Course Code:

CRS 321

Course Title:
Permanent Fruit
Crop Production

Lecturer:
Ochuwa Idatsaba

Topic:
Pineapple Crop
Production
 Classification and Origin
Pineapple is a tropical, herbaceous, perennial monocot, approximately 1-2 metres tall and wide,
with leaves arranged spirally. It bears flowers on a terminal inflorescence, which form a large,
edible fruit characterised by a tuft of leaves at its apex. Pineapple is the third most important
tropical fruit in world production after bananas and citrus. The pineapple belongs to the
Bromeliaceae family, which contains 50 genera and about 2,500 known species, all but one of
them from Central and South America. The scientific name is Ananas comosus. The exact origin
of the cultivated species – Ananas comosus var. comosus – is hard to pinpoint. Its origins are in
Brazil/Paraguay straddling the equator between latitudes 15°N & 30°S. Domestication is thought to
have occurred in the Guianas (Duval et al, 2003). For several thousand years, superior types of
pineapples had been selected, domesticated and distributed by native Indians throughout the tropics
and subtropics of South/Central America (notably the Guarani in whose language ‘ananas’ meant
‘excellent fruit’).

Brief History

• Westerners first saw pineapples in 1493 on the island of Guadeloupe during Columbus’
second voyage to “The New World”, and on other islands in the West Indies later.
• It was recorded that King Ferdinand of Spain was eating pineapples as early as 1530, and
the Spanish navigators distributed pineapple plants throughout the tropics so early and
widely that it was considered indigenous.
• Pineapples were in India by 1548, and cloth was being made from pineapple leaf fibres
(piña cloth) in the Philippines in the 1500’s.
• The first pineapples (rough-leafed) are thought to have been introduced to Australia from
India in 1838 by a German missionary, although some records indicate that pineapples were
grown near Sydney as early as 1824.
• The first commercial plantings were established in Nundah (now a suburb of Brisbane) in
the early 1840’s (Lewcock, 1939). Smooth Cayenne came from Kew Gardens in England
probably around 1858 (Collins, 1960).
• While the pineapple is considered a tropical fruit it has been grown commercially from
latitude 27°N (Okinawa & Florida) to latitude 34°S (South Africa), with the great mass of
production within the tropics only a few degrees north and south of the equator.
 Botanical and physiological adaptations

Pineapple is a tropical plant and grows best in a moderately warm climate (16° to 33°C) with low,
but regular rainfall. It has some important limitations:

1) It cannot tolerate frost.

2) It is intolerant of high temperatures (in excess of 40°C), and sunburn damage to plants and
fruit can be severe.
3) It has a fragile root system that needs well-drained conditions.

Pineapple has several special characteristics that allow it to survive and thrive under low
rainfall conditions:

1) Their leaf shape and orientation maximizes the capture of moisture and sunlight most
efficiently.
2) The large cups formed where the leaves attach to the stump are effective reservoirs for
nutrient solutions and water.
3) The ability to absorb nutrients through axillary roots in the leaf bases, and directly through
the leaf surfaces especially the basal white tissue.
4) Low numbers of stomata, and leaves that are insulated to reduce water loss
5) Water storage tissue that can make up to half the leaf thickness, and is used during periods
of low rainfall to help maintain growth
6) A specialised metabolic system (CAM) for capturing carbon dioxide at night for use during
the day that greatly reduces water loss

The pineapple’s adaptation to dry conditions comes not only from evolving in a dry climate but
also from its epiphytic ancestry (epiphytes grow above the ground on other plants for support).
 Life cycle

Crowns and slips are the normal choices for planting. Slips are normally larger than crowns, and
they produce a mature plant earlier. The time from crop initiation to harvest varies considerably
depending on the variety, time of the year, type and size of plant material used and prevailing
temperature during fruit development. In very broad terms the plant crop is ready for harvest 20 to
24 months after planting. Normally one ratoon crop is also harvested following the plant crop but
sometimes single crop cycles are used. For ratoon crops the fruit form on the suckers that develop
from the stem of the earlier crop. Again the time from plant crop to ratoon crop harvest is highly
variable, but generally in the range of 12 to 15 months.

Typically, a two-crop cycle takes four years from planting to planting. Pineapple is a perennial
plant and many successive crops can be taken from one planting. If plants continue to be healthy,
second and third ratoons are possible. Fruit size declines with each successive crop.

