ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: CELLS

● Contains phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and

carbohydrates
CELL STRUCTURE ● Phospholipids form a bilayer
Organelles ○ Polar
● Specialized structures in cells that perform specific ○ Nonpolar
functions
● E.g NUCLEUS, MITOCHONDRIA, RIBOSOMES Phospholipid Structure
Cytoplasm ● Polar head region
● Jelly like substance that holds the organelles ○ Hydrophilic (water-loving)
Cell membrane ○ exposed to water around the membrane
● Also termed the plasma membrane ● non polar region
● a structure that encloses the cytoplasm ○ Hydrophobic (water-fearing)
○ facing the interior of the membrane

Movement Through the Cell Membrane

● Has selectively permeability which only allows certain
substances to pass in and out of the cell
● Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium
are found in higher concentrations inside the cell
● Substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride are
found higher concentrations outside the cell

Cell Membrane Passage

● Some substances, like O₂ and CO₂, can pass directly
through the cell membrane phospholipid bilayer
● Some substances must pass through transmembrane
protein channels, such as Na⁺ through its channels
Functions of the Cell ● The route of transport through the membrane depends
Cell - smallest units of life on the size, shape, and charge of the substance
● Cell metabolism and energy use ● Some substances require carrier molecules to transport
● Synthesis of molecules them across the cell membrane, such as glucose
● Communication ● Some substances require a vesicular transport across
● Reproduction and inheritance the membrane
● the vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane for
CELL MEMBRANE transport
● Outermost component of a cell
● Forms of boundary between material inside and outside Passive Transport
the cell ● Does not require the cell to expend energy
○ Intracellular - materials inside the cell ● Membrane transport mechanisms include DIFFUSION,
○ Extracellular - materials outside the cell OSMOSIS, and FACILITATED DIFFUSION
● Acts as selective barrier
Structure PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
● FLUID-MOSAIC MODEL - Model used to describe the cell 1. Diffusion
membrane structure
 ● The movement of solutes from an area of higher solute
concentration to an area of lower solute concentration
● Concentration gradient - when the concentration of
particles is higher in one area than another

Leak and Gated Channels

● Lipid soluble substances can diffuse directly to the
2. Osmosis
phospholipid bilayer
● Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable
● Water soluble substances, such as ions, can diffuse
membrane from a region of higher water concentration
across the cell membrane only by passing through cell
to one of lower water concentration
membrane channels
● Exerts osmotic pressure which the force required to
● Leak channels - constantly allow ions to pass through
prevent movement of water across cell membrane
● Gated channels - limit the movement of ions across the
membrane by opening and closing

Diffusion through the Cell membrane

Osmotic pressure and the Cell

● Depends on the difference of solution concentrations
inside the cell relative to outside the cell
● A cell may be placed in solutions that are either
hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic compared to the cell
cytoplasm
 Hypotonic Isotonic Hypertonic

↓solute = solute ↑solute

concentration concentrations concentration
↑water inside and outside ↓water
concentration the cell concentration

NET FLOW OF NO NET FLOW OF NET FLOW OF

WATER INTO THE WATER WATER OUT OF
CELL THE CELL

Water moves by Cell will neither Water moves by

osmosis causing it shrink or swell osmosis from the
to swell (can cell resulting in
rupture = lysis) shrinkage or
crenation

*Tonicity - used to describe whether a solution will cause water

to move into or out of a cell

Carrier Mediated Transport

● Some water-soluble, electrically charged or large sized
particles, cannot enter or leave through a cell
membrane by diffusion
● These substances include AMINO ACID, GLUCOSE, and
some POLAR MOLECULES produced by the cell
● Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell membrane
involved in carrier-mediated transport
● Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms include
FACILITATED DIFFUSION (no ATP) and ACTIVE
TRANSPORT (with ATP)
3. Facilitated Diffusion
● A carrier-mediated transport process that moves
substances across the cell membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
● Because movement is with the concentration gradient
metabolic energy in the form of ATP is not required
Active Transport
● Require the cell to expend energy, usually in the form
of ATP
● Transport mechanisms include ACTIVE TRANSPORT,
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT, ENDOCYTOSIS and
EXOCYTOSIS
ACTIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
1. Active Transport
● Can move substances against the concentration
gradients - lower concentrations to higher
concentrations
● Accumulated necessary substances on one side of the
cell membrane at concentrations many times greater
than those on the other side
● Can also move substances from higher to lower
concentrations

