors finger snap.
• Strokes • Identify a number or shapes traced on
• Other things (hydrocephalus) a finger or hand.
• Can use for any structure • Key tapping
• Full body scans • Measuring grip strength by squeezing
6. Single-Photon Emission Computerized a dynamometer
Tomography (SPECT) • Others
• Is like a PET Scan but more refined Issue:
• Normal person can perform the tasks
well.
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• Persons with neurological damage I. ETHICS IN PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

have difficulty with specific tasks. RESEARCH
• Based on anatomy and physiology,
can deduce where the brain damage
Ethical Principles for Conducting Research
has occurred.
with Human Participants, according to
Additional Tests added to the H-R:
h p://ethics.iit.edu/ecodes/node/
• Memory Tests such as the WAIS-III
• MMPI General
• Others
2. LURIA-NEBRASKA NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL In all circumstances, inves gators must consider
TEST BATTERY the ethical implica ons and psychological
• Is a second standard test battery consequences for the par cipants in their
• Consists of 269 discrete items research. The essen al principle is that the
• Has high reliability inves ga on considers the standpoint of all
• Also has some problems par cipants. Foreseeable threats to their
• High rates of false positives in older psychological wellbeing, health, values, or dignity
patients. should be eliminated. Inves gators should
recognize that, in our mul -cultural and mul -
Some Scales ethnic society. Where inves ga ons involve
• Motor individuals of different ages, gender and social
• Rhythm background, the inves gators may not have
• Receptive Speech sufficient knowledge of the implica ons of an
• Reading inves ga on for the par cipants. The best judges
• Writing whether an inves ga on will offend may be
• Memory members of the popula on from which the
• Others par cipants in the research derives.
Consent
3. BENDER GESTALT TEST
• Used to examine complex motor tasks Whenever possible, the inves gator should
• Has nine figures inform all par cipants of the objec ves of the
• Patient asked to copy one at a time on a inves ga on. The inves gator should inform the
blank sheet of paper. par cipants of all aspects of the research or
• Accuracy is the key interven on that might reasonably expect to
influence willingness to par cipate. The inves gator
ARE TO BE GIVEN AND INTERPRETED BY should, typically, explain all other aspects of the
TRAINED PROFESSIONALS. research or interven on about which the
• Training to give these tests is time-intensive par cipants enquire. Failure to make a full disclosure
• Interpretation requires precise knowledge and before obtaining informed consent requires
skills addi onal safeguards to protect the welfare and
• Tests take lots of practice to give and dignity of the par cipants (see Sec on 4).
interpreted correctly
Research with children or with par cipants
• Radiologists interpret CT Scans and MRIs
who have impairments which limit understanding or
• Neuropsychological test batteries are
communica on such that they are unable to give
interpreted by trained psychologists (usually
their real consent requires special safeguarding
neuropsychologists
procedures.
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Where possible, the real consent of children Decep on

and adults with impairments in understanding or
The withholding of informa on or the
communica on should be obtained. Also, where
misleading of par cipants is unacceptable if the
research involves any persons under sixteen years of
par cipants are typically likely to object or show
age, consent should be obtained from parents or
unease once debriefed. Where this is in any doubt,
those in loco paren s. If the nature of the research
appropriate consulta on must precede the
precludes consent obtained from parents or
inves ga on. Consulta on is best carried out with
permission obtained from teachers, before
individuals who share the social and cultural
proceeding with the research, the inves gator must
background of the par cipants in the research.
obtain approval from an Ethics Commi ee.
However, the advice of ethics commi ees or
Where, real consent supposedly from adults experienced and disinterested colleagues may be
with impairments in understanding or sufficient.
communica on, whenever possible or not, the
Inten onal decep on of the par cipants over the
inves gator should consult another person is well-
purpose and general nature of the inves ga on
placed to appreciate the par cipant's reac on. Such
should be avoided whenever possible. Misleading
as a member of the person's family, and must obtain
par cipants deliberately without robust scien fic
the disinterested approval of the research from
or medical jus fica on are unacceptable. Even
independent advisors.
then, there should be strict controls and the
When researching with detained persons, disinterested approval of independent advisors.
par cular care in obtaining informed consent is of
It may be impossible to study some psychological
utmost considera on. Full a en on to the
processes without withholding informa on about
circumstances which may affect the person's ability
the ul mate objec ve of the study or deliberately
to give informed consent is observed.
misleading the par cipants. Before conduc ng
Inves gators should realize that they are such a study, the inves gator has an exclusive
o en in a posi on of authority or influence over responsibility to (a) determine that alterna ve
par cipants who may be their students, employees, procedures avoiding concealment or decep on
or clients. This rela onship must not be allowed to are not available; (b) ensure that the par cipants
pressurize the par cipants to take part in, or remain are provided with sufficient informa on at the
in, an inves ga on. earliest stage, and (c) consult appropriately upon
the way that the withholding of informa on or
The payment of par cipants must not deliberate decep on will be received.
induce them to risk harm beyond that which they
risk without payment in their healthy lifestyle. Debriefing
If harm, unusual discomfort, or other In studies where the par cipants are aware that
nega ve consequences for the individual's future life they have taken part in an inves ga on, and
might occur, the inves gator must obtain the when the data have been collected, the
approval of disinterested and independent advisors. inves gator should provide the par cipants with
Inform the par cipants, and obtain informed, real any necessary informa on to complete their
consent from each of them. understanding of the nature of the research. The
inves gator should discuss with the par cipants
In longitudinal research, obtaining consent their experience of the research in order to
maybe for more than one occasion. monitor any unforeseen adverse effects or
misconcep ons.
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Debriefing does not jus fy unethical aspects of must be warned of this in advance of agreeing to
an inves ga on. par cipate.
A verbal descrip on will not negate some effects Protec on of Par cipants
which may be produced by an experiment
Inves gators have a primary responsibility to
following the research. Inves gators have a
protect par cipants from physical and mental
responsibility to ensure that par cipants receive
harm during the inves ga on. Usually, the risk of
any necessary debriefing in the form of ac ve
harm must be no higher than in ordinary life, i.e.
interven on before they leave the research
par cipants should not be exposed to risks more
se ng.
significant than or addi onal to those
Withdrawal from the Inves ga on encountered in their regular lifestyles. Where the
risk of harm is higher than in ordinary life, the
At the onset of the inves ga on, inves gators
provisions of 3.8 should apply. Par cipants must
should make it clear to par cipants of their right
be asked about any factors in the procedure that
to withdraw from the research at any me.
might create a risk, such as pre-exis ng medical
Irrespec ve of whether payment or other
condi ons. They must be advised of any
inducement has been offered. It is recognized
par cular ac on they should take to avoid risk.
that this may be difficult in specific observa onal
or organiza onal se ngs. However, nevertheless, Par cipants should be informed of procedures
the inves gator must a empt to ensure that for contac ng the inves gator within a
par cipants (including children) know of their reasonable period following par cipa on should
right to withdraw. When tes ng children, stress, poten al harm or related ques ons or
avoidance of the tes ng situa on may be taken concern arise despite the precau ons required by
as evidence of failure to consent to the these Principles. Where research procedures
procedure and should be acknowledged. might result in undesirable consequences for
par cipants, the inves gator has the
In the light of the experience of the inves ga on,
responsibility to detect and remove or correct
or as a result of debriefing, the par cipant has
these consequences.
the right to withdraw retrospec vely any consent
given and to require that their data, including Where research may involve behavior or
recordings, be destroyed. experiences that par cipants may regard as
personal and private, the par cipants must be
Confiden ality
protected from stress by all appropriate
Subject to the requirements of legisla on, measures, including the assurance that answers
including the Data Protec on Act, informa on to personal ques ons need not be given. There
obtained about a par cipant during an should be no concealment or decep on when
inves ga on is confiden al unless otherwise seeking informa on that might encroach on
agreed in advance. Inves gators who are put privacy.
under pressure to disclose confiden al
In research involving children, great cau on
informa on should draw this point to the
should be exercised when discussing the results with
a en on of those exer ng such pressure.
parents, teachers, or others in loco paren s, since
Par cipants in psychological research have a right
evalua ve statements may carry unintended weight.
to expect that informa on they provide will be
treated confiden ally and, if published, will not
be iden fiable as theirs. If confiden ality and
anonymity cannot be guaranteed, the par cipant
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MAIN Axon – long extension that carries electrical

MODULE 2: PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF messages away from the cell body to the terminal
axon.
BEHAVIOR
Terminal axon – passes the signal to the next cell.
TOPIC Myelin sheath – serves as the protective covering of
I. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM the axon.
Types of Neurons
What is the Nervous System?
Neurons are classified functionally based on what
The nervous system is the physically they do. There are sensory (afferent) neurons, motor
connected network of cells, tissues, and organs that (efferent) neurons and interneurons.
allow us to communicate with and react to the
environment and perform life activities. The sensory neuron is the type of neurons that
detects the changes in the external environment and
Cells of the Nervous System sends information about these changes to the
central nervous system.
A. The Neurons
Sensory neurons are found in the PNS (peripheral
Neurons (Khan, 2020), also called nerve nervous system), which is the nervous system
cells, are specialized cells that transmit and receive outside the brain and spinal cord (which is the
electrical signals in the body. Neurons are central nervous system. A sensory in an organ will
composed of three main parts: dendrites, a cell receive a signal based on a stimulus (for example,
body, and an axon. Signals receive through the light in the eyes) and send a signal to a sensory
dendrites, travel to the cell body, and continue down neuron. The sensory neurons would send it to the
the axon until they reach the synapse (the CNS, which would go to your brain and say that
communication point between two neurons). there’s light.
see VIDEO: Anatomy of a neuron A Motor neuron is a neuron located within the
central nervous system that controls the contraction
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ob5U8zPb of a muscle or the secretion of a gland by passing
AX4&list=PLe00sJ33LD7hBsmYRrnyIv- messages from the brain to parts of the body for
1gV3y__h2O&index=4&t=61s responses.
Basic Structure of a Neuron Motor neurons carry information in the opposite

The primary cells in the nervous system are direction to sensory neurons. Motor neurons will
neurons (Hayward, 1997). From the electrical activity send a signal to muscles attached to a bone and tell
of a neuron, messages pass along its axon (nerve them to move.
fiber) towards the next neuron. There are other cells
in the nervous system, which provide support for An Interneuron is a neuron located entirely within
neurons. the nervous system. It relays sensory signals to the
brain, then returns the message to the motor
Dendrites – receives chemical signals from neuron.
neighboring cells.
Cell body – contains the nucleus and organelles. Interneurons are only found in the CNS and send
signals from neuron to neuron - including to other
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are damaged (if soma (body) is injured, death of cell

is unavoidable.
interneurons - and exists solely to pass on the

information.
The Synapse
Structural Classification of Neurons The area where an axon connects with the
dendrite of another neuron is called the synapse.
There are three structural classes of neurons, called Axons do not join directly onto the dendrites or the
unipolar neurons, bipolar neurons and multipolar cell body of the next neuron; there is a gap called
neurons. the synaptic cleft. The electrical activity of the axon
cannot proceed across the synaptic cleft, so a
A neuron is unipolar if it only has one different process bridges the gap.
process extending from the soma, and branches into Chemicals called transmitter substances
a set of dendrites and an axon. contained in the terminal buttons of the sending
A neuron is bipolar if it has two processes dendrites. When electrically stimulated by the axon,
extending from the soma, with one axon and one set are released across the synaptic cleft, onto
of dendrites. specialized receptor sites in the receiving dendrites
A neuron is multipolar if it has several sets of the next neuron in the chain.
of dendrites extending from the soma, and one
axon. What holds synapses together?
Nothing, because a synapse is the
communication 'gap' between one neuron and
another - the neurons involved are not physically
connected like a nut and a bolt are.
The label on the left should read "Action

potential from presynaptic neuron" and the two
labels at the bottom should read "Slow chemical
transmitters" and "G protein linked receptor". The
ones at the right should read "Endplate potential"
Which neurons are replaced throughout life? and "Endplate current". In this type of junction
communication is established by diffusion of
Neurons (excluding hippocampal) do not chemicals called neurotransmitters across the gap
replace, they can just regenerate (parts of CNS from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic
(spinal cord, brain) can’t even regenerate, only PNS neuron. If the concentration of neurotransmitter
(nerves coming from CNS) does with speed of from the presynaptic neuron in the synapse is high
approx. 1 mm/day (in case axon or other dendrites enough, it will generate an "action potential" in the
postsynaptic neuron and the signal will keep
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travelling down the line. This is often described Consist of the brain and the spinal cord.
casually in the literature as one neuron influencing The brain – serves as the main control center, while
another to "fire" and pass the "signal" down the line the spinal cord – connects and relays nerve impulses
to other neurons. to the brain.
B. Supporting cells
Glia
The essential supporting cells of the
nervous system are the "neuroglia" or "nerve glue."
Glia (also called glial cells) do indeed glue the CNS
together, but they do much more than that.
Neurons lead a very sheltered existence; they are
buffered physically and chemically from the rest of
the body by the glial cells. The glial cells surround i. The Brain
neurons and hold them in place, controlling their
supply of nutrients and some chemical needed to
The mental processes and behaviors
exchange messages with other neurons. They
studied by psychology directly controlled by the
insulate neurons from one another so that neural
brain, one of the most complex systems in nature
messages do not get scrambled. Moreover, act as
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-
housekeepers, destroying, and removing the
psychology/chapter/structure-and-function-of-the-
carcasses of neurons killed by disease or injury.
brain/).
The human brain is one of the most
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM complex systems on earth. Every component of the
brain must work together in order to keep its body
The nervous system is a physically functioning. The brain and the spinal cord make up
connected network of cells, tissues, and organs that the central nervous system, which, alongside the
allow us to communicate with and react to the peripheral nervous system, is responsible for
environment and perform life activities. regulating all bodily functions.
LINK: Psychology seeks to explain the mental
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RClEbcPD9q0& processes and behavior of individuals by studying
feature=youtu.be the interaction between mental processes and
behavior on a systemic level. Therefore, the field of
Division of Nervous System psychology intertwined with the study of the brain.
The brain is soft and floats in its waterbed
A. Central Nervous System for protection. It cannot feel pain if damaged
directly, as it has no pain receptors. An adult brain
The Central Nervous System (CNS) is the weighs about 1.361 kg and contains around 100
center of neural activity, integrating incoming billion neurons, which die in vast numbers and are
information, organizing thought processes, making not regenerated. The brain receives about one-fifth
decisions, and issuing instructions to the body. It of the blood pumped out by the heart; it needs
comprises the brain and spinal cord. Damage to the glucose and oxygen in the blood in order to function
CNS is not regenerated (repaired), as occurs with efficiently. If deprived of oxygen for more than three
other areas of the body. or four minutes, irreparable damage is likely to
occur.
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proprioception). It also receives output from the