ANATOMY OF A PINEAPPLE CROP

1. Leaf shape and arrangement.

Pineapple leaves are long, trough-shaped, tapered from base to tip, approaching horizontally and
are arranged spirally around the stump. The leaf shape allows for maximum sunlight interception,
and highly efficient gathering and movement of rain to the plant’s stem and root system. Most of
the leaves – especially the leaves at the top of the plant most exposed to the sun are oriented at an
angle to the sun (i.e. relatively erect) and this helps reduce leaf temperature and moisture loss. A
mature plant, weighing 3.6 kg will have a leaf area of about 2.2 square metres.

2. Basal white tissue

This white tissue is found at the base of the leaf. It is funnel-like and it can absorb water and
dissolved nutrients directly. It changes to green tissue as leaves grow and mature.

3. Stomata

Stomata are pores in the leaves that can open and close to the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide enters
the plant through the stomata whilst moisture and oxygen leave through them. There are relatively
few stomata per unit of leaf area, plus they are small and situated mainly on the underside of the
leaves in depressed channels. Because they are small, deep and protected by a heavy coat of waxy
trichomes, the plant has a very low rate of transpiration (water loss).
 4. Trichomes (“leaf hairs”)

Trichomes are defined as “fine outgrowths from the epidermis (skin) of the leaf”. In pineapple the
trichomes are multi-cellular, mushroom-shaped scaly hairs that surround the stomata and help
reduce water loss from the plants. They are heaviest on the underside of the leaves (the white dust
that gets on your clothes) and give the leaves their silvery underside. When trichomes are absent
(copper deficiency) or removed by insects (mites and ants) or by urea heart rot, the leaves take on a
“polished” look. The silvery colour of the leaves (given to it by the trichomes) heightens reflection
and helps reduce leaf temperature. As well as having a covering of trichomes the epidermis (skin)
of the upper leaf surface is covered with a thick waxy cuticle which further reduces moisture loss.

5. Water storage tissue

A mature leaf of a pineapple crop is made up of specialised water storage tissue. This tissue serves
as a reservoir and is drawn upon to maintain plant growth, and even fruit development, during
periods of inadequate moisture. After extended dry periods the water content in the tissue decreases
to near nil, which is a sign of drought.
 6. CAM Photosynthesis

Also to aid water conservation, the pineapple has a special photosynthetic pathway called CAM
(Crassulacean Acid Metabolism). This is a feature that certain plants including cactus have
evolved to conserve moisture. Most plants must absorb carbon dioxide whilst the sun is shining for
photosynthesis to take place and produce starch and sugars; therefore their stomata are open in the
warmest, driest part of the 24 hour cycle and much moisture escapes from the plant through the
open stomata. CAM plants, on the other hand, have the unique ability to store carbon dioxide
within the plant (as malic acid), this allows them to keep their stomata closed during the day but to
open them at night when the atmosphere is cooler and more humid. When the sun comes out the
next day the stomata is closed but carbon dioxide is released into the plant cells from the stored
malic acid allowing photosynthesis to take place.

Although the actual rate of photosynthesis is slower in pineapple leaves than in other crops,
such as wheat and sugarcane, its leaf area index (area of leaf per square metre of ground area)
is high and it is also able to keep photosynthesizing under conditions that would be too dry for
other crops.

Due to its moisture conservation attributes, water use (combined evaporation and transpiration)
actually reduces in pineapple as the crop grows larger. The water use in a pineapple field is
approximately as follows: Newly planted tops: 100%, 12-months old: 25% , 1st ratoon/sucker
field: 15%. In contrast, for grasses the evapo-transpiration rate is essentially 100% evaporation
rate from start to finish.
 7. Stem (Butt)

The stem is the storage reservoir of the plant. It can contain up to 11% starch, which is the form of
energy stored when photosynthesis exceeds the plants immediate needs. These starch reserves are
drawn down when sunlight is limited and they are the source of energy for the early development
of suckers. This part of the plant is not visible unless all the leaves are stripped.

Understanding its relationships helps to understand the “nature” of pineapple,

1) Broad leaves = large stem diameter = large fruit diameter.

2) Narrow leaves = small stem diameter = small fruit diameter.