Sodium Potassium Pump

● Major example of active transport is the action of the
sodium-potassium pump present in cell membranes
● The sodium-potassium pump moves Na⁺ out of cells (=
higher conc. outside cells) and K⁺ into cells (= higher
conc. inside cells)

VESICULAR TRANSPORT
1. Endocytosis (still considered active transport)
● Process that brings materials into cell using vesicles
● Receptor-mediated endocytosis - Occurs when specific
substance binds to the receptor molecule and its
transported into the cell

2. Secondary Active Transport

● Uses the energy provided by a concentration gradient
established by the active transport of one substance
such as Na⁺ to transport other substances
● No additional energy is required above the energy
provided by initial active transport pump
● In cotransport, the diffusing substances moves the same
direction as the initial act of transported substance
● In countertransport, the diffusing substance moves in a
direction opposite to that of the initial active transport
and substance

● Phagocytosis - often use for endocytosis when solid

particles are ingested
 ● Pinocytosis - has much smaller vesicles formed and
they contain liquid rather than solid particles

2. Exocytosis
● Involves the use of membrane-bound sacs called
secretory vesicles that accumulate materials for release
from the cell
● The vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse
ultimately releasing the material by exocytosis
● E.g Secretion of digestive enzymes

Chromosome Structure

GENERALIZED CELL STRUCTURE

1. Nucleus
● Located near the center of the cell
● Bounded by a nuclear envelope, which consists of outer
and inner membranes with a narrow space between
them
● The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores, through
which materials can pass into or out of the nucleus
● The nuclei human cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes which consists of DNA and protein
● During most of a cells life the chromosomes are loosely
coiled and collectively called chromatin
● when a cell prepares to divide, the chromosomes
become tightly coiled and are visible when viewed with
a microscope
● Within the nucleus are the one to several nucleoli, which
are diffused bodies with no surrounding membranes
● The subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic 2. Ribosomes
organelle, are formed within the nucleolus ● Produced in the nucleolus
● The ribosomal components exit the nucleus through ● Organelles where proteins are produced
nuclear pores ● May be attached to other organelles, such as the ER
● Ribosomes that are not attached to any organelles are
called free ribosomes
Ribosome production
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum
● A series of membranes forming socks and tubules that
extend from outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm
● Two types
○ Rough ER - protein synthesis (rough due to
attached ribosomes
○ Smooth ER - A site for lipid synthesis, cellular
detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in
skeletal muscle cells ( smooth due to no
attached ribosomes)
4. Golgi Apparatus
● Consist of closely packed stacks of curved
membrane-bound sacs
● Collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins
and lipids manufactured by the ER
● Forms vesicles, like SECRETORY VESICLES, LYSOSOMES,
and other vesicles
5. Lysosomes
● Membrane-bound vesicles formed from the golgi
apparatus
● contain a variety of enzymes that function as
intracellular digestive systems
● vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with
lysosomes in order to break down materials in the
endocytotic vesicles
● Example is white blood cells phagocytizing bacteria
6. Peroxisomes
● Small membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes
that break down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen
peroxide (a byproduct of fatty and amino acids that can
be toxic to a cell)
● The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen
7. Mitochondria
● Small organelle is responsible for producing
considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic metabolism
● they have inner (has numerous folds called cristae) and
outer membrane (smooth contour) separated by space
● The material within the inner membrane is the
mitochondrial matrix and contains enzymes and
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
● Cells with the large energy requirement have more
mitochondria than cells that require less energy
8. Cytoskeleton
● Gives internal framework to the cell
● consists of protein structures that support the cell,
hold organelles in place, and enable the cell to change
shape
● these protein structures are MICROTUBULES,
MICROFILAMENTS, and INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
○ Microtubules
■ Hollow structures formed from
protein subunits
■ Perform a variety of roles including
helping to support the cytoplasm of
cells, assisting in cell division, and
forming essential components of
certain organelles, such as CILIA and
FLAGELLA
○ Microfilaments
■ Small fibrils formed from protein
subunits a structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining the cell
shape
■ Some are involved with cell movement
■ Enable the cells to shorten or contract
○ Intermediate Filaments
■ Formed from protein subunits that are
smaller in diameter than microtubules
but larger in diameter than
microfilaments
■ Provide mechanical support of the cell
■ a specific type of intermediate
filament is keratin, a protein
associated with skin cells
9. Centrioles
● The centrosome is a specialized area of cytoplasm close
to the nucleus where microtubule formation occurs
● It contains two centrioles, which are normally oriented
perpendicular to each other
● Each centriole is a small cylindrical organelle composed
of microtubules
● It is involved in the process of mitosis
10. Cilia
● Project from the surface of certain cells
● Responsible for the movement of materials over the top
of the cell, such as mucus
● Cylindrical structures that extend from the cell and are
composed of microtubules
11. Flagella
● Have a structure similar to that of a cilia but are much
longer, they usually occur only one per cell
● Sperm cells have one flagellum, which propels the
sperm cell
12. Microvilli
● Specialized extension of the cell membrane that are
supported by microfilaments
● Do not actively move a cilia and flagella do
 ● numerous on cells that have them and they increase the
surface area of those cells
● Abundant on the surface of cells that line the intestine,
Kidney, and other areas which absorption is an
important function