Structure of the Brain cerebral cortex about where these body parts should
The developing brain goes through many be. After processing this information, the cerebellum
stages. In the embryos of vertebrates, the sends motor impulses from the brain stem to the
predecessor to the brain and spinal cord is the skeletal muscles so that they can move. The primary
neural tube. As the fetus develops, the grooves and function of the cerebellum is muscle coordination.
folds in the neural tube deepen, giving rise to However, it is also responsible for balance and
different layers of the brain. The human brain splits posture, and it assists us when we are learning a
up into three primary layers: the hindbrain, the new motor skill, such as playing a sport or musical
midbrain, and the forebrain. instrument. Recent research shows that apart from
motor functions, the cerebellum also has some role
Hindbrain in emotional sensitivity.
The cerebellum, reticular formation, and
brain stem are responsible for some of the most The Midbrain
basic autonomic functions of life, such as breathing The midbrain is located between the
and movement. The brain stem contains the pons hindbrain and forebrain, but it is part of the brain
and medulla oblongata. Evolutionarily speaking, the stem. It displays the same elemental functional
hindbrain contains the oldest parts of the brain, composition found in the spinal cord and the
which all vertebrates possess. However, they may hindbrain. Ventral areas control motor function and
look different from species to species. convey motor information from the cerebral cortex.
The hindbrain, which includes the medulla Dorsal regions of the midbrain are involved in
oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum, is sensory information circuits. The substantia nigra, a
responsible for some of the oldest and most part of the brain that plays a role in reward,
primitive body functions. addiction, and movement (due to its high levels of
dopaminergic neurons), is in the midbrain. In
Medulla Oblongata. The medulla Parkinson's disease, which is characterized by a
oblongata sits at the transition zone between the deficit of dopamine, the death of the substantia
brain and the spinal cord. It is the first region that nigra is evident.
formally belongs to the brain (rather than the spinal The Diencephalon ("interbrain"). The
cord). It is the control center for respiratory, Diencephalon is the region of the embryonic
cardiovascular, and digestive functions. vertebrate neural tube that gives rise to posterior
Pons. The pons connects the medulla forebrain structures. In adults, the Diencephalon
oblongata with the midbrain region and relays appears at the upper end of the brain stem, situated
signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum. It between the cerebrum and the brain stem. It is
houses the control centers for respiration and home to the limbic system, which is considered the
inhibitory functions. The cerebellum is attached to seat of emotion in the human brain. The
the dorsal side of the pons. Diencephalon is made up of four distinct
Cerebellum. The cerebellum is a separate components: the thalamus, the subthalamus, the
region of the brain located behind the medulla hypothalamus, and the epithalamus.
oblongata and pons. It is attached to the rest of the Thalamus. The thalamus is part of the
brain by three stalks (called pedunculi). It limbic system. It consists of two lobes of grey matter
coordinates skeletal muscles to produce smooth, along the bottom of the cerebral cortex. Because
graceful motions. The cerebellum receives nearly all sensory information passes through the
information from our eyes, ears, muscles, and joints thalamus, it is considered the sensory "way station"
about the body's current positioning (referred to as of the brain, passing information on to the cerebral
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cortex (which is in the forebrain). Lesions of, or suggested that surface area of the cortex (basically,
stimulation to, the thalamus are associated with "wrinkliness" of the brain) rather than brain size that
changes in emotional reactivity. However, the correlates most directly with intelligence. Current
importance of this structure on the regulation of research suggests that both may be at least partially
emotional behavior is not due to the activity of the true, but the degree to which they correlate is not
thalamus itself, but to the connections between the precise.
thalamus and other limbic-system structures. Cerebrum
Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is a Beneath the cerebral cortex is the
small part of the brain located just below the cerebrum, which serves as the primary thought and
thalamus. Lesions of the hypothalamus interfere control center of the brain. It is the seat of higher-
with motivated behaviors like sexuality, level thought like emotions and decision making (as
combativeness, and hunger. The hypothalamus also opposed to lower-level thought like balance,
plays a role in emotion: parts of the hypothalamus movement, and reflexes).
seem to be involved in pleasure and rage, while the
central part is linked to aversion, displeasure, and a
tendency towards uncontrollable and loud laughing.
When external stimuli are presented (for example,
dangerous stimuli), the hypothalamus sends signals
to other limbic areas to trigger feeling states in
response to the stimuli (in this case, fear).
Cerebral Cortex
The cerebral cortex is the outer layered
structure of the brain and controls higher brain
functions such as information processing. The grey, The cerebrum is composed of gray and
folded, the outermost layer of the cerebrum white matter. Gray matter is the mass of all the cell
responsible for higher brain processes such as bodies, dendrites, and synapses of neurons
sensation, voluntary muscle movement, thought, interlaced with one another. In contrast, white
reasoning, and memory. matter consists of the long, myelin-coated axons of
Cortex. The cortex is made of layers of those neurons connecting masses of gray matter.
neurons with many inputs; these cortical neurons
function like mini microprocessors or logic gates. It
contains glial cells, which guide neural connections,
provides nutrients and myelin to neurons, and
absorb extra ions and neurotransmitters. The cortex
is divided into four different lobes (the parietal,
occipital, temporal, and frontal lobes), each with a
different specific function.
The cortex is wrinkly in appearance.
Evolutionary constraints on skull size brought about
this development; it allowed for the cortex to
become larger without our brains (and therefore
craniums) becoming disadvantageously large. At Cerebral Hemispheres and Lobes of the Brain
times it has been theorized that brain size correlated
positively with intelligence; it has also been
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The brain is divided into two hemispheres The frontal lobe is considered the moral
and four lobes, each of which specializes in a center of the brain because it is responsible for
different function. advanced decision-making processes. It also plays a
Corpus Callosum. The two hemispheres vital role in retaining emotional memories derived
communicate with one another through the corpus from the limbic system and modifying those
callosum. The corpus callosum is a broad, flat bundle emotions to fit socially accepted norms.
of neural fibers beneath the cortex that connects the The Temporal Lobe. The temporal lobe is
left and right cerebral hemispheres and facilitates associated with the retention of short- and long-
interhemispheric communication. The corpus term memories. It processes sensory input, including
callosum is sometimes implicated in the cause of auditory information, language comprehension, and
seizures; patients with epilepsy sometimes undergo naming. It also creates emotional responses and
a corpus callostomy or the removal of the corpus controls biological drives, such as aggression and
callosum. sexuality.
The temporal lobe contains the
The Lobes of the Brain hippocampus, which is the memory center of the
The brain is separated into four lobes: the brain. The hippocampus plays a crucial role in the
frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes. formation of emotion-laden, long-term memories
based on emotional input from the amygdala. The
Lobes of the Brain left temporal lobe holds the primary auditory cortex,
which is essential for processing the semantics of
speech.
One specific portion of the temporal lobe,
Wernicke's area, plays a crucial role in speech
comprehension. Another portion, Broca's area,
underlies the ability to produce (rather than
understand) speech. Patients with damage to
Wernicke's area can speak clearly, but the words
make no sense, while patients with damage to
Broca's area will fail to form words correctly, and
speech will be halting and slurred. These disorders
The Frontal Lobe. The frontal lobe is are known as Wernicke's and Broca's aphasia,
associated with executive functions and motor respectively; aphasia is an inability to speak.
performance. Executive functions are some of the The Occipital Lobe. The occipital lobe
highest-order cognitive processes that humans have. contains most of the visual cortex and is the visual
Examples include: processing center of the brain. Cells on the posterior
• planning and engaging in goal-directed side of the occipital lobe are arranged as a spatial
behavior; map of the retinal field. The visual cortex receives
• recognizing future consequences of current raw sensory information through sensors in the
actions; retina of the eyes, which is then conveyed through
• choosing between good and wrong actions; the optic tracts to the visual cortex. Other areas of
• overriding and suppressing socially the occipital lobe are specialized for different visual
unacceptable responses; tasks, such as visuospatial processing, color
•determining similarities and differences discrimination, and motion perception. Damage to
between objects or situations. the primary visual cortex (located on the surface of
the posterior occipital lobe) can cause blindness, due
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to the holes in the visual map on the surface of the higher mental functions, such as learning and
cortex caused by the lesions. formation of memories. The limbic system is the
The Parietal Lobe. The parietal lobe is reason that some physical things, such as eating
associated with sensory skills. It integrates different seem so pleasurable to us, and the reason why some
types of sensory information and is particularly medical conditions, such as high blood pressure, are
useful in spatial processing and navigation. The caused by mental stress. There are several vital
parietal lobe plays an essential role in integrating structures within the limbic system: the amygdala,
sensory information from various parts of the body, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal
understanding numbers and their relations, and ganglia, and cingulate gyrus.
manipulating objects. It also processes information
related to the sense of touch. The Amygdala. The amygdala is a small
The parietal lobe is comprised of the almond-shaped structure; there is one located in
somatosensory cortex and part of the visual system. each of the left and right temporal lobes. Known as
The somatosensory cortex consists of a "map" of the the emotional center of the brain, the amygdala is
body that processes sensory information from involved in evaluating the emotional valence of
specific areas of the body. Several portions of the situations (e.g., happy, sad, scary). It helps the brain
parietal lobe are essential to language and recognize potential threats and helps prepare the
visuospatial processing; the left parietal lobe is body for fight-or-flight reactions by increasing heart
involved in symbolic functions in language and and breathing rates. The amygdala is also
mathematics, while the right parietal lobe is responsible for learning based on reward or
specialized to process images and interpretation of punishment.
maps (i.e., spatial relationships).
The Limbic System

The limbic system combines higher mental
functions and primitive emotion into one system.
Due to its proximity to the hippocampus,

the amygdala is involved in the modulation of
memory consolidation, particularly emotionally-
laden memories. Emotional arousal following a
learning event influences the strength of the
subsequent memory of that event so that greater
The limbic system is a complex set of emotional arousal following a learning event
structures found on the central underside of the enhances a person's retention of that memory.
cerebrum, comprising inner sections of the temporal Experiments have shown that administering stress
lobes and the bottom of the frontal lobe. It hormones to individuals immediately after they
combines higher mental functions and primitive learn something enhances their retention when they
emotion into a single system, often referred to as are tested two weeks later.
the emotional, nervous system. It is not only The Hippocampus. The hippocampus is
responsible for our emotional lives but also our found deep in the temporal lobe and is shaped like a
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seahorse. It consists of two horns curving back from the brain and wait for a reply; it has its quick system
the amygdala. Psychologists and neuroscientists for simple tasks, known as the reflex arc.
dispute the precise role of the hippocampus, but The spinal cord is a tail-like structure
generally agree that it plays an essential role in the embedded in the vertebral canal of the spine. The
formation of new memories about past experiences. adult spinal cord is about 40 cm long and weighs
Some researchers consider the hippocampus to be approximately 30 g. The spinal cord is attached to
responsible for general declarative memory the underside of the medulla oblongata, and is
(memories that can be explicitly verbalized, such as organized to serve four distinct tasks:
the memory of facts and episodic memory). 1.to convey (mainly sensory) information to
Damage to the hippocampus usually results the brain;
in profound difficulties in forming new memories 2.to carry information generated in the
(anterograde amnesia), and may also affect access to brain to peripheral targets like skeletal
memories formed before the damage (retrograde muscles;
amnesia). Although the retrograde effect extends 3.to control nearby organs via the
some years typically before the brain damage, in autonomic nervous system;
some cases, older memories remain intact; this leads 4.to enable sensorimotor functions to
to the idea that over time the hippocampus control posture and other fundamental
becomes less critical in the storage of memory. movements.
The Thalamus and Hypothalamus. Both C. The Peripheral Nervous System
the thalamus and hypothalamus are associated with The cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and
changes in emotional reactivity. The thalamus, which peripheral ganglia constitute the Peripheral Nervous
is a sensory "way-station" for the rest of the brain, is System (PNS).
primarily important due to its connections with The peripheral nervous system is covered
other limbic-system structures. The hypothalamus is with two layers of meninges. The middle layer
a small part of the brain located just below the (arachnoid membrane), with its pool of CSF, covers
thalamus on both sides of the third ventricle. Lesions only the brain and the spinal cord. Outside the
of the hypothalamus interfere with several central nervous system, the outer and inner layers
unconscious functions (such as respiration and (dura mater and pia mater) fuse and form a sheath
metabolism) and some so-called motivated that covers the spinal and cranial nerves and the
behaviors like sexuality, combativeness, and hunger. peripheral ganglia.
The lateral parts of the hypothalamus seem to be
involved with pleasure and rage. In contrast, the The subsystem of the PNS
medial part is linked to aversion, displeasure, and a Somatic PNS – responsible for the voluntary
tendency for uncontrollable and loud laughter. movement (balance and movement).
Autonomic PNS – responsible for
ii. The Spinal Cord involuntary movement (digestion, fight, or flight).
Running the length of the body, from the

brain to 'tail,' the spinal cord is housed within the
vertebrae of the spinal column. It consists of
collections of axons running to or from the brain to
various parts of the body. Pairs of major nerves
emerge at specific points along the spine, to
enervate the arms, the legs, and areas of the trunk.
The spinal cord does not always send information to
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these neurons can occur with age, meaning that not