3) Fruit with larger diameter are heavier = higher yield

One of the pineapple’s important characteristics is the presence of both soil and axillary (aerial)
roots on the stem. There are also lateral buds on the stem associated with each leaf, which can form
ratoon suckers and become volunteers in replant fields. These have been an important source of
planting material.

8. Root system

Bromeliads have a weakly developed, fragile root system which perhaps can be traced back to their
epiphytic ancestry. The root system of pineapples is usually shallow, spread out and does not
regenerate well if damaged by pests or diseases.

Types of roots

All roots originate from just behind the growing point of the plant/planting material. They grow
downwards and outwards through a narrow layer of tissue called the cortex emerging about 1cm
below the growing tip on the outside of the plant just below a leaf base. If they emerge below
ground or within a centimetre or so above the soil they will grow into the soil and form main
roots, but as the plant grows the growing tip becomes further away from the soil and the roots will
emerge higher and higher above the soil, these roots won’t reach the soil and instead will wrap
around the stem becoming axillary roots, they have a flattened reddish-brown appearance.

The axillary roots and the white basal tissue of the leaves perform important role absorbing water
and nutrients that runs down the leaves. Roots that branch off the main roots are called lateral roots.
Axillary, Main and Lateral roots have root hairs which significantly increase the surface area of
root material capable of moisture and nutrient uptake. The formation of root hairs is entirely
dependent on the oxygen supply to the roots.
9. Flowers:

Each segment of the pineapple is an individual flower. The individual flowers of the
unpollinated pineapple plant fuse to form a multiple fruit. Multiple fruits are fruiting bodies
formed from a cluster of flowers, the inflorescence. Each flower in the inflorescence produces
a fruit, but these mature into a single mass.
 Implications of the Anatomy of a Pineapple crop

1) The many ways in which pineapple is able to conserve water make it very tolerant of
periods of low rainfall so it is able to continue to grow under relatively dry conditions.
2) Although pineapple has many very efficient moisture conserving systems and has one of the
highest water use efficiencies among cultivated crops and can survive severe drought, they
still benefit from “good” rainfall/irrigation.
3) The shape of the plant and its leaves allow pineapple to benefit from water droplets from
whatever source, e.g. rain, heavy dew or high volume foliar sprays (more than 1,000 litres
per ha). These are efficiently collected by the spirally arranged rosette of leaves and
funnelled into the leaf axil cups for absorption by the basal white tissue and axillary root
system.
4) Since stomata are open at night some sprays may be more effective at night.
5) Under moisture stress plant growth and yields are significantly reduced. During extended
dry periods the plant ‘closes down’ and crop schedules are upset.
6) Fruit that mature under severe water stress are highly susceptible to cracking if rain occurs
near maturity. Losses to yeasty rot can be almost total when this happens.
7) Because the pineapple leaves close their stomata during the day they don’t have the benefits
of evaporative cooling. The plants heat up and unless there is a breeze to move the heat out
of the field they are prone to plant damage, fruit sunburn and “cooking” or “boiling”.
8) Growth slows when temperatures exceed 36°C and stops at about 40°C.
9) It is the size of the stem that is most important when judging how large and well-grown a
plant is, not just the size of the leaves & canopy. Very fast growing plants in a very warm
tropical environment can produce a lot of leaf but store little starch in the stem and hence
may only produce small fruit.
 VARIETIES OF PINEAPPLE

The recommended varieties are smooth cayenne, the queen, red spinach, Abachi, in most

literature Abachi is also called abacaxi.

1) SMOOTH CAYENNE

This variety is recommended for carrying and fresh market, the variety yields 50-60 tonnes per

hectare, the leaves are almost spineless and the fruits are large and of good quality. It is

estimated that Smooth Cayenne requires only 50mm of rainfall per month for optimum growth.

2) QUEEN

It produces smaller but sweeter fruits than the smooth cayenne but the leaves are spinny and

unpleasant to work with. The queen is smaller in size compared to the smooth cayenne.
3) THE RED SPANISH

It is a semi-spineless variety grown primarily in West Africa. The fruits are intermediate in size

between those of queen and smooth cayenne but are of better quality than the smooth cayenne.

It has some resistance to mealybug wilt disease.

4) ABACAXI

It is popular for its very tasty fruit; the leaves are narrow and boat like. The fruit is conical and

elongated. The fruit size rarely exceeds 1-1.5kg.