Whole Cell Activity

● A cell’s characteristics are determined by the type of
proteins produced
● The proteins produced are in turn determined by the
genetic formation in the nucleus
● Information in DNA provides a cell with a code for it
cellular processes

DNA ● Transcription
● Contains the information that directs protein synthesis, ○ Copying DNA into messenger RNA
a process called gene expression ○ Takes place in the nucleus of the cell
● A dna molecule consists of nucleotides join together to ○ DNA determines the structure of mRNA
form two nucleotide strands through transcription
● The two strands are connected and resemble a ladder ○ During transcription, the double strands of a
that is twisted around its long axis DNA segment separate, and Dna nucleotide of
● Each nucleotide consists of a five carbon sugar, the gene pair with RNAnucleotides that form
phosphate, phosphate group and a nitrogenous base the mRNA
● Each nucleotide on one DNAstrand has a specific
bonding pattern to another nucleotide on the opposite
strand DNA mRNA
● A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides a
chemical set of instructions for making a specific Thymine Adenine
protein
Adenine Uracil

Gene Expression Cytosine Guanine

● Protein synthesis, involves transcription and translation
Guanine Cytosine
 The Cell Cycle
● Translation
○ Involves messenger RNA being used to produce
a protein
○ Occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA has
exited the nucleus through the nuclear pores
○ The mRNA attaches to a ribosome
○ Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are
read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) on
transfer RNA (tRNA)
○ Transfer RNA transport specific amino acids
from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes - mRNA
complex and initiates formation of the
polypeptide chain
○ The process continues until the entire
polypeptide is completely formed
● Cell division occurs to increase the number of cells are
replaced damage or dying once (involves a cell cycle)
● 2 major phases
○ Interphase - non dividing
○ Mitosis - cell dividing phase
● A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase
performing its normal functions
● During interphase, the DNA ( located in chromosomes in
the cells nucleus) is replicated
● The two strands of dna separate from each other, and
each strand serves as template for the production of a
new strand of DNA
● Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand pair
with new nucleotides that are subsequently joined by
enzymes to form a new strand of DNA
● The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA template
nucleotides in the new strand of DNA
● Replication of DNA give two identical chromatids joined
at the centromere, both form one chromosome
 ■ Chromatin condenses to form visible
chromosomes
■ Spindle fibers form to assist in
breaking the centromere between the
chromatids and move the
chromosomes to opposite sides of the
cell
■ The nuclear membrane dissolves
○ Metaphase
■ The chromosomes align near the
center of the cell
■ the movement of the chromosomes is
regulated by the attached spindle
fibers
○ Anaphase
■ Beginning - the chromatids separate
and each chromatid is called the
chromosome
■ Each of the two sets of 46
chromosomes is moved by the spindle
fibers towards the centriole at one of
the poles of the cell
■ End - each set of chromosomes has
rich and opposite poles of the cell and
the cytoplasm begins to divide
○ Telophase
■ the chromosomes in each of the
daughter cells become organized to
form two separate nuclei, one in hud
Genetic Cell Content formed daughter cell
● Each human cell (except sperm and egg) contains 23 ■ chromosomes begin to unravel are
pairs of chromosomes at all of 46 resemble the genetic material during
● The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes total interphase
● One pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes, ■ following telophase, cytoplasm
which consists of two X chromosomes it is a female or division is completed, and two
an X and Y chromosomes if a person is a male separate daughter cells are produced

Mitosis
● Involves formation of two daughter cells from a single
parent
● Divided into four phases
○ Prophase
Differentiation
● The process by which cells develop with with specialized
structures and functions
● The sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell,
denigrate number of mitotic divisions occur to give the
trillions of cells of the body
● During differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA
are active, but others are inactive