D. The Neurotransmitters enough dopamine is produced; this causes
Among the chemicals circulating in the Parkinson's disease. This is characterized by a delay
brain are some which have a direct bearing on the in initiating movement, a shuffling walk, tremors of
behavior of the individual. These include the limbs while inactive, and an inability to regain
neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are the balance. Treatment to date involves the
chemicals released at the synapse. They are involved administration of L-dopa, a synthetic form of the
in the transmission of messages. Their action can be precursor of dopamine, which alleviates the
either excitatory (promoting action) or inhibitory distressing symptoms, at least for a while.
(lessening activity), depending on the site where Excess dopamine in the CNS is destroyed by
they are acting. the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO for short!).
This enzyme also circulates in the blood, where it
Types of Neurotransmitter deactivates certain amines that are present in some
foods, such as cheese, chocolate, and broad beans.
Acetylcholine. This is the transmitter Unless deactivated, these amines could cause a high
substance that is found in the hippocampus, as we rise in blood pressure.
mentioned earlier and surrounding areas of the Serotonin. Serotonin (also called 5HT) is
brain. This location suggests that it is involved with involved in the regulation of mood. Its action is
memory and learning. The same transmitter is also inhibitory, which means that it tends to depress CNS
found at the neuromuscular junction (that is, where activity. It is also involved in the regulation of pain, in
axons from motor neurons connect with muscles) the control of eating, sleeping and arousal, and in
and is involved with the movement of the skeletal the control of dreams. At most synapses, its effects
system. The main difference between these two are inhibitory rather than excitatory, and its
systems lies in the receptor sites: the skeletal behavioral effects are mostly inhibitory.
receptors are nicotinic because they are stimulated Serotonin is present in the midbrain, in a
by nicotine, a poison found in tobacco leaves, cluster of cells called the raphe nuclei, and in the
whereas the receptors in the CNS are primarily medulla. These structures send nerve fibers to the
muscarinic, stimulated by muscarine, a poison found forebrain, the cerebellum, and the spinal cord, which
in mushrooms. These different receptors, while both suggests a widespread method of influencing
detecting acetylcholine, are linked to different arousal, sensory perception, emotion, and thought
physiological systems, which then respond processes.
differently. Norepinephrine. Norepinephrine is
The monoamines. These are a chemically chemically the same as noradrenaline, and
similar group of neurotransmitters, all of which have epinephrine is identical to adrenaline. Many books
specific actions so that they will be described interchange these terms, but I have decided to use
individually. Three (dopamine, norepinephrine, and the terms 'norepinephrine' and 'epinephrine' for the
epinephrine) form a related subgroup, called the neurotransmitters and 'adrenaline' and
catecholamines, dopamine being the precursor (or 'noradrenaline' when referring to the hormones.
previous chemical step) of the other two. The core of the adrenal glands produces all.
Dopamine. Dopamine has been identified Noradrenergic neurons in the brain are
as a transmitter involved in the movement, situated in the lower brainstem and are mainly
especially the initiation of movements, attention, involved in arousal and wakefulness. In the CNS,
and learning. It is synthesized in the CNS in the norepinephrine plays an excitatory role and is more
neurons of the substantia nigra and circulates widespread than epinephrine, which has an
through the dopamine circuit. Degeneration of
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inhibitory effect. Both transmitters are present in Endorphins. Endorphins. Early work by Pert
the axons of the autonomic nervous system. et al. (1974) identified opiate receptors in the brain
Amino Acid Transmitters. This group of and endorphin-containing neurons in the
transmitters differs from the others as amino acids hypothalamus. Projections reach the amygdala and
are used for protein synthesis by all cells in the brain. the higher brainstem. Endorphins act as pain-
However, three of them play a particularly important reducing agents- the brain's anesthetic.
role as neurotransmitters; these are (i) glutamic acid, Functionally, it has been suggested that it is the
(ii) GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), and (iii) endorphins that are mobilized during an activity such
glycine. as fighting. They will then modify any pain suffered
Glutamic acid. Often called glutamate, until the fight is over, and the individual can retire to
glutamic acid is found throughout the brain and care for the wounds sustained.
appears to be the principal excitatory
neurotransmitter. It is produced liberally by the cells'
metabolic processes. Monosodium glutamate, found
in several manufactured foods, also contains
glutamic acid, and people who are hypersensitive to
glutamate may experience neurological symptoms,
such as dizziness, or hyperactivity, when they eat
foods containing too much glutamate.
GABA. GABA is produced from glutamic
acid (its precursor) by the action of an enzyme that
modifies its chemical structure. GABA has a
widespread distribution throughout the brain and
spinal cord and exerts an inhibitory influence. This is
essential in the CNS to control the number of
neurons that are excited through the
interconnections of the brain. Without GABA, the
brain would be firing uncontrollably.
Glycine. Glycine also appears to be an
inhibitory neurotransmitter, mainly in the spinal
cord and lower brain. Not a great deal is known yet
about glycine. The bacteria that produce tetanus
(lockjaw) release a chemical that blocks the receptor
sites of glycine. Because the inhibitory effect of
glycine can no longer work, muscles contract
continuously, which is the behavioral effect of
tetanus.
Peptides. Peptides are amino acids linked
by peptide bonds; neurons release many. Some
serve as neurotransmitters; others appear to act as
neuromodulators. Psychologists are particularly
interested in the opiate-like peptides classed as
endorphins, because of the effect they have on
behavior.
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MODULE 3: MECHANISMS AND optic chiasm is a complicated crossover of optic nerve

ADAPTATION fibers behind the eyes at the bottom of the brain,
allowing the right eye to “wire” to the left neural
hemisphere and the left eye to “wire” to the right
The Visual System and the Eye hemisphere. This allows the visual cortex to receive
the same visual field from both eyes.
The human visual system gives our bodies
the ability to see our physical environment. The
system requires communica on between its major Color Vision
sensory organ (the eye) and the core of the central
nervous system (the brain) to interpret external Human beings are capable of highly complex
s muli (light waves) as images. Humans are highly vision that allows us to perceive colors and depth in
visual creatures compared to many other animals that intricate detail. Visual stimulus transduction happens
rely more on smell or hearing, and over our in the retina. Photoreceptor cells found in this region
evolu onary history, we have developed an incredibly have the specialized capability of phototransduction,
complex sight system or the ability to convert light into electrical signals.
(h ps://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless- There are two types of photoreceptor cells: rods,
psychology/chapter/sensory-processes/). which are responsible for scotopic vision (night
vision), and cones, which are responsible
for photopic vision (daytime vision).
Sensory Organs Cones are for color vision, and rods are for
shadows and light differences. The front of your eye
Vision depends mainly on one sensory has many more cones than rods, while the sides have
organ—the eye. Eye constructions vary in complexity, more rods than cones; for this reason, your peripheral
depending on the needs of the organism. The human vision is sharper than your direct vision in the
eye is one of the most complicated structures on darkness, but your peripheral vision is also in black
earth, and it requires many components to allow our and white.
advanced visual capabilities. The eye has three Color vision is a critical component of human
primary layers: vision and plays an essential role in both perception
1. the sclera, which maintains, protects, and and communication. Color sensors are found within
supports the shape of the eye and includes cones, which respond to relatively broad color bands
the cornea; in the three basic regions of red, green, and blue
2. the choroid, which provides oxygen and (RGB). Any colors in between these three are
nourishment to the eye and includes the perceived as different linear combinations of RGB.
pupil, iris, and lens; and The eye is much more sensitive to overall light and
3. the retina, which allows us to piece images color intensity than changes in the color itself. Colors
together and includes cones and rods. have three attributes: brightness, based on
luminance and reflectivity; saturation, based on the
amount of white present; and hue, based on color
The left hemisphere of the brain controls the
combinations. Sophisticated combinations of these
motor functions of the right half of the body and vice
receptors’ signals are transduced into chemical and
versa; the same is true of vision. The left hemisphere
electrical signals, which are sent to the brain for the
of the brain processes visual images from the right-
dynamic process of color perception.
hand side of space, or the right visual field, and the
right hemisphere processes visual images from the
left-hand side of space, or the left visual field. The
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“stirrup”) transfers the vibrations from the incus to

Audition: Hearing and the Ear the oval window, the portion of the inner ear to which
it is connected. Through these steps, the middle ear
The human auditory system allows the body acts as a gatekeeper to the inner ear, protecting it
to collect and interpret sound waves into meaningful from damage by loud sounds.
messages. The main sensory organ is responsible for Unlike the middle ear, the inner ear is filled
the ability to hear in the ear, which can be broken with fluid. When the stapes footplate pushes down
down into the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear. on the oval window in the inner ear, it causes
The inner ear contains the receptor cells necessary for movement in the fluid within the cochlea. The
both hearing and equilibrium maintenance. Human function of the cochlea is to transform mechanical
beings also have the unique ability to be able to sound waves into electrical or neural signals for use in
estimate where sounds originate from, commonly the brain. Within the cochlea, there are three fluid-
called sound localization. filled spaces: the tympanic
canal, the vestibular canal, and the middle
The Ear canal. Fluid movement within these canals stimulates
hair cells of the organ of Corti, a ribbon of sensory
The ear is the main sensory organ of the cells along the cochlea. These hair cells transform the
auditory system. It performs the first processing of fluid waves into electrical impulses using cilia, a
sound and houses all the sensory receptors required specialized type of mechanosensor.
for hearing. The ear’s three divisions (outer, middle,
and inner) have specialized functions that combine to
allow us to hear.
The outer ear is the external portion of the
ear, much of which can be seen on the outside of the
human head. It includes the pinna, the ear canal, and
the most superficial layer of the eardrum,
the tympanic membrane. The outer ear’s main task is
to gather sound energy and amplify sound pressure.
The pinna, the fold of cartilage that surrounds the ear
canal, reflects and attenuates sound waves, which
helps the brain determine the location of the sound. The Process of Hearing
The sound waves enter the ear canal, which amplifies
the sound into the eardrum. Once the wave has Hearing begins with pressure waves hitting
vibrated the tympanic membrane, sound enters the the auditory canal and ends when the brain perceives
middle ear. sounds. Sound reception occurs at the ears, where
The middle ear is an air-filled tympanic the pinna collects, reflects, attenuates, or amplifies
(drum-like) cavity that transmits acoustic energy from sound waves. These waves travel along the auditory
the ear canal to the cochlea in the inner ear. This is canal until they reach the eardrum, which vibrates in
accomplished by a series of three bones in the middle response to the change in pressure caused by the
ear: the malleus, the incus, and the stapes. waves. The vibrations of the eardrum cause
The malleus (Latin for “hammer”) is connected to the oscillations in the three bones in the middle ear, the
mobile portion of the eardrum. It senses sound last of which set the fluid in the cochlea in motion.
vibrations and transfers them onto the incus. The cochlea separates sound according to their place
The incus (Latin for “anvil”) is the bridge between the on the frequency spectrum. Hair cells in the cochlea
malleus and the stapes. The stapes (Latin for perform the transduction of these sound waves into
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afferent electrical impulses. Auditory nerve fibers are Tongue and Taste Buds
connected to the hair cells from the spiral ganglion,
which transmits the electrical signals along the The sense of taste is transduced by taste
auditory nerve and eventually on to the brain stem. buds, which are clusters of 50-100 taste receptor cells
The brain responds to these separate frequencies and located in the tongue, soft palate, epiglottis, pharynx,
composes a full sound from them. and esophagus. The tongue is the main sensory organ
of the gustatory system. The tongue contains
Sound Localization papillae, or specialized epithelial cells, which have
taste buds on their surface. There are three types of
Humans can hear a wide variety of sound papillae with taste buds in the human gustatory
frequencies, from approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz. Our system:
ability to judge or estimate where a sound originates,  fungiform papillae, which are
called sound localization, is dependent on the hearing mushroom-shaped and located at the
ability of each ear and the same quality of the sound. tip of the tongue;
Since each earlies on an opposite side of the head, a
sound reaches the closest ear first, and the sound’s  foliate papillae, which are ridges and
amplitude will be more extensive (and therefore grooves toward the back of the tongue;
louder) in that ear. Much of the brain’s ability to  circumvallate papillae, which are
localize sound depends on these interaural (between- circular-shaped and located in a row just
the-ears) differences in sound intensity and timing. in front of the end of the tongue.
Bushy neurons can resolve time differences as small
as ten milliseconds, or approximately the time it takes Each taste bud is flask-like in shape and
for sound to pass one ear and reach the other. formed by two types of cells: supporting cells and
gustatory cells. Gustatory cells are short-lived and are
Gustation: Taste Buds and Taste continuously regenerating. They each contain a taste
pore at the surface of the tongue, which is the site of
The gustatory system creates the human sensory transduction. Though there are small
sense of taste, allowing us to perceive different differences in sensation, all taste buds, no matter
flavors from substances that we consume as food and their location, can respond to all types of taste.
drink. Gustation, along with olfaction (the sense of Tastes
smell), is classified as chemoreception because it Traditionally, humans were thought to have
functions by reacting with molecular chemical just four primary tastes: bitter, salty, sweet, and sour.
compounds in each substance. Specialized cells in the Recently, umami, which is the Japanese word for
gustatory system that are located on the tongue are “savory,” was added to this list of primary tastes.
called taste buds, and they sense tastants (taste (Spicy is not a raw taste because the sensation of
molecules). The taste buds send the information from spicy foods does not come from taste buds but rather
the tastants to the brain, where a molecule is from heat and pain receptors.) In general, tastes can
processed as a taste. There are five primary tastes: be appetitive (pleasant) or aversive (unpleasant),
bitter, salty, sweet, sour, and umami (savory). All the depending on the unique makeup of the material
varieties of flavor we experience are a combination of being tasted. There is one type of taste receptor for
some or all these tastes. each flavor, and a different mechanism transduces
each type of taste stimulus. Bitter, sweet, and umami
tastes use similar mechanisms based on a G protein-
coupled receptor or GPCR.
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Bitter. There are several classes of bitter Olfaction: The Nasal Cavity and Smell
compounds that vary in chemical makeup. The
human body has evolved a remarkably sophisticated The olfactory system gives humans their
sense for bitter substances and can distinguish sense of smell by inhaling and detecting odorants in
between the many radically different compounds the environment. Olfaction is physiologically related
that produce a bitter response. Evolutionary to gustation, the sense of taste, because of its use of
psychologists believe this to be a result of the role of chemoreceptors to discern information about
bitterness in human survival. Some bitter-tasting substances. Perceiving complex flavors requires
compounds can be hazardous to our health, so we recognizing taste and smell sensations at the same
learned to recognize and avoid bitter substances in time, an interaction known as chemoreceptive
general. sensory interaction. This causes foods to taste
Salty. The salt receptor, NaCl, is arguable different if the olfactory system is compromised.
the simplest of all the receptors found in the mouth. However, olfaction is anatomically different from
An ion channel in the taste cell wall allows Na+ ions to gustation because it uses the sensory organs of the
enter the cell. This depolarizes the cell and floods it nose and nasal cavity to capture smells. Humans can
with ions, leading to a neurotransmitter release. identify many odors and use this information to
Sweet. Like bitter tastes, sweet taste interact successfully with their environment.
transduction involves GPCRs binding. The specific
mechanism depends on the specific molecule flavor.
Natural sweeteners such as saccharides activate the The Nose and Nasal Cavity
GPCRs to release gustducin. Synthetic sweeteners
such as saccharin activate a separate set of GPCRs, Olfactory sensitivity is directly proportional
initiating a similar but different process of protein to the spatial area in the nose—specifically the
transitions.
olfactory epithelium, which is where odorant
Sour. Sour tastes signal the presence of reception occurs. The area in the nasal cavity near the
acidic compounds in substances. There are three septum is reserved for the olfactory mucous
different receptor proteins at work in a sour taste. membrane, where olfactory receptor cells are
The first is a simple ion channel that allows hydrogen located. This area is a dime-sized region called the
ions to flow directly into the cell. The second is a
olfactory mucosa. In humans, there are about 10
K+ channel, which has H+ ions in order to block K+ ions million olfactory cells, each of which has 350 different
from escaping the cell. The third allows sodium ions receptor types composing the mucous membrane.
to flow down the concentration gradient into the cell. Each of the 350 receptor types is characteristic of only
This involvement with sodium ions implies a
one odorant type. Each function using cilia, small hair-
relationship between salty and sour taste receptors. like projections that contain olfactory receptor
Umami. Umami is the newest receptor to be proteins. These proteins carry out the transduction of
recognized by western scientists in the family of basic odorants into electrical signals for neural processing.
tastes. This Japanese word means “savory” or Olfactory transduction is a series of events in
“meaty.” It is thought that umami receptors act
which olfactory receptors detect odor molecules.
similarly to bitter and sweet receptors (involving These chemical signals are transformed into electrical
GPCRs), but very little is known about their actual signals and sent to the brain, where they are
function. We do know that umami detects glutamates perceived as smells.
that are common in meats, cheese, and other
protein-heavy foods and reacts specifically to foods
treated with MSG.
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Interpretation of Smells Somatosensorial: Pressure,