PINEAPPLE PROPAGATION REQUIREMENTS

1) Soil Requirement: Pineapple is a shallow rooted crop and can grow in almost any type of

soil provided it is free draining. However, for optimum yield, it requires a well drained soil,

light in texture with high organic matter content. Pineapple has been shown to do well at a

pH of 4.5-6.0 (moderately to slightly acidic soil). Heavy clay soil is not used. It can grow in

sandy, alluvial or laterite soils.

2) Irrigation Requirement: Pineapple is mostly cultivated under rain fed conditions.

Pineapples can survive long dry season, however supplementary irrigation will enhance

steady growth during dry periods and help to produce good sized fruits. Irrigation also

helps to establish an off-season planting to maintain its year round production. In case of

scanty rainfall and hot weather, irrigation may be provided once in 20-25 days.

Waterlogged situation could result in the death of the plant.

3) Temperature Requirement: Pineapples grow well both in plains and elevations not

exceeding 900m. It tolerates neither very high temperature nor frost. Optimum temperature

requirement for pineapple is 30 degree centigrade. The maximum temperature ranges from

35.9 to 38.9 degree centigrade while the minimum temperature ranges from 23.3 degree

centigrade to 25.6 degree centigrade. Temperature in most parts of Nigeria may be

considered suitable for pineapple production.

4) Manure/Fertilizer and Nutrient Requirement: Pineapple is a shallow feeder with high

nitrogen and potassium requirement. Since these nutrients are prone to heavy losses in the

soil, practices relating to the time of application and the form of fertilizer determine their

efficient usage. Poultry manure can be used as it contains high nitrogen content. Experts

have also advised giving N and K2O at 12g each per plant. There is no need for P

application. However, if the soils are poor in P, 4g of P2O5/plant can be applied.

5) Land Preparation: Land is prepared for planting by plowing or digging followed by

leveling. Depending on the nature of the land trenches of convenient length 90cm, width

50cm and 30cm depth are prepared. There are 4 different planting systems; 1) Flat bed 2)

Furrow 3) Contour 4) Trench. These are followed according to land and rainfall. In sloppy

areas, terracing and contour planting is adopted which helps to check soil erosion.

6) Cultural Operations: Earthing up is an essential operation in pineapple cultivation aimed

at good anchorage to plants. It involves pushing the soil around the base of the plant to

make it firmer in the ground. As the pineapple root are very shallow , the plants are

eventually lodged especially under flat bed conditions in heavy rainfall areas. Lodging of

plants when the fruits are developing would result in lopsided, uneven development and

ripening of fruits. This operation is more important in ratoon crops as the base of the plant

shifts up, crop after crop. High density planting will minimize the intensity of the practice

as plant prop one another preventing lodging. Other cultural/ Post planting operations weed

control, mulching and maintenance of cover crops (If any is established).

7) Planting date: Pineapple can be planted at any time provided there is adequate moisture

for plant growth. Pineapple usually flowers from February to April and fruits are ready

from July to September. Sometimes off-season flowers appear and they produce fruit in

September to December.

8) Harvesting: Pineapple plant flowers12- 15months after planting and the fruits become

ready 15-18months after planting depending on the variety, time of planting , type and size

of plant material used and prevailing temperature during fruit development. Under natural

conditions, pineapple comes to harvest during May-August, fruits usually ripens 5months

after flowering. Fruit ripening at the same time is necessary when pineapples are grown for

factory processing. Various substances have been successfully used to regulate ripening and

some of the substances used are ethylene gas, calcium carbide, hormones like alpha

naphthalene acetic acid (ANA), B-naphthalene acetic acid (BNA)

Pineapple Planting Materials

A. Available planting materials: Pineapple is very easy to propagate vegetatively by;

1) Ratoon/Suckers: Suckers arising in the axil of the leaves on the main stem. They form

roots and can be used for propagation.

2) Crown of leaves: Crown of leaves above the fruit and parts of the stem itself can be used

for propagation.

3) Slips: Another method of propagation is by slips, which are the suckers, arising

immediately below the fruit.