Temperature, and Pain
Individual features of odor molecules
descend on various parts of the olfactory system in The human sense of touch is known as the
the brain and combine to form a representation of somatic or somatosensory system. Touch is the first
odor. Since most odor molecules have several sense developed by the body, and the skin is the
individual features, the number of possible largest and most complex organ in the
combinations allows the olfactory system to detect somatosensory system. By gathering external stimuli
an impressively broad range of smells. A group of and interpreting them into useful information for the
odorants that shares some chemical feature and nervous system, skin allows the body to function
causes similar patterns of neural firing is called an successfully in the physical world. Touch receptors in
odotope. the skin have three main subdivisions:
Humans can differentiate between 10,000 mechanoreception (sense of pressure),
different odors. People (wine or perfume experts, for thermoreceptor (sense of heat), and nociception
example) can train their sense of smell to become (sense of pain). Receptor cells in the muscles and
experts in detecting subtle odors by practicing joints called proprioceptors also aid in the
retrieving smells from memory. somatosensory system, but they are sometimes
separated into another sensory category called
kinesthesia.
Smell and Memory
Odor information is easily stored in long- Somatosensory Systems

term memory and has strong connections to
emotional memory. This is most likely due to the The somatosensory system uses specialized
olfactory system’s close anatomical ties to the limbic receptor cells in the skin and body to detect changes
system and the hippocampus, areas of the brain that in the environment. The receptors collect and convert
have been known to be involved in emotion and place physical stimuli into electrical and chemical signals
memory. Human and animal brains have this in through the transduction process and send these
common: the amygdala, which is involved in the impulses to the nervous system for processing. The
processing of fear, causes olfactory memories of sensory cell function in the somatosensory system is
threats to lead animals to avoid dangerous situations. determined by location.
The human sense of smell is not quite as powerful as The receptors in the skin, also called
most other animals’ sense of smell, but the smell is cutaneous receptors, tell the body about the three
still deeply tied to human memory and emotion. main subdivisions mentioned above: pressure and
Pheromones are airborne, often odorless surface texture (mechanoreceptors), temperature
molecules that are crucial to the behavior of many (thermoreceptors), and pain (nociceptors). The
animals. An accessory of the olfactory system receptors in the muscles and joints provide
processes them. Recent research shows that information about muscle length, muscle tension,
pheromones play a role in human attraction to and joint angles.
potential mates, the synchronization of menstrual
cycles among women, and the detection of moods Mechanoreception
and fear in others. Thanks in large part to the
olfactory system, this information can be used to Mechanoreceptors in the skin give us a sense
navigate the physical world and collect data about the of pressure and texture. These receptors differ in
people around us. their field size (low or large) and their speeds of
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adaptation (fast or slow). Thus, there are four types This signal is more difficult to locate and not as easy
of mechanoreceptors based on the four possible to tolerate. The third type arises from viscera,
combinations of fast vs. slow speed and large vs. small musculature, and joints; it is called deep pain. This
receptive fields. The speed of adaptation refers to type of signal is challenging to locate, and often it is
how quickly the receptor will react to a stimulus and intolerable and chronic.
how long that reaction will be sustained after the
stimulus is removed. Rapidly adapting cells allow us
to adjust grip and force appropriately. Slowly Proprioception
adapting cells allow us to perceive form and texture.
The receptive field size refers to the amount of skin Proprioceptors are the receptor cells found
area that responds to the stimulus, with smaller areas in the body’s muscles and joints. They detect joint
specializing in locating stimuli accurately. position and movement, and the direction and
velocity of the movement. There are many receptors
in the muscles, muscle fascia, joints, and ligaments, all
Thermoreceptor of which are stimulated by stretching in the area in
which they lie. Muscle receptors are most active in
Thermoreceptors detect changes in large joints such as the hip and knee joints, while joint
temperature through their free nerve endings—two and skin receptors are more meaningful to finger and
types of thermoreceptors signal temperature toe joints. All these receptors contribute to overall
changes in our skin: warm and cold receptors. Our kinesthesia or the perception of bodily movements.
sense of temperature is a result of the comparison of
the signals from each of the two types of
thermoreceptors. These receptors are not good Somatic System Disorders
indicators of absolute temperature, but they are
susceptible to changes in skin temperature. A somatic system disorder (formerly called a
somatoform disorder) is a type of psychological
disorder related to the somatosensory system.
Nociception Somatic system disorders present symptoms of
physical pain or illness that cannot be explained by a
Nociceptors use free nerve endings to detect medical condition, injury, or substance. The patient
pain. Functionally, nociceptors are specialized, high- must also be excessively worried about his symptoms,
threshold mechanoreceptors or polymodal receptors. and this worry must be judged to be out of proportion
They respond not only to intense mechanical stimuli to the severity of the physical complaints themselves.
but also to heat and noxious chemicals—anything This class of disorders includes:
that may cause the body harm. Their response  Conversion disorder: A somatic symptom
magnitude, or the amount of pain you feel, is directly disorder involving an actual loss of bodily
related to the degree of tissue damage inflicted. function such as blindness, paralysis, or
Pain signals can be separated into three numbness due to excessive anxiety.
types that correspond to the different types of nerve
fibers used for transmitting these signals. The first  Illness anxiety disorder: A somatic symptom
type is a rapidly transmitted signal with a high spatial disorder involving persistent and excessive
resolution, called first pain or cutaneous pricking worry about developing a severe illness. This
pain. This type of signal is easy to locate and generally disorder has recently been reviewed and
easy to tolerate. The second type is much slower and expanded into three different classifications.
highly affective, called second pain or burning pain.
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 Body dysmorphic disorder: The afflicted the vestibulo-ocular reflex. Other signals are sent to
individual is concerned with body image and the muscles that control posture and keep us upright.
is excessively concerned about and
preoccupied with a perceived defect in his or
her physical appearance. Proprioception vs. Vestibular System
 Pain disorder: Chronic pain experienced by a
While both the vestibular system and
patient in one or more areas that are
proprioception contribute to the “sense of balance,”
thought to be caused by psychological
they have different functions. Proprioception has to
stress. The pain is often so severe that it
do with the positioning of limbs and awareness of
prevents proper body function. The duration
body parts concerning one another. At the same time,
may be as short as a few days or if many
the vestibular system contributes to the
years.
understanding of where the entire body is in space. If
 Undifferentiated somatic symptom disorder there was a problem with your proprioception, you
– only one unexplained symptom is required might fall over if you tried to walk because you would
for at least six months. lose your innate understanding of where your feet
and legs were in space. On the other hand, if there
The Vestibular System was a problem with your vestibular system (such as
vertigo), you might feel like your entire body was
The vestibular system is the sensory system spinning in space and be unable to walk for that
that contributes to balance and the sense of spatial reason.
orientation. Together with the cochlea (a part of the
auditory system), it constitutes the labyrinth of the
inner ear in most mammals, situated within the
vestibulum in the inner ear.
The inner ear and the vestibular system:

The vestibular system, together with the cochlea,
make up the workings of the inner ear and provides
us with our sense of balance.
There are two primary components of the
vestibulum: the semicircular canal system, which
indicates rotational movements, and the otoliths,
which indicate linear accelerations. Some signals
from the vestibular system are sent to the neural
structures that control eye movements and provide
us with a clear vision, a process known as
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MODULE 4: BODY HOMEOSTASIS adjust its physiological processes to maintain a steady

internal balance or equilibrium. The regulatory
systems ac vely defend specific values or setpoints
HOMEOSTASIS
for variables such as temperature, fluid levels, and
What is Homeostasis?
weight. The defense of these set points is like the
"Homeostasis is the tendency of a system, primarily thermostat of your home's hea ng system. If the air
the physiological temperature drops below the se ng, the furnace
system of higher animals, to maintain internal turns on; once the desired temperature is reached, it
stability, owing to the coordinated response of its turns off again.
parts to any situa on or s mulus that tends to The nervous system rapidly assesses
disturb its normal condi on or devia ons from the body's ideal values of
func on" (Dic onary.com, ©2012). temperature, fluid levels, or weight. Once deficits are
recognized, the nervous system makes appropriate
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal internal adjustments and mo vates behavior
environment in response to a changing external designed to regain the ideal state. The process of
environment. Hormones are made of proteins; glands motivation both ac vates and directs behavior. When
release them into the bloodstream where they reach homeostasis is compromised, the nervous system first
target cells. hormone fits a receptor protein, bringing ac vates behavior by genera ng tension and
about a change in the cell (Science aid, ©2006-2012). discomfort to drive states such as thirst or hunger.
It becomes a control system to always bring Drive states arise in response to physiological needs
the body back to a constant equilibrium, such as and disappear again, usually with a sense of relief
when those needs are met. Once a drive state
temperature. If it gets too hot, the nervous system
ac vates the organism, it ini ates behavior to solve
and the endocrine system controls the process of
the specific problem. The ac on is to re-establish
homeostasis via nega ve and posi ve feedback
homeostasis, not random. We do not respond to
system sending the right impulses and hormones to hunger cues by ge ng a drink of water. Instead, the
the right cells in the body. A posi ve feedback loop is ac vity of the nervous system ensures that explicitly
to amplify the change, and a nega ve is the reac on mo vated to seek out food.
to reverse the change of direc on in a system. These
loops are a con nuous process, meaning no star ng As demonstrated by the frequency of obesity and
or finishing point, and its response alters the original ea ng disorders, the systems maintaining
reac on Nerve impulses and hormone func on acts homeostasis are not foolproof. Regulatory
systems can help us iden fy a problem, but our
the same as having a chemical and physical
reac on to this informa on usually involves a
environment for the cells in your body, and this
complicated set of psychological and biological
process involves three parts in maintaining balance; processes.
the
receptors, the control center, and the
effector (Homeostasis defini on, updated
Regulation of body temperature
October 4, 2011).
Temperature regula on involves all the
major features of a homeosta c system that we have
Maintaining Homeostasis discussed so far: a precisely defined set point,
mechanisms for detec ng devia ons away from the
Without much conscious awareness or effort setpoint, and, finally, internal, and behavioral
on our part, our bodies maintain homeostasis. elements designed to regain the set point.
Homeostasis, a term coined by psychologist Walter Animals inhabit niches that vary drama cally
Cannon (1932), refers to an organism's ability to in external temperature, from the frozen Arc c to
steaming equatorial jungles. Some bacteria exist in
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PROF NOEL BASAN
the hot volcanic vents on the ocean floor. Extreme Behavioral Responses to Heat and Cold
temperatures limit life through their impact on the
chemical proper es of living cells. If temperatures are Both endotherms and ectotherms engage in
too low, ice crystals form within cells and damage the a variety of behaviors to regulate body temperature.
cell membrane. In high temperatures, the proteins Ectotherms are more dependent on these behavioral
necessary for carrying out cell func ons become devices & they do not share the endotherms ability to
unstable. No ma er where they live, animals must use internal mechanisms for temperature regula on.
maintain an internal temperature that is ideal for the One simple behavioral strategy for regula ng
regular ac vity of their bodies' cells. temperature is to more the rigor type of environment.
Both snakes and people stretch out in the sun when
Adapta ons to Temperature
they seek addi onal warmth or move to the shade
Two solu ons have evolved to help animals
when they need to cool off.
maintain an op mum body temperature in a varying
Body posi on can adjust in response to
environment. Mammals and birds are referred to as
changes in temperature. If we're hot, we tend to
endotherms (endon is the Greek word for "within")
stretch our bodies to increase our surface area and
due to their ability to maintain body temperature
lose mom heat. When freezing, we curl up to reduce
through internal metabolic ac vity. Amphibians,
our body's exposed area. Social animals huddle
rep les, and fish are referred to as ectotherms (ektos
together, sit too close to a warm crackling fireplace.
is the Greek word for "outside") because they rely on
Animals can change the weight, color, and
external factors, such as basking in the sunlight or
composi on of their fur in response to seasonal
retrea ng to the shade below a rock, in maintaining
changes at a temperature. Humans use dark, heavy
ideal body temperature. The standard terms warm-
clothing to absorb and maintain heat, and wham
blooded and cold-blooded are misleading because all
lighter clothing helps reflect and dissipate heat. Dens,
animals' internal temperatures fall within a few
burrows, nests provide further protec on from tum
degrees of one another. Endotherms and ectotherms
per changes
simply use different methods to maintain a standard
body temperature. Endothermic Responses to Heat and
An animal's surface-to-volume ra o
influences the maintenance of body temperature. The
Cold
larger the body's overall volume, the more heat is .
produced by metabolic ac vity—heat loss to the In addi on to behavioral adapta ons,
surrounding environment as a func on of the endotherms demonstrate various automa c internal
animal's surface area. Smaller animals have more responses to devia ons from the temperature set
surface area rela ve to the overall body volume than point. Humans defend a temperature set point of
larger animals, so small animals must use much more 98.6°F (37°C). When the internal temperature drops
energy to maintain a constant body temperature. below this set point, we shiver. Shivering results from
muscle twitches, which can be so intense that teeth
Within a species, popula ons of animals evolve cha er together. The muscle ac vity involved in
features that fit a par cular environmental niche. shivering produces heat but at the cost of a high
In cold climates, surface area and heat loss expenditure of energy. Blood vessels constrict,
reduce in animals with compact, stocky bodies keeping most of the blood away from the surface of
and short legs, tails, and ears. To promote heat the skin, where heat loss is most remarkable.
In some cases, blood vessel constric on is
loss in warm climates, animals have a greater
too extreme, leading to a condi on known as
surface area in slim bodies and long appendages.
Raynaud's disease. This condi on produces sudden
This trend can be seen among human beings as spasms in arteries, par cularly those in fingers and
well, although there are many excep ons. toes, in response to cold. As shown in Figure 9.5, the
affected digit or digits lose feeling and appear white.
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If cold condi ons persist despite shivering, the hierarchy. Lower levels, such as the spinal cord, do not
thyroid gland increases the release of the thyroid respond to heat or cold un l an animal's core
hormone. Higher levels of thyroid hormone are temperature is as much as two to three degrees away
associated with more significant overall from the set point. Pa ents with spinal cord damage,
metabolic ac vity, which warms the body. which prevents temperature regula on of the body
Deficits in thyroid ac vity are o en diagnosed by the brainstem and hypothalamus, frequently
complain about their inability to manage temperature
based on the pa ent's lower-than-normal body
control of their arms and legs—higher levels of the
temperature Barnes & Galton, 1976). In human
hierarchy act as much more precise thermostats. The
infants and small animals, the sympathe c hypothalamus ini ates compensa on whenever core
nervous system responds to cold by s mula ng temperature deviates as li le as 0.01 degrees from
more significant metabolic ac vity in so-called the ideal set point (Sa noff, 1978).
brown fat cells.
Deviations in Human Core Temperature THIRST: REGULATION OF THE BODY'S

FLUID
The body's core temperature refers to the
temperature maintained for vital organs within the
As animals moved out of the ocean
head and torso. Although we can survive dras c
environment onto dry land, they devised ways to
changes in the body's outer shell temperature, much
bring part of their watery environment with them.
smaller devia ons in our core body temperature can
Maintaining appropriate fluid levels is essen al to
have serious consequences.
survival.
Disturbances in the body's ability to maintain
The fluids of the body contain many
the average core temperature point can result in the
dissolved chemical molecules. Molecules dissolved in
hot flashes experienced by nearly 80 percent of
a fluid are known as solutes, and fluid that contains
women in months or years surrounding menopause.
solutes is known as a solu on. If a solute break into
Hot flashes last seconds to minutes and a
ions and dissolves, it is known as an electrolyte. You
characterized by swea ng, flushing, heart
might recognize this term from laboratory blood tests
palpita ons, and a subjec ve feeling of being very
or the adver sing of sports drinks. Some of the
warm. Although the exact mechanism underlying hot
essen al electrolytes involved in healthy body
flashes is not well understood, estrogen changes
func oning include sodium, calcium, potassium,
associated with menopause are likely responsible for
chloride, magnesium, and bicarbonate. Sodium is the
the malfunc on (Stearns et al., 2002). The frequency
most important electrolyte for managing the body's
and severity of hot flash increase if a woman uses
fluid levels.
alcohol daily (Sievert, Obermeyer, & Price, 2006).
Intracellular and Extracellular Fluids

Brain mechanism for temperature
Regulation The body has three major compartments for
storing water. About two-thirds of the body's water
Temperature regula on is too vital for found within cells known as intracellular fluid. The
survival to be le to a single system. Instead, remaining third is in the extracellular fluid, into the
temperature regula on results from a structural blood supply (about 7 percent of the body's water
hierarchy ac vity, beginning with the spinal cord and total), and the inters al fluid surrounding the body's
extending through the brainstem to the cells (about 26 percent of the body's water total). The
hypothalamus. Sensi vity to temperature change cerebrospinal fluid makes up a ny percentage of the
increases from the lower to the higher levels of this extracellular fluid.
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PROF NOEL BASAN
The composi on of the extracellular and The Sensation of Thirst

intracellular fluids is quite different. The extracellular
fluid has higher concentra ons of sodium and Animals vary in their need to take in water
chloride, and intracellular fluid has higher potassium during the day. Some desert-dwelling species never
concentra ons. Even though the solutes' iden ty in seem to drink at all. Animals that spend much me in
these two compartments is different, the rela ve the water are nearly always inges ng some. Humans
concentra on of total solutes is the same—two need an average of about 2.5 liters (0.55 gallons) of
solu ons with equal concentra ons of solutes water per day, roughly equivalent to the eight glasses
referred to as isotonic. Intravenous (IV) fluids of water a day. Any source of fluid taken into the body
provided in medical treatment are typically isotonic is helpful. We take in about half the fluids the body
solu ons containing sugars and sodium. In other needs through the foods we eat without drinking any
words, the IV fluid has the same concentra on of beverages at all, so following the eight-glasses-a-day
solutes as normal body fluids, although the exact rule is likely to provide an excess of fluids.
iden ty of the solutes might be different. The body When a drop in the body's water supply is
can absorb the fluids and solutes without requiring perceived, two processes occur. We experience the
further adjustments to intracellular and extracellular sensa on of thirst, and our bodies begin to conserve
fluid levels. whatever water we s ll have. Walter Cannon (1929)
proposed that the sensa on of a dry mouth was the
cri cal s mulus responsible for feelings of thirst,
The Role of kidneys leading to drinking. Cannon's hypothesis is en rely
wrong. Although the feelings of a dry, dusty mouth
Given regular access to food and water, and throat certainly s mulate us to take a drink, these
people usually consume more water and sodium than feelings are too quickly relieved to be trusted en rely
they need to maintain fluid balances. However, as a means of fluid regula on. As anyone with
livestock in the field o en comes with a salt lick, and outdoor experience can relate, swirling a mouthful of
athletes or soldiers are engaging in high levels of water from a canteen is usually enough to make the
physical ac vity in hot, humid condi ons benefit from dry-mouth sensa on go away. Claude Bernard (1856)
salt supplements. provided more direct evidence against the dry-mouth
Any excess in sodium or water comes from theory. Bernard surgically produced an opening, or
the two kidneys, located in the lower back. Blood fistula, in the esophagus of animals. If the fistula
enters the kidneys, filtered through a complex system remained closed and all water consumed reached the
made up of over a million structures known as stomach, the animals drank normally. However, when
nephrons. Impuri es and excess water and sodium the fistula was open, allowing all the consumed water
are removed by the nephrons and sent to the bladder to escape without reaching the stomach, Bernard's
for excre on as urine. The filtered blood returns to animals drank con nuously. Their mouths were
the circula on. In cases of kidney failure, pa ents indeed quite wet, but this did not inhibit their drinking
must undergo regular sessions of kidney dialysis. in any way.
Machines duplicate the filtering customarily Thirst occurs as a result of two more
performed by the kidneys. sophis cated processes. In the first case, osmo c
In addi on to urina on, we lose water thirst occurs in response to cellular dehydra on that
through several other normal body processes. results from drops in the intracellular fluid volume. In
Steaming breath on a cold day demonstrates that the second case, hypovolemic (low volume) thirst
some water is lost during simple breathing or occurs in response to drops in blood volume. The
respira on. About 1 liter (0.22 gallon) of fluid per day double-deple on hypothesis suggests that a
is lost through perspira on. Evapora on through the combina on of these processes contributes to thirst.
skin and defeca on also reduces the body's water However, osmo c thirst appears to be the more
supply. common mechanism, whereas hypovolemic thirst
serves as a less frequently used emergency backup
system.
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PROF NOEL BASAN
Mechanisms of Osmotic Thirst proteins and angiotensin II, but angiotensin II is the
crucial, biologically ac ve component. Angiotensin II
constricts blood vessels, helping to maintain blood
You probably have some relevant pressure. Angiotensin II also triggers the release of
experience with the most common cause of osmotic the hormone aldosterone from the adrenal glands,
thirst: eating salty foods. After you eat and digest a located above the kidneys. Aldosterone signals the
salty meal, your blood becomes more concentrated kidneys to retain sodium rather than excrete it in the
with sodium. The higher salt content makes the blood urine. Levels of water and sodium are intricately
bound together but are managed by different
hypertonic, or more concentrated, relative to the
processes. ADH controls the reten on of water, and
intracellular fluid. Osmotic pressure moves water out
aldosterone controls the reten on of sodium. Sodium
of the cells to regain the balanced, isotonic state.
is essen al to the maintenance of the extracellular
Receptors sense the lower volume of water in the fluid. Without sodium solutes, the extracellular fluid
cells, and you begin to feel very thirsty. would become hypotonic, and too much water would
move into the cells. When blood volume is lost, as in
A similar process results in the overdrinking,
a severe injury, treatments designed to increase
or polydipsia that is typical of untreated diabetes extracellular sodium levels prevent further water loss
mellitus. People with untreated diabetes cannot into the cells and s mulate some release of water
move sugars out of the blood supply, causing the from cells into the blood supply.
blood to become hypertonic. The cells attempt to
compensate by releasing water, and intense
sensations of thirst results. The combination of The Initiation of Drinking
polydipsia and fluids moving from the cells into the
blood supply provides an excess of fluids that How does thirst lead to drinking behavior?
stimulates urination. Urination further concentrates Angiotensin II appears through its ac on on the
the blood supply, and the cycle continues. Intense subfornical organ (SFO). Its loca on is below (sub)
sensations of thirst accompanied by frequent the fornix, near the two lateral the OVLT. The SFO is in
urination are early warning signs of diabetes mellitus. an area at which the blood-brain barrier research
supports the role of the SFO as a target for
Hormones, Sodium, and Thirst angiotensin II in the l and his colleagues (1989)
surgically disconnected the SFO from other parts of
the brain. Even without standard neural input,
A sequence of hormone ac ons helps return
fluid levels to their set point when cellular neurons in the SFO increased their firing angiotensin
II and injected into the blood supply. This result
dehydra on or hypovolemia occurs. Osmoreceptors
strongly s that the SFO can respond to circula ng
and baroreceptors s mulate the posterior pituitary
gland to release an diure c hormone (ADH) or taking angiotensin II alone, without n other areas of the
diure c medica ons to promote water loss through brain. Lesions of SFO interfere with angiotensin
(Simpson, Epstein, & Camardo, 1978). The electrical
urina on, so an an diure c promotes water
s mula on of the SFO produces drinking behavior
reten on.
ADH has two significant effects on the (Smith, Beninger, & Ferguson, 1995).
kidneys. First, ADH signals the kidneys to reduce urine
The SFO, in turn, forms connec ons with the
produc on. Second, ADH s mulates the kidneys to
median preoptic nucleus. Unlike the OVLT and the
release the hormone renin into the blood supply.
Renin is released in response to ac vity in the kidneys' SFO, the median pr not located in an area where the
blood-brain barrier is weak. However, it does contain
blood-flow receptors. Once in the bloodstream, renin
receptors for angiotensin II. it cannot respond to
triggers angiotensinogen's conversion, a blood
protein, into angiotensin II. There is angiotensin I, angiotensin circula ng in the blood. Lind and Johnson
produced as a brief interim step between the blood (1982) have suggested that angiotensin serves as a
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PROF NOEL BASAN
neurotransmi er in connec ons between the SFO obtain the energy and specific nutrients needed by
and the median. The median preop c nucleus also our bodies, but we eat for pleasure as well. Complex
receives input from the solitary tract (NST) nucleus, cultural and psychological factors can overwhelm the
which is in the medulla. The solitary nucleus receives body's natural regulatory mechanisms, leading to
input from baroreceptors in the circulatory system eating disorders such as obesity or anorexia nervosa.
and osmoreceptors located in the diges ve tract. The
median preop c nucleus communicates with the The Influence of Culture on Food Choices
lateral hypothalamus (LH), which projects to the
midbrain's zona incerta. The zona incerta sends
informa on to several motor regions, including the Human beings take in a remarkable variety
basal ganglia, the red nucleus, and the spinal cord of nutrients. The traditional diet of the Inuit people
(Ricardo, 1981). the zona incerta produces drinking
who live in Arctic regions contains little vegetable
behavior, sugges ng that this structure is responsible
matter, whereas people following a vegan diet eat
for ini a ng the drinking behavior's motor
only plant material. Many American foods are made
components.
from dairy products, but this is not the case in every
Cessation of Drinking culture. Some people no longer produce the enzymes
necessary to process fresh milk products after
We typically stop drinking long before water infancy, resulting in lactose intolerance. The use of
levels in either the intracellular or extracellular dairy products correlates with the geographical
compartments return to normal. Fluid receptors have distribution of lactose intolerance. The highest rates
been iden fied in the mouth, throat, and various of lactose intolerance occur among Asians, whose
diges ve system levels. Lesions of the brain's septal consumption of dairy products is meager. Lactose
area generally produce overdrinking, sugges ng that intolerance is rare from Scandinavia and parts of the
this structure plays a role in the cessa on of drinking Middle East, where reliance on dairy products has
(Liao & Yeh, 2000). Finding the correct stopping point
been historically high (Rozin & Pelchat, 1988).
for fluid consump on is not cri cal because any
excess water can be excreted. Learned food preferences begin at a
However, overdrinking under certain surprisingly early point in life Beauchamp, 2005).
condi ons results in hyponatremia, a condi on in Exposure to flavors through the amniotic fluid or
which extracellular sodium levels drop 10 percent or
appears to influence later food choices. When
more below average (Vellaichamy, 2001). Untreated
pregnant and nursing women consumed carrot juice
hyponatremia results in nausea, vomi ng, cramps,
and disorienta on. If the condi on persists, seizures, rather than plain water, their infants ate much more
coma (due to swelling of the brain), and death may cereal prepared with carrot juice than with water, and
follow. Many medical problems result in they were rated as appearing to enjoy the carrot
hyponatremia, including conges ve heart failure, cereal more (Mennella, Jagnow, & Beauchamp,
kidney failure, and some tumors. Recently, the 2001). This mechanism could promote learning about
condi on has become more common due to the safe and available foods in very young children.
increased popularity of extreme endurance events.
The Pancreatic Hormones
HUNGER: REGULATION OF THE BODY'S