B. Best Material for Planting: Suckers and slips should be preferred for planting as they come

to bearing earlier than the crown and produce larger fruits. Suckers can bear flowers 12months

after planting but crowns bear flowers 19-20 months. Before planting, suckers are sorted out

into larger, medium and small to avoid competition between plants of different sizes. Too large

suckers or slips should not be used for planting (Suckers bigger than 600g should be avoided as

they often have already formed flower bud on the mother plant). Suckers weighing 400-500g or

slips of 350-450g are considered suitable as planting material.

C. Curing: Prior to planting curing of slips and suckers for 8-10 days in shade is necessary as

fresh suckers planted in moist soil begin to decay.

D. Defoliation of Sucker and Treatment: Before planting some of the lower leaves are

removed from the sucker to facilitate the formation and entry of roots into the soil. After

removing scaly leaves, planting material should be treated with Monocrotophos (0.15%) and

Carbendazim (0.1%) solution to protect against mealy bugs and heart rot, respectively.
 Other Propagation Techniques in Pineapple Production

New technologies have been developed for rapid production of large quantities of uniform

planting materials. The traditional materials involved the use of the crown, stem, and suckers of

pineapple because they mature before two years of fruiting. These improved techniques

includes; 1) Stem sectioning 2) Stem trenching 3) Crown splitting 4) Milking

1) Stem sectioning

In this method defoliated pineapple stem can be splitted into 4 or 6 fairly equal part. These parts

are then cut into pieces of 20-25cm gms each ensuring that each piece contain at least a dormant

bud. The stump / stem pieces can then be planted in rooting medium of river sand, sawdust,

top soil or combination of two or all of them. Plantlets from the dormant buds are then nursed

to transplanted size for orchard planting.

2) Milking

Crown of pineapple are splitted longitudinal into pieces of minimum of 10mg each. These pieces

are planted out using appropriate medium. Detach [milk] plantlet as they emerge for transplanting

to the nursery while the original crown split pieces are replanted for subsequent milking. A crown

can be splitted into eight or more pieces; but the more the splitting, the longer the time taken to

reach field size and the less percentage success.

3) Stem Trenching

This involves burying a defoliated pineapple stump in desired rooting medium. Sprouted plantlets

are then harvested as they come. These can be nursed for orchard transplanting.

4) Crown splitting

An average pineapple crown [about 500g by weight] is split longitudinally into 6 to 10 parts. The

split are treated with benlate fungicide at 2g/10 litre of water and closely sown in a 1:1 mixture of

river sand and sawdust. Plantlet produced by these crown splits are detached and transplanted into

the nursery bed.

 PLANT SPACING

There are two types of plant spacing that can be used in Pineapple propagation;

• Single spacing

• Double spacing

Single Row Spacing

This is not economical because you need a large area of land. The single row spacing is

usually 0.75 by 0.5m.

Double Row Spacing

This the recommended practice and it is a more economical use of land. The pineapple plants

are spread at 0.4m -0.5m apart with 0.25m – 0.3m between rows. Double rows usually have 1m

wide pathways. Pineapples are commonly used as intercrops in oil palms, coconut, citrus etc.

0.3m pathway 1m 0.3m

0.5m

Pests and Diseases of Pineapple

Pests

They are relatively free of pest in West Africa. The most important pest of any significance is

the mealybug. The bugs feed at the base of the fruit and if uncontrolled, the bugs can also

transmit the Pineapple wilt virus and this wilt causes premature decay of the fruits.

Recommended Control Method

Spray the plant with dieldrin or deep the suckers in malathion before planting.
Diseases

Two diseases are most important in West Africa:

1) Leaf Blotch

It is a fungi disease causing sunken brown spots on the upper surface of pineapple use.

The second type of disease is heartrot

2) Heart Rot

It is a fungi disease resulting in rottening of the heart of pineapple fruits. Most diseases,

are controlled by spraying with fungicide.

Recommended Control

Soak Neem leaves in water overnight to extract Azadiractin, spray pineapple with Neem

extract. Neem oil can also be mixed with water and use as foliar spray.

Uses of Pineapple Crop

1) Pineapple By-products

The by-products include pineapple peels, pineapple sugars, alcohols, pineapple bran, leaf

fibres. They can be used for cereal (bran), flavor, drinks, jams (peels as source of pectin for

thickening jam), fibres are combined with silk or polyester for textile fabrics etc.

2) Health Benefits
DOUBLE ROW SPACING