NUTRIENTS The body's energy supply from glucose is
regulated in large part by two glucagons and insulin
Emotions and learning exert more influence produced by the pancreas. The pancreas is a large
on our eating behaviors than they do on the gland located behind the stomach. Glucagon converts
regulatory behaviors discussed. Not only do we eat to glycogen back into glucose. Levels of glucagon
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PROF NOEL BASAN
increase during periods of the body taps into its consumed in excess, fructose leads to insulin
glycogen stores to maintain blood glucose levels, resistance and other pre-diabe c states.
store glucose as glycogen, and help move glucose
from the blood body cells. Levels of insulin typically
increase a helping glucose circulating in the blood The Initiation of Eating
supply to move into cells and stored as glycogen.
We respond to both external and internal
Insulin levels are lowest during long periods of fasting
cues that make us feel hungry. Among the external
Disturbances in the ac vity of the pancrea c cues are factors such as time of day, the delightful
hormones have serious sequences. Type 1 diabetes sights and smells of favorite foods, or the social
mellitus is usually diagnosed in childhood or y hood setting we are in when food is presented. These
and accounts for 5 to 10 percent of all diabetes external cues often encourage us to cat when our
diagnoses in the U (Na onal Ins tute of Diabetes & bodies do not need nutrients or eat more food than
Diges ve & Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), 20 diabetes we require to meet our energy needs.
usually occurs when the body's immune system
destroys insulin-producing pancrea c cells. Without Internal hunger cues are generated when
insulin, glucose from foo through the bloodstream our body is genuinely short on nutrients. One internal
without being absorbed or stored by the body's cells sign of hunger occurs when our stomachs begin to
are starving. In contrast, high glucose levels excreted rumble in a study on the role of stomach contractions
in the excess circula ng glucose cause an imbalance in hunger. Walter Cannon persuaded his colleague A.
of solutes between the intracellular and extracellular
L Washburn to swallow a balloon attached to an air
compartments, producing enormous thirst. Fa gue,
pump (Cannon & Washburn, 1912). The balloon
weight drinking, and excess urina on are classic
symptoms of untreated diabetes. allowed Washburn's stomach contractions to be
monitored. Although Washburn's feelings of hunger
Type 2 diabetes mellitus is diagnosed when correlate with his stomach contractions, hunger
individuals produce insulin, but their bodies either do appears to be much more complicated. Patients who
not make enough insulin or use insulin efficiently-a have had their stomachs removed still experience
condi on known as insulin resistance. A er a few hunger sensations in the general region where the
years of insulin resistance, the pancreas' amount of stomach used to be. We typically initiate eating long
insulin begins to decline (NIDDK, 2002), and the before our stomachs begin to growl, so other systems
person develops diabetes. Symptoms of Type 2 must also be involved in making us feel hungry.
diabetes are the same as in Type 1. Unlike Type 1
diabetes, Type 2 usually can be prevented and treated Hunger can occur as a function of blood
by maintaining a healthy weight. Obesity is a
glucose levels. Glucose levels in the blood are high,
significant risk factor for Type 2 diabetes. Because
just following a meal. As glucose levels drop, a person
obesity rates are rising in the United States, Type 2
begins to feel hungry again. Glucose levels are
diabetes rates reach epidemic propor ons, affec ng
over 20 million Americans (Gerberding, 2007). Not intimately tied to insulin levels. Insulin is usually
only are rates of diabetes expected to double by 2025 released in response to eating or even to the
(ibid.), but Type 2 diabetes, once rarely diagnosed in anticipation of eating. Therefore, we would expect
people below the age of 40, is affec ng more children high insulin and glucose levels to correspond to
and youth (Ludwig & Ebbeling, 2001). Although the satiety, whereas low levels of insulin and glucose
causes of Type 2 diabetes are varied and not well should correspond with fasting and feeling hungry.
understood, one possibility appears to be the use of Unfortunately for our hypothesis, two observations
fructose, an inexpensive sweetener frequently used in are inconsistent with this simple approach. First,
processed foods (Miller & Adeli, 2008). When insulin injections generally produce feelings of hunger
instead of satiety (Vijande et al. 1990). Second,
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PROF NOEL BASAN
patients with diabetes experience substantial hunger neurochemicals Fat cells produce and secrete a
despite high levels of circulating glucose. An substance known as leptin, from leptos, the Greek
improved glucose hypothesis suggests that it is not word for thin" (Zhang et al., 1994). When fat stores
the total amount of circulating glucose that are low, levels of circula ng lep n is also low. Ini al
determines whether we feel hungry, but the reports that administering addi onal lep n to obese
availability of that glucose to our cells (Mayer, 1955). rodents reduced their weight led many researchers to
believe that lep n could treat human obesity.
In a healthy person, circulating glucose is the same as
Unfortunately, obese humans already produce large
available glucose, and hunger occurs when blood
amounts of lep n, but they seem resistant to its
glucose levels are low. However, in a person with effects (Friedman & Halaas, 1998). Providing more
diabetes, circulating glucose is not available to cells lep n is unlikely to help obese individuals lose weight.
due to reduced insulin functioning. As a result,
hunger occurs despite ample supplies of glucose. An
injection of insulin drives circulating blood glucose Satiety
into a cell, reducing the amount of available glucose
and producing hunger sensations.
We use both external and internal cues to
decide when to stop eating and when to start.
Receptors and Hunger. If hunger results from low
Unfortunately, the current obesity epidemic shows
levels of available glucose and fats, receptors must
exist that can assess nutrient levels and communicate that we can override or ignore our internal cues.
with the brain that ini ates feeding behavior. Assessing Satiety. Satiety, or fullness, occurs long
Glucoreceptors have been iden fied in the nucleus of before sufficient nutrients make their way into cells.
the solitary tract (NST) in the brainstem. The NST Stomach fullness provides an early warning signal to
communicates with other brain regions, notably with tell us that we have eaten enough. In extreme obesity
the hypothalamus. The NST also receives input from cases, some people have a por on of their stomach
the taste recep on system (see Chapter 7). Other stapled in hopes of feeling full faster and therefore
receptors in the liver mon levels of glucose and fa y ea ng less. The intes nes also provide sa ety signals.
acids, Glucoreceptors in the liver, influence the The duodenum, shown previously in Figure 9.14, joins
release of insulin from the pancreas and the stomach and the small intes nes. When duodenal
communicate with the NST via the vagus nerve. glucoreceptors sense sugars, ea ng generally stops
quickly. The arrival of food, mostly very fa y food at
Brain Mechanisms for Hunger. Early research the duodenum, signals the pep de cholecystokinin
suggested that the lateral hypothalamus (LH) served (CCK). CCK promotes insulin release by the pancreas
as a hunger center (Anand & Brobeck. 1951). Rats and contracts the gallbladder to release bile to help
with lesions in the lateral hypothalamus would starve break down fats. CCK contributes to sa ety (Stacher,
to death in the presence of food because they would 1986), but the exact mechanism for this effect is
not ini ate ea ng. Human pa ents with tumors in the unclear. CCK also func ons in the brain as a
LH o en lose considerable weight due to loss of neurotransmi er related to sa ety. CCK antagonists
appe te. The electrical s mula on of the LH produces increase ea ng, indica ng that CCK has an inhibitory
immediate feeding. effect on feeding behavior (Cooper & Dourish, 1990).
Subsequent research raised doubts about a simplis c
Brain Mechanisms for Satiety. Early research
role for the LH as a feeding center. If rats with LH suggests that the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH),
lesions are forced, they eventually began to ini ate shown in Figure 9.17, might serve as a sa ety center.
feeding on their own again. Lesions of the VMH in rats produced VMH syndrome,
characterized by large weight gains and picky ea ng
Neurochemicals and Hunger. Feeding behavior is habits (Hoebel & Teitelbaum, 1966). If their food
influenced by complex interac ons among several mixes with quinine, which is quite bi er, VMH rats eat
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much less than usual control rats (Sclafani, Springer, & process. In additional work from Weindruch's lab
Kluge, 1976). (Lee, Weindruch, & Prolla, 2000), calorie-deprived
mice maintained a more youthful gene activity level.
Neurochemicals and Satiety. When body fat levels
are high, higher concentra ons of lep n are found in Expert opinions regarding a person's
the blood. High levels of circula ng lep n interact optimum weight vary widely. One currently popular
with the second set of neurons in the arcuate nucleus, system for determining ideal weight is the
dis nct from the neurons that respond to low levels computation of a body mass index (BMI). The BMI is
of lep n. This second set of neurons are the source of computed by dividing a person's weight in kilograms
two addi onal neuropep des, alpha-melanocyte- by the square of their height in meters. People with a
stimulating hormone (AMSH) and cocaine- and
resulting BMI of between 18.5 and 24.9 appear to live
amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART).
the longest, with the risk of death from all causes,
Projec ons from the arcuate nucleus neurons travel
once again to the PVN, LH, and autonomic nervous including cancer and heart disease, increasing when a
system control centers in the brainstem and spinal person's BMI reaches 25 or above (Calle, Thun
cord. Alpha-MSH and CART cause the pituitary gland Petrelli, Rodriguez, & Heath, 1999). A BMI of 25 to
to release TSH and ACTH, raising body metabolic 29.9 is defined as overweight. A BMI of 30 to 39.9 is
rates. Alpha-MSH and CART also ac vate the obese, and a BMI of 40 or more is morbidly obese.
autonomic nervous system's sympathe c division, Morbid obesity limits activity and normal
increasing metabolism and body temperature and physiological functions and puts a person at high risk
inhibi ng feeding behavior. for disease and death.
Obesity and eating disorders Obesity
Many people seem to have a great deal of Human beings use energy very efficiently.
difficulty in maintaining a healthy body weight. When at rest, the average human body uses only
Because our bodies evolved to survive with a limited, about 12 calories (kcals) per pound per day. In other
difficult-to-obtain food supply, we struggle for words, a person who weighs 150 pounds and spends
balance in modern cultures in which food is amply most of his or her day watching television or sitting in
available (Chakravarthy & Booth, 2004). front of the computer needs only about 1,800 calories
of food. Considering that the typical fast-food meal of
Defining Normal Weight a hamburger, fries, and soda contains about 1,500
To define the boundaries of an eating calories, it becomes easy to see why people are
disorder, it is helpful to define healthy body weight. getting a lot heavier.
Results of animal research strongly suggest that lower
Many complexes, interacting factors in our
body weights are healthy. Mice that underwent
modern lifestyles contribute to obesity. Social
caloric restriction experienced more generous health
factors, such as the acceptance of large body size, are
and life span than mice allowed to eat freely
reflected in the fact that having obese friends
(Weindruch, Walford, Fligiel, & Guthrie, 1986). The
increases your risk of obesity by 57 percent, and
more caloric intake was restricted, the longer the
having an obese spouse increases your risk of obesity
mice lived, with the mice that received only 65
by 37 percent (Christakis & Fowler, 2007). Stress
percent of their "normal" food living 67 percent
alone and a high-fat diet alone do not necessarily lead
longer not live than mice that could eat as much as
to obesity. However, the combination of the two
they wanted. Sohal and Weindruch (1996) have
appears to increase the release of NPY, which, in turn,
suggested that eating promotes some unknown
increases appetite (Kuo et al., 2007).
byproducts that accelerate the cellular level's aging
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Genetics appear to play an essential role in a Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia

person's vulnerability to obesity. A twin study
suggests that differences in adult women's body sizes
could be predicted by their genes more than 50 There are apparent environmental factors
percent of the time (Livshits, Kato, Wilson, & Spector, associated with eating disorders, including exposure
2007). Even viral infections and bacteria have been to excessively thin and glamorous models and
implicated in the development of obesity. actresses. In 1965, models were thinner than the
average American woman, but only by 8 percent.
Anorexia Nervosa Today, models are 23 percent thinner than the
average American woman. In response to several
models' deaths from starvation and concerns about
Coexisting with obesity in American society the messages sent to young women, several
is the disorder anorexia nervosa. In anorexia, which European countries have banned fashion models
means "loss of appetite," individuals maintain 85 whose BMI is less than 18.5. (The average fashion
percent or less of their average body weight while model has a BMI of 16.5.)
demonstrating a distorted image of their bodies as
oběse. This is one of the few psychological conditions The evidence for biological factors leading to
that can kill; up to 10 percent of patients eventually eating disorders, however, is more difficult to
die from the disorder (American Psychiatric interpret. Hsu, Chesler, and Santhouse (1990)
Association, 2000). In addition to extremely low reported a genetic predisposition to eating disorders
weight, individuals usually show amenorrhea based on the study of monozygotic and dizygotic
(cessation of menstruation), dry or yellowed skin, twins. Families with members diagnosed with
fine, downy hair (lanugo) on the face, trunk, and anorexia nervosa are also likely to have high rates of
limbs, increased sensitivity to cold, and major depressive disorder (Wade, Bulik, Neale, &
cardiovascular and gastrointestinal problems. More Kendler, 2000). It is likely that the general personality
than 90 percent of anorexia patients are female. characteristics that produce a vulnerability to the
development of eating disorders, not the disorders
Bulimia Nervosa themselves, are inherited.
Treatments for Eating Disorders

Bulimia nervosa involves a cyclical pattern of
binge eating followed by purging through vomiting or
use of laxatives. The extent of bingeing varies widely No medication to date has proved effective
among patients. However, the average binge session in alleviating anorexia (Berkman et al., 2006).
contains approximately 1,500 calories of food (Rosen, Antidepressants, particularly selective serotonin
Leitenberg, Fisher, & Khazam, 1986). Bulimia is far reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs; see Chapters 4 and 16), are
more common than anorexia, occurring in 3 percent frequently useful in managing Bulimia, although
instead of 0.5 to 1 percent of the American cognitive-behavioral therapy is more effective than
population (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). medication alone (Berkman et al., 2006). When
However, some patients with anorexia are also treating anorexia, the priority is keeping the patient
bulimic at times. Bulimia results in fatigue, alive, which usually requires a period of
headaches, puffy cheeks (due to enlarged salivary hospitalization and careful monitoring of food intake.
glands), and dental enamel loss through repeated Addressing the distorted body image that
vomiting of stomach acid. characterizes eating disorders is also an essential
aspect of treatment.
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Stages of Prenatal Development

Male and female structural development
MODULE 5: SEXUAL BEHAVIOR involves three dis nct processes: the development
of gonads, and internal organs, and of external
genitalia. In most cases, all three processes occur
SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
congruently to produce an unambiguous male or
Male and female behavior is o en very
female. In a rare condi on known as intersex,
different, and we frequently ask how much of a role
elements of both male and female development
biology and socializa on play in the differences we
occur in the same fetus.
see. Children begin to prefer sex-typed toys between
the ages of 12 and 18 months. At these same ages, The Development of the Gonads. Up un l the sixth
children are unable to match sex-typed toys (vehicles week a er concep on, both male and female fetuses
and dolls) with male or female faces or voices, have iden cal primordial gonads that can develop
sugges ng that they have not yet been socialized to into either ovary, the female gonads, or testes, the
think of toys as "male" or "female" (Serbin, Poulin- male gonads.
Dubois, Colburne, Sen, & Eichstedt, 2001).
Socializa on is even less likely to play a role in the At about six weeks after conception, a gene
toy choices of monkeys. Young male monkeys spend on the short arm of the Y chromosome, known as the
more me with wheeled toys and balls, whereas sex-determining region of the Y chromosome, or
young female monkeys prefer dolls, plush animals, SRY, is expressed in male embryos (Berta et al., 1990;
and pots (Alexander & Hines, 2002; Hasse , Siebert, Jäger, Anvret, Hall, & Scherer, 1990). Testis-
& Wallen, 2008). These results suggest that at least determining factor, the protein encoded by the SRY
part of the preference we see in toy selec on among gene, switches on additional genes that cause the
boys and girls may originate in biology. primordial gonads to develop into testes. In female
embryos, which lack the SRY gene and its ability to
produce testis-determining factor, alternate genes
Sexual Development guide the development of the primordial gonad into
In 355 B.C., Aristotle argued that the sex of ovaries (Sinclair et al., 1990). Chromosomally male
a child was the result of the temperature of semen at mice genetically modified to lack the SRY gene
the me of concep on. Hot semen resulted in males, develop ovaries, whereas female mice in which the
and cool semen resulted in females. Today, we SRY gene has been inserted develop testes
understand that an individual's gene c sex begins (Goodfellow & Lovell-Badge, 1993).
with sex chromosomes inherited from two parents.
Mothers provide an X chromosome to all their Differentiation of the Internal Organs. The
offspring; fathers determine the offspring's sex by differentiation of the internal organs, shown in Figure
providing either another X (producing a female) or a 10.4, follows the development of the gonads. Until
Y chromosome (producing a male). The ini al XX or about the third month of development in humans,
an XY genotype begins a cascade of hormonal, both male and female fetuses possess a male
structural, and behavioral events. Maleness and Wolffian system and a female Müllerian system.
femaleness o en viewed inaccurately as dis nct and Advantages for this apparent duplication are not
separate categories. The fetus is ini ally currently understood. In males, the Wolffian system
undifferen ated regarding sex. Without exposure to will develop into the seminal vesicles, the vas
male hormones, all babies would be born with deferens, and the prostate. In females, the Müllerian
outwardly female appearance and behavior.
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system will develop into the uterus, the upper portion facial hair and a more resonant voice for males and
of the vagina, and the fallopian tubes. broader hips and breast development for females.
The average age of puberty has dropped
During the third month, the male's relatively dramatically over the past century and a half, from
new testes begin to secrete two hormones, about 16 to about 12 years of age (Frisch, 1983,
testosterone, and anti-Müllerian hormone. Herman-Giddings et al., 1997). Possible explanations
Testosterone, one of several types of male hormone for this drop in age at puberty include increased rates
or androgen, promotes the development of the of obesity (see Chapter 9). Accumulation of enough
Wolffian system. Anti-Müllerian hormone initiates body fat to support reproduction might serve as a
the degeneration of the Müllerian system. In the signal for puberty. When body fat is abnormally low,
female fetus, no additional hormones are needed for as in anorexia nervosa, puberty is delayed. Exposure
development. Unlike the testes, the ovaries are not to compounds like female hormones in meat and
active during fetal development. In the absence of dairy products, shampoo, plastics, and insecticides
any androgens or anti-Müllerian hormone, the might also trigger earlier puberty. All edible tissues
Müllerian system will develop in the typical female from animals contain a type of estrogen, or female
direction. Nonfunctional remnants of the Wolffian hormone, called estradiol, so we can assume that
system remain throughout a woman's life. humans have always experienced some level of
Development of the External Genitalia. The exposure to outside sources of sex hormones.
development of the external genitalia, illustrated in However, many nations, including the United States,
Figure 10.4, follows the differentiation of the gonads also permit the use of sex hormones to promote
during the sixth week after conception. The male growth in cattle production. Consumption of treated
external genitalia includes the penis and scrotum. The meat can increase exposure to estrogens by nearly 40
female external genitalia includes the labia, clitoris, percent (Aksglaede, Juul, Leffers, Skakkebaek, &
and outer part of the vagina. Andersson, 2006). Phthalates, compounds frequently
No hormonal activity is required to develop found in plastics and cosmetics, have been found to
female external genitalia. However, hormonal advance puberty in rats (Ge et al., 2007), Phthalates
stimulation is essential for the development of male are released into air and fluid from plastic and
external genitalia. A particular androgen, 5-alpha- cosmetic products. They are found in measurable
dihydrotestosterone, must be recognized by receptor levels in most of the world's human population
sites for the male external genitalia to develop (Sathyanarayana et al., 2008). Because children are
naturally. A reaction between testosterone from the especially sensitive to small amounts of the hormone,
testes and the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase produces 5- increased exposure from external sources is cause for
alpha-dihydrotestosterone. We will see later in the concern (Aksglaede et al., 2006).
chapter that the absence of 5-alpha-
dihydrotestosterone leads the immature genitalia to Hormones and Sexual Behavior
develop in the female pattern. Sex hormones play both organizational and
activating roles in sexual development. In prenatal
Development at Puberty and early postnatal development, sex hormones
The prenatal development of gonads, organize circuits in the brain that differ according to
internal organs, and external genitalia is only part of sex. These circuits are then activated by the sex
the sexual development story. At puberty, additional hormones at the onset of puberty. Sex hormones are
hormonal events lead to the maturation of the classified as steroids, chemicals that are synthesized
genitals and the development of secondary sex from cholesterol in the gonads and lesser amounts, in
characteristics. Secondary sex characteristics include the adrenal glands. Males and females both produce
androgens and estrogens, but in different amounts.
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Females produce about 10 percent of the number of A woman's testosterone levels have the
androgens produced by males. most significant impact on her sexual activity. A
woman's ovaries produce testosterone as well as
Regulation of Sex Hormones by The estrogens. Women who receive standard estrogen
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland replacement therapy following the surgical removal
The hypothalamus exerts control over the of their ovaries still report less satisfaction with their
release of sex hormones through its secretion of sex lives than before surgery (Kingsberg et al., 2007;
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Light Shifren et al., 2000). Estrogen therapy alone did not
sensed by the retina increases GnRH secretion prevent negative changes in sexual interest. After the
through its action on melatonin, a neurohormone women were given testosterone through a skin patch,
implicated in the regulation of sleep and produced by they reported having sex more frequently and
the nearby pineal gland (see Chapter 11) Melatonin enjoying it more. Besides, they scored higher on
inhibits the release of GnRH typically, and light, in questionnaires of psychological well-being. Because
turn, inhibits melatonin which is secreted primarily at women derive about half of their testosterone from
night. Light, therefore, increases GnRH release by the adrenal glands, the adrenal disease can also have
reducing the inhibition usually produced by negative impacts on sexual behavior (Mazer, 2002).
melatonin. Estrogens and Cognition. Markus Hausmann and his
colleagues (2000) studied the influence of women's
Sex Hormones and Female Behavior hormone levels on the performance of spatial tasks.
In the females of species that undergo On tests of mental figure rotations, women received
estrus, a period of hours or days in which the female their best scores when testosterone levels were high
is receptive to males, hormones play an essential role and their worst scores when estrogen levels were
in determining the timing and frequency of sexual high. In contrast to performance on spatial tasks,
behavior. Estrus coincides with ovulation in many verbal fluency, and manual dexterity in women
species, making the likelihood of fertilization appear to be correlated with higher levels estrogens
relatively high. During nonestrus periods, a female (Kimura & Hampson, 1994). These hormonal effects
will not only reject sexual overtures from males, but are consistent with the observation that males have a
she is also likely to respond aggressively to his slight advantage in spatial tasks, whereas females
advances. Only humans and Old-World primates have a slight advantage in verbal tasks.
experience menstrual cycles, and their sexual activity Estrogens have a protective effect on
is quite different from species that have seasonal memory in general, and verbal memory, in
mating patterns or estrus (Rushton et al., 2001). postmenopausal women (Sherwin & Henry, 2008).
Sexual Interest in Human Females. The sexual Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT), particularly in
activity of human females, who do not display estrus, the few years immediately following menopause,
is under little if any, control of the hormones involved helps prevent later cognitive decline. Unfortunately,
with ovulation. Human females show receptivity ERT increases risks for cardiovascular disease and
throughout the menstrual cycle. However, some cancer.
women report feeling slightly more interest in sex
around the time of ovulation (Slob, Bax, Hop, Sex Hormones and Male Behavior
Rowland, & van der Werff ten Bosch, 1996).
Menopause and the surgical removal of the ovaries Sex Hormones and Male Behavior
both exert a dramatic influence on a woman's In addition to their essential organizational
hormone levels yet have little effect on her sexual roles in the development of male sexual structures
interest and activity (Galyer, Conaglen, Hare, & and characteristics, androgens activate male behavior
Conaglen, 1999).
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as well. Androgens influence male competitiveness, research showing improved performance on spatial
sexual frequency, and cognition. tasks by older men receiving testosterone
Androgens and Competition. Among male collegiate supplements (Janowsky, Oviatt, & Orwell, 1994).
athletes, testosterone levels appear to increase in Surprisingly, men who received testosterone
anticipation of competition. Following a competition, supplements also improved their scores on verbal
testosterone has been shown to increase further in fluency tests by a factor of 20 percent (O'Connor,
the winners and the decrease in the losers (Booth, Archer, & Wu, 2000). We observed previously that
Shelley, Mazur, Tharp, & Kittok, 1989). Merely estrogens, not testosterone, had a beneficial effect
observing a competition influences testosterone on the verbal fluency of women.
level. Men cheering for the successful Brazilian soccer
team at the 1994 World Cup competition experienced Sex Differences in the Nervous System
increases in testosterone, whereas men supporting While acknowledging the importance of
the losing Italian team experienced a decrease social factors in gender differences, researchers have
(Bernhardt, Dabbs, Fielden, & Lutter, 1998). also observed differences in the brains and nervous
Androgens and Sexual Interest. Male sexual systems of males and females. Observa ons of the
frequency varies significantly from culture to culture, effects of fetal hormones on structural development
reminding us that hormones are just a part of the and sexual behavior led to the study of the
story. Subjective sexual well-being depends on organizing func on of hormones on the brain.
several factors, including relative equality between Exposure to androgens masculinizes the brain as well
the sexes, mental and physical health, and the as the internal and external sexual structures. What
importance of sex to the individual (Laumann et al., exactly do we mean by "masculinizing" a brain or
2006). nervous system? First, we must iden fy features that
If a young human male's testosterone level are sexually dimorphic, which means to display
falls within normal limits, it does not provide a strong structural differences between the sexes. Second,
predictor of his sexual frequency (Gray et al. 2005). just as we observed in the masculiniza on of the
However, the sexual frequency of older men is more external genitalia, masculinizing the brain would
closely correlated with their testosterone levels result in sexually dimorphic features that take on the
(ibid.). When testosterone is dramatically reduced male pa ern.
below normal levels at any age, significant changes in
male sexual behavior occur. MPA, or Depo-Provera, is Sexual Orientation
used not only as a contraceptive method for women Sexual orienta on refers to a stable pa ern
but in more extensive and more frequent doses, as a of a rac on to members of a par cular sex. Sexual
form of chemical castration for male sex offenders orienta on is not synonymous with sexual behavior.
(Berlin, 1997). MPA reduces circulating testosterone Many people engage in same-sex behavior and
levels in men to pre-puberty levels, generally fantasy while maintaining a robust heterosexual
eliminating any sexual activity (Kravitz et al., 1995; orienta on. Stoller and Herdt (1985) described a
Meyer, Cole & Emory, 1992). tribal culture in which all adolescent males are
Androgens and Cognitive Behavior. Men are expected to engage in same-sex behavior un l they
commonly believed to have slight advantages over are married to women. Despite this prior sexual
women in tasks involving spatial relations, such as experience, the sexual orienta on of these males as
map reading, maze learning, and the mental rotation adults was overwhelmingly heterosexual.
of objects (Kimura, 1992). This male advantage in Approximately 3 to 4 percent of males and 1 to 2
spatial relations appears early in childhood (Liben & percent of females in the American popula on
Golbeck, 1980). Further evidence suggesting that this describe themselves as exclusively homosexual, and
advantage is based on testosterone comes from
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about 1 percent describe themselves as bisexual androgens may have influenced both the ear
(Smith, 1998). structure and sexual orienta on of the lesbian and
bisexual women.
HORMONES, SEXUAL BEHAVIOR, AND
SEXUAL ORIENTATION Another possible indicator of prenatal exposure to
There is evidence from the literature on androgens, and the resul ng influence on sexual
both animal and human that early exposure to orienta on, is the so-called 2D:4D ra o (D stands for
androgens influences adult sexual behavior. As noted digit). Among heterosexual women, the ring (4D) and
previously, male rats have a larger SDN-POA than index (2D) fingers are typically about the same
female rats. Exposure to testosterone during a length. In men, the index finger is usually no ceably
cri cal period accounts for this sexual dimorphism. If shorter than the ring finger. Lesbians tended to show
male rats do not receive exposure to testosterone the more masculine pa ern of finger length, suggest
during this cri cal period, their SDN-POA remains ing that they might have experienced prenatal
small, and their adult sexual behavior is unusual. exposure to androgens (Kraemer et al., 2006).
Low-testosterone rats are less likely to engage in Researchers do not find a systema c pa ern of
sexual behavior with females and more likely to finger length among gay men as opposed to
engage in sexual behavior with males than are rats heterosexual men, however.
with normal testosterone levels (Matuszczyk, Genes and Sexual Orientation
Fernandez-Guas , & Larsen, 1988). Besides, Gene cs appear to influence sexual
exposure to testosterone during the cri cal period orienta on, although the exact mechanisms are not
increases the size of SDN-POA in female rats. It well understood and are likely to be quite
increases the likelihood that they will engage in complicated. It is currently unknown whether
sexual ac vity with females as adults. We have gene cs can have direct effects on sexual orienta on
already seen that abnormal condi ons such as CAH, or indirect effects on prenatal androgen
which involves prenatal exposure to androgens, can environments. The chances of a homosexual male
increase the likelihood that women will engage in twin having a homosexual brother are 20 to 25
bisexual or lesbian behavior as adults. However, the percent for fraternal twins and about 50 percent for
majority of CAH women are heterosexual. Also, the iden cal twins (Kirk, Bailey, & Mar n, 2000).
majority of lesbian and bisexual women do not have Compared with mothers with heterosexual sons,
a history of CAH or similar condi ons. mothers of homosexual sons showed more extreme
The development of structures that are not involved skewing, in which one X chromosomes is much more
in sexual behavior o en reflects the influence of likely to be inac vated than the other (Bocklandt,
prenatal hormone exposure. In humans, the high Horvath, Vilain, 8 Hamer, 2006).
levels of prenatal androgens typical of males have an
impact on the development of the inner ear. The
inner ear itself produces ny sounds, known as Sex: An Important Human Behavior
otoacous c emissions, as it processes sound into
Perhaps the most important aspect of
neural impulses. These emissions are more potent in
human experience is the process of reproduction.
women than in men. Dennis McFadden and Edward
Without it, none of us would be here. Successful
Pasanen (1999) measured the otoacous c emissions reproduction in humans involves the coordination of
of lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual women. The a wide variety of behaviors, including courtship, sex,
strength of the emissions in lesbian and bisexual household arrangements, parenting, and child care.
women fell between the normal levels for
heterosexual women and men. McFadden and
Pasanen suggested that exposure to prenatal
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The Experience of Sex

o The sexual drive, with its reward of intense
pleasure in orgasm, is highly motivating.
o The sexual response cycle and sexual desire are
regulated by the sex hormone estrogen in
women and testosterone in both women and in
men. Estrogen levels in women vary across
the menstrual cycle, peaking during ovulation.
o In men, testosterone is essential to maintain
sexual desire and to sustain an erection, and
testosterone injections can increase sexual
interest and performance. Varieties of Sexual Behavior
o Testosterone is also important in the female sex
cycle. Women who are experiencing menopause o Sex researchers have found that sexual behavior
may develop a loss of interest in sex, but this varies widely, not only between men and
interest may be rekindled through estrogen and women but within each sex.
testosterone replacement treatments. o There is also variety in sexual orientation, which
o Although their biological determinants and is the direction of our sexual desire toward
experiences of sex are similar, men and women people of the opposite sex, people of the same
differ substantially in their overall interest in sex, or people of both sexes.
sex, the frequency of their sexual activities, and o A smaller minority is primarily homosexual. The
the mates they are most interested in. Men love and sexual lives of homosexuals are little
show a more consistent interest in sex, different from those of heterosexuals, except
whereas the sexual desires of women are more where their behaviors are constrained by
likely to vary over time. cultural norms and local laws. As with
o Men fantasize about sex more often than heterosexuals, some gays and lesbians are
women, and their fantasies are more physical celibate, some are promiscuous, but most are in
and less intimate. Men are also more willing to committed long-term relationships.
have casual sex than women, and their o Although homosexuality has been practiced as
standards for sex partners are lower. long as records of human behavior have been
o Gender differences in sexual interest probably kept, cultures nevertheless vary substantially in
occur in part as a result of the evolutionary their attitudes toward it.
predispositions of men and women, and this o The American Psychiatric Association no longer
interpretation is bolstered by the finding that considers homosexuality to be a “mental
gender differences in sexual interest are illness,” although it did so until 1973. Because
observed cross-culturally. prejudice against gays and lesbians can lead to
Masters and Johnson found that the sexual response experiences of ostracism, depression, and even
cycle—the biological sexual response in humans— suicide, these improved attitudes can benefit
was very similar in men and women, and consisted the everyday lives of gays, lesbians, bisexuals
of four stages: and etc.
o Whether sexual orientation is driven more by
nature or by nurture has received a great deal of
research attention, and research has found that
sexual orientation is primarily
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o Areas of the hypothalamus are different in

homosexual men than they are in heterosexual
members of the species, and these differences
are in directions such that gay men are more
similar to women than straight men. There is
also evidence that sexual orientation is
influenced by exposure and responses to sex
hormones.
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MODULE 6: HUMAN RESPONSE James-Lange Theory

MECHANISMS: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION  According to the James-Lange theory of
emo on, our experience of an emo on results
Emotion from the arousal we experience. This approach
proposes that the arousal and the emo on are
not independent but rather that the emo on
EMOTION AND MOTIVATION: THE FUNDAMENTAL depends on the arousal.
COMPONENTS OF AFFECT  As predicted by the James-Lange theory, our
Emotion is a mental and physiological experiences of emo on are weaker
feeling state that directs our attention and guides without arousal. Pa ents with spinal injuries
our behavior. Typically, it serves an adaptive role. that reduce their arousal experience also report
decreased emo onal responses.
Emotions may also be destructive, such as
when a frustrating experience leads us to lash out at  At least some support for the idea that different
others who do not deserve it. Fundamental arousal pa erns produce other emo ons.
Emotions (Basic Emotions) People who view fearful faces show more
include anger, disgust, happiness, surprise, sadness, amygdala ac va on than those who watch
etc. angry or joyful faces.
Variety Of Emotion
The Two-Factor Theory
Positive human emotion. It leads one to
feel good about oneself and will lead to an  Schachter and Singer’s two-factor model
emotionally happy and satisfied result. proposes that arousal and cogni on combine to
create emo on.
Negative human emotion. The lack of  It asserts that the experience of emo on is
desire to do anything. It includes exhaustion, panic, determined by the intensity of the arousal we
jealousy, depression, envy, guilt, etc. are experiencing but that the cogni ve
appraisal of the situa on determines what the
Theories of Emotion
emo on will be. Because both arousal and
appraisal are necessary, we can say that
emo ons have two factors: an arousal factor
Cannon-Bard Theory and a cogni ve factor (Schachter & Singer,
 The Cannon-Bard theory proposes that 1962). “Emotion = arousal + cognition.”
emo ons and arousal co-occur, while the James-  Stanley Schachter and Jerome
Lange theory suggests that emo on results from Singer directly tested this. They believed that
arousal. the cogni ve part of the emo on was
 According to Walter Cannon and Philip cri cal. They thought the arousal we were
Bard, the experience of the emo on (in this case, experiencing could be interpreted as any
“I’m afraid”) occurs alongside our experience of the emo on, provided we had the correct label for
arousal (“my heart is bea ng fast”). it.
 The experience of an emo on is  Thus, they hypothesized that if an individual
accompanied by physiological arousal. Thus, is experiencing arousal for which he has no
according to this model of emo on, as we become immediate explana on, he will label this state
aware of the danger, our heart rate also increases. in terms of the cogni ons created in his
environment. On the other hand, they argued
that people with a clear label for their arousal
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LECTURE
PROF NOEL BASAN
would not need to search for a relevant label neuropsychological and subjective aspects while
and, therefore, shouldn’t experience emo on. examining their specificity, evocation by
reinforcers, and behavioral consequences.
Communicating Emotion It argues against dismissing emotions
 In addi on to experiencing emo ons as mere fiction and emphasizes the need for
internally, we also express our feelings to scientific examination of emotions rather than
others, and we learn about the emo ons of asserting their irrelevance. It references
others by observing them. Darwin’s work on emotion, which demonstrated
that emotions could be objectively measured,
 One way that we perceive the emo ons of
and highlights the ongoing research on the
others is through their nonverbal
behavioral effects of emotions.
communica on, that is, communica on that
does not involve words (Ambady & Overall, it suggests that emotions are
Weisbuch, 2010; Anderson, 2007). not mere fiction but rather important data that
 Nonverbal communica on includes our tone require scientific exploration to understand
of voice, gait, posture, touch, and facial their role in behavior and their subjective nature
expressions, and we can o en accurately fully.
detect the emo ons that other people are
The Economics and Politics of Emotion
experiencing through these channels.
According to this view, emotions serve
Emotion as Fiction? a specific function in allocating psychological
resources. Emotion is a mechanism that exerts
This view on emotions is from the control over allocating these resources by
behaviorist perspective, particularly highlighting directing them toward addressing threats or
B.F. Skinner’s stance. It argues that emotions promises.
are seen as fictional causes attributed to
behavior. He considers emotions to be When experiencing high levels of
constructions of the mind with little scientific emotion, such as fear, the individual’s attention
importance, suggesting that they do not directly becomes focused on the source of the threat,
drive behavior. and cognitive processes are
halted. Psychological resources are then
However, it also acknowledges the allocated to processing and understanding the
problem of understanding emotions and their nature of the threat. It can impair intellectual
role in behavior. It questions why humans capacity as resources are redirected toward
experience emotional states and why dealing with the immediate challenge.
reinforcement alone may not be sufficient
without this intermediate emotional state. It Similarly, positive emotions like love
suggests that emotions serve essential functions can also pervasive affect the psychological
and have behavioral consequences. For system by flooding it with a positive hedonic
example, in the case of bereavement, emotions tone. This allocation of resources towards
such as intense re-evaluation and withdrawal positive emotions can similarly influence
from the environment can be seen as adaptive cognitive processes.
responses to aversive events. In everyday life, emotions and cognitive
Neurobiologically based emotion activity work flexibly together, resembling a
psychologists, such as Panksepp, recognize the “mixed economy” of the mind. However, when
subjective nature of emotions and develop emotions are evoked, the system transitions
theories that consider their neural basis. They into a “command-economy” model where all
aim to understand emotions’ resources are devoted to meeting the
41
LECTURE
PROF NOEL BASAN
immediate challenge, whether favorable or The involuntary nature of emotions can

unfavorable. Individuals with affective disorders also be attributed to the fact that they are
may experience a flood of emotions that closely tied to our subconscious and automatic
dominate the system and contribute to a cognitive processes. Emotions are not solely
negative hedonic state. based on rational thought but are influenced by
past experiences, beliefs, and learned
The passage argues against a “free- associations. These subconscious processes can
market” state of mind where emotions and activate emotional responses before consciously
cognition are disconnected. Instead, it suggests evaluating or controlling them.
that emotions and cognition must be coupled
for adaptive functioning. Emotion activation, Furthermore, emotions often serve as
triggered by environmental threats or promises, signals or information about our internal states
influences cognitive processes such as attention, and external environment. They provide
memory, and problem-solving. valuable feedback about our needs, desires, and
social interactions. By being involuntary,
According to this perspective, the emotions can communicate important
function of emotion is to influence ongoing information to ourselves and others without
psychological processes to address the conscious effort. For example, facial
challenges presented by environmental expressions convey emotional states and voice
feedback. Emotion permeates the entire messages to others across different cultures.
psychological system, shaping how the external
world is perceived and processed in a selective It is worth noting that while emotions
and sometimes distorted manner. are generally involuntary, individuals can
develop skills and strategies to regulate and
Overall, this view emphasizes the manage their emotional responses to some
integrative role of emotion and cognition in extent. Emotional regulation techniques, such
influencing psychological functioning and as cognitive reappraisal or mindfulness, can help
adaptation to the environment. individuals modify or modulate their emotional
experiences. However, complete control over
The ‘cold war’ of emotion activation.
emotions is not always possible or desirable,
Emotions are involuntary because they are even with these techniques.
deeply ingrained in our evolutionary biology and
In summary, the involuntary nature of
serve critical adaptive functions. The spontaneous
emotions can be explained by their evolutionary
nature of emotions can be understood through the
origins, their role in human survival and
lens of their evolutionary origins and their role in
communication, and their close connection to
human survival and well-being.
subconscious processes. While some degree of
Emotions have evolved as automatic control over emotions is attainable through
responses to certain stimuli or situations that emotional regulation techniques, their
are biologically significant. They are part of our involuntary nature is deeply rooted in our
brain’s complex and rapid processing system, biology and serves essential functions in our
which helps us evaluate and respond to various daily
environmental cues. For example, the emotion
of fear triggers the fight-or-flight response, MOTIVATION: A HUMAN RESPONSE
preparing our bodies to react to perceived MECHANISM
threats. This automatic and immediate reaction
Motivation is a driving force that
is crucial for survival in potentially dangerous
initiates and directs behavior. They are
situations.
biological such as the motivation for food,
water, and sex. Motivation for social approval
42
LECTURE
PROF NOEL BASAN
and acceptance. Motivation to responses to threats. It includes behaviors

achieve. Motivation to take or to avoid taking such as fight, flight, or freezing in response
risks. to danger. The FFFS activates rapid and
spontaneous reactions to ensure survival in
Motivations are often considered in acute danger.
psychology in terms of drives. Emotions and
2. Behavioral Approach System (BAS):
motivations operate out of our conscious
The BAS involves approach motivation and
awareness to guide behavior.
the pursuit of rewarding stimuli. It drives
Defensive and Approach Motivation behaviors related to seeking rewards, such
as food, sex, and other pleasurable
The defensive and approach motivation model is experiences. Activation of the BAS is
based on the biological personality perspective. It associated with positive emotions and
recognizes that all viable organisms have two reward experience.
primary motivational requirements: avoiding 3. Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS):
harmful or noxious stimuli (defensive motivation) The BIS detects potential threats and
and approaching rewarding stimuli (approach inhibits behavior to prevent harm. It
motivation). This model aims to explain the generates anxiety and cautiousness in
underlying mechanisms of these motivations and response to uncertain or ambiguous
their relationship to personality. situations. The BIS plays a role in assessing
risks and promoting adaptive decision-
The theory proposed by Gray and
making to avoid potential harm.
McNaughton (2000) focuses on the study of
defensive motivation, particularly fear, and This defensive and approach motivation
anxiety, through the-experimental model provides a framework for understanding the
studies. These studies observe the natural similarities and differences between various neurotic
defensive behaviors of rats in controlled disorders. By examining the functioning and
environments that simulate realistic threats. By interactions of these systems, researchers can gain
examining the effects of drugs on ethologically insights into the underlying mechanisms of
valid defensive behaviors, known as personality, emotion, and motivation.
ethnopharmacology, researchers can identify
different systems and their responsiveness to Eating: An Important Human Motivation
other classes of drugs.
Eating: Healthy Choices Make Healthy Lives
Blanchard and Blanchard (1989)
developed test batteries to measure different  Food is one of the most fundamental human
aspects of defensive behavior, specifically fear needs.
and anxiety. Their research demonstrated that  When people are starving, their motivation to
certain drugs selectively affect fear or anxiety attain food completely changes their
but not both. This observation identified two behavior. Hungry people become listless,
separate systems: the fear and anxiety apathetic about saving energy, and utterly
systems. The fear system mediates responses obsessed with food.
to immediate threats, while the anxiety system  The behavior of eating has both biological and
anticipates responses to potential threats. social determinants,
In the refined model by Gray and  Two areas of the hypothalamus are known to
McNaughton (2000), three main systems are be particularly important in eating. The
proposed: lateral part of the hypothalamus responds
primarily to cues to start eating, whereas
1. Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS):
the ventromedial aspect of the
This system is associated with immediate
43
LECTURE
PROF NOEL BASAN
hypothalamus primarily responds to cues to

stop eating.
 Usually, the interaction of the various
systems that determine hunger creates a
balance or homeostasis in which we eat when
we are hungry and stop eating when we feel
full, but homeostasis varies among people.
 The basal metabolic rate determines the
weight and the energy expended while at
rest. Each person’s basal metabolic rate
differs due to their unique physical makeup
and
 How we eat is also influenced by our Cultural
norms about appropriate weight also
influence eating behaviors. Current norms
for women in Western societies are based on
a skinny body ideal.
Sex: An Important Human Behavior
 Perhaps the most essential aspect of human

experience is the process of reproduction.
Without it, none of us would be
here. Successful reproduction in humans
involves coordinating various behaviors,
including courtship, sex, household
arrangements, parenting, and child care.
The Experience of Sex
 The sexual drive, with its reward of intense

pleasure in orgasm, is highly motivating.
44

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PSYC 9: PHYSIOGCAL PSYCHOLOGY

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTON A. INVASIVE TECHNIQUE

I. WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL 1. Lesioning

• Persons with neurological damage I. ETHICS IN PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Where possible, the real consent of children Decep on

MAIN Axon – long extension that carries electrical

Basic Structure of a Neuron Motor neurons carry information in the opposite

are damaged (if soma (body) is injured, death of cell

interneurons - and exists solely to pass on the

The label on the left should read "Action

proprioception). It also receives output from the

The Limbic System

Due to its proximity to the hippocampus,

Running the length of the body, from the

these neurons can occur with age, meaning that not

MODULE 3: MECHANISMS AND optic chiasm is a complicated crossover of optic nerve

“stirrup”) transfers the vibrations from the incus to

Interpretation of Smells Somatosensorial: Pressure,

Odor information is easily stored in long- Somatosensory Systems

The inner ear and the vestibular system:

MODULE 4: BODY HOMEOSTASIS adjust its physiological processes to maintain a steady

Deviations in Human Core Temperature THIRST: REGULATION OF THE BODY'S

Intracellular and Extracellular Fluids

The composi on of the extracellular and The Sensation of Thirst

HUNGER: REGULATION OF THE BODY'S

Obesity and eating disorders Obesity

Genetics appear to play an essential role in a Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia

Treatments for Eating Disorders

Stages of Prenatal Development

The Experience of Sex

o Areas of the hypothalamus are different in

MODULE 6: HUMAN RESPONSE James-Lange Theory

immediate challenge, whether favorable or The involuntary nature of emotions can

and acceptance. Motivation to responses to threats. It includes behaviors

hypothalamus primarily responds to cues to

 Perhaps the most essential aspect of human

 The sexual drive, with its reward of intense